textil eng

Regional Activity Centre for Cleaner Production (RAC/CP)Mediterranean Action Plan

Regional Activity Centrefor Cleaner Production

Government of CataloniaMinistry of the Environment

Ministry of the EnvironmentSpain

Textile industryPollution prevention in the

within the Mediterranean region

Note: This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part in any formfor educational or non-profit purposes without special permission from theRegional Activity Centre for Cleaner Production (RAC/CP), provided ack-nowledgement of the source is made. RAC/CP would appreciate receivinga copy of any publication that uses this document as source. No use ofthis publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial pur-pose whatsoever without prior permission in writing from RAC/CP.

The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this do-cument do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the partof RAC/CP concerning the legal status of any State, Territory, city or area,or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of their frontiers orboundaries.

If you consider that some part of this study could be improved or there isany lack of precision, we would appreciate very much receiving notifica-tion of it.

Study finished in June 2002Study published in September 2002

Additional copies or information can be requested to:

Regional Activity Centre for Cleaner Production (RAC/CP)

C/ París, 184 – 3a planta08036 Barcelona (Spain)

Tel. +34 93 415 11 12 - Fax. +34 93 237 02 86 e-mail: [email protected]

Web site: http://www.cema-sa.org

1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND ............................................................................ 9

2. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................................................................................................... 112.1. Dyeing and finishing processes ................................................................................... 122.2. Printing processes ....................................................................................................... 192.3. Finishing processes ..................................................................................................... 192.4. Pollution prevention opportunities ............................................................................... 202.5. Conclusions and recommendations ............................................................................ 22

3. SITUATION OF THE TEXTILES INDUSTRY IN THE MAP COUNTRIES .......................... 253.1. Description of the textiles sector in the MAP countries .............................................. 25

3.1.1. Albania ............................................................................................................ 253.1.2. Algeria ............................................................................................................ 293.1.3. Bosnia-Herzegovina ....................................................................................... 313.1.4. Croatia ............................................................................................................ 363.1.5. Egypt .............................................................................................................. 393.1.6. France ............................................................................................................ 443.1.7. Israel ............................................................................................................... 473.1.8. Italy ................................................................................................................. 513.1.9. Libya ............................................................................................................... 543.1.10. Malta ............................................................................................................... 573.1.11. Morocco ......................................................................................................... 593.1.12. Spain .............................................................................................................. 663.1.13. Syria ................................................................................................................ 733.1.14. Tunisia ............................................................................................................. 763.1.15. Turkey ............................................................................................................. 80

3.2. Comparison of the textiles sector among the MAP countries ..................................... 833.2.1. Introduction and preliminary comments ........................................................... 833.2.2. Production of the textiles sector and the dyeing, finishing and printing sub-

sectors in the countries of the Mediterranean Region ..................................... 843.2.3. Contribution to the GDP of the textiles sector and the dyeing, finishing and

printing subsectors in the countries of the Mediterranean Region .................. 843.2.4. Employment significance of the textiles sector and the dyeing, finishing and

printing subsectors in the countries of the Mediterranean Region .................. 843.2.5. Environmental management infrastructures in the countries of the Mediterra-

nean Region ..................................................................................................... 853.2.6. Water consumption and source in the companies of the dyeing, finishing and

printing subsectors in the countries of the Mediterranean Region .................. 853.2.7. Energy consumption by the companies of the dyeing, finishing and printing

subsectors in the countries of the Mediterranean Region ................................ 863.2.8. Consumption of chemical products and similar materials by the companies

of the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors in the countries of the Medi-terranean Region .............................................................................................. 86

5

INDEX

3.2.9. Wastewater generation and fate in the companies of the dyeing, finishingand printing subsectors in the countries of the Mediterranean Region ....... 87

3.2.10. Waste generation and fate by the companies of the dyeing, finishing andprinting subsectors in the countries of the Mediterranean Region ................ 87

3.2.11. Application of good housekeeping practices in production by the companiesin the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors in the countries of the Medi-terranean Region ............................................................................................ 89

3.2.12. Environmental legislation in the countries of the Mediterranean Region ....... 903.2.13. Aid and/or subsidy programmes relating to environmental issues for compa-

nies in the textiles sector in the countries of the Mediterranean Region ...... 90

4. DESCRIPTION OF THE DYEING, FINISHING AND PRINTING PROCESSES ................ 914.1. Textiles ennobling ........................................................................................................ 914.2. Dyeing and finishing processes ................................................................................... 93

4.2.1. Preparation ....................................................................................................... 934.2.2. Description of the dyeing process .................................................................... 944.2.3. Dyes used in the dyeing process ...................................................................... 974.2.4. Processes of colour correction ........................................................................ 1034.2.5. Description of the finishing process ................................................................. 1034.2.6. Types of finishing subprocesses ....................................................................... 104

4.2.6.1. Mechanical finishing ........................................................................... 1044.2.6.2. Chemical finishes ............................................................................... 105

4.3. Main dyeing and finishing processes .......................................................................... 1064.3.1. Dyeing of fibres and yarn .................................................................................. 106

4.3.1.1. Cotton and blends .............................................................................. 1064.3.1.2. Wool and blends ................................................................................. 1104.3.1.3. Cellulosics and blends ........................................................................ 1144.3.1.4. Synthetics and blends ........................................................................ 115

4.3.2. Dyeing and finishing of fabrics ......................................................................... 1174.3.2.1. Cotton and blends .............................................................................. 1174.3.2.2. Wool and blends ................................................................................. 121

4.3.3. Dyeing and finishing of knitwear ....................................................................... 1264.3.3.1. Cotton and blends .............................................................................. 1264.3.3.2. Wool and blends ................................................................................. 1264.3.3.3. Cellulosic fibres and blends ............................................................... 129

4.4. Printing and finishing processes ................................................................................. 1314.4.1. Description of printing processes ..................................................................... 1314.4.2. Dye pastes used in the printing process .......................................................... 1324.4.3. Main operations in the printing process ........................................................... 1334.4.4. Other printing processes .................................................................................. 1354.4.5. Finishes of printed fabrics ................................................................................ 135

5. IDENTIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF WASTE FLOWS .............................................. 1375.1. Main waste flows generated by the processes ........................................................... 137

5.1.1. Dyeing of fibres and yarn .................................................................................. 1375.1.1.1. Cotton and blends .............................................................................. 1375.1.1.2. Wool and blends ................................................................................. 1415.1.1.3. Cellulosics and blends ........................................................................ 1445.1.1.4. Synthetics and blends ........................................................................ 145

Pollution prevention in the textile industry within the Mediterranean region

5.1.2. Dyeing and finishing of fabrics ......................................................................... 1475.1.2.1. Cotton and blends .............................................................................. 1475.1.2.2. Wool and blends ................................................................................. 151

5.1.3. Dyeing of knitwear ............................................................................................ 1555.1.3.1. Cotton and blends .............................................................................. 1555.1.3.2. Wool and blends ................................................................................. 1565.1.3.3. Cellulosics and blends ........................................................................ 158

5.1.4. Printing and finishing of fabrics and knitwear ................................................... 1615.2. Main associated waste flows ...................................................................................... 164

5.2.1. Wastewater ....................................................................................................... 1645.2.2. Waste ................................................................................................................ 1645.2.3. Atmospheric emissions .................................................................................... 165

5.3. Other waste flows ........................................................................................................ 1655.3.1. Wastewater ....................................................................................................... 1665.3.2. Waste ................................................................................................................ 1665.3.3. Atmospheric emissions .................................................................................... 166

5.4. Main pollutants in wastewater ..................................................................................... 167

6. POLLUTION PREVENTION OPPORTUNITIES ................................................................. 1696.1. Opportunities for reduction at source ......................................................................... 169

6.1.1. Substitution of raw materials ............................................................................ 1696.1.1.1. Choice of new ranges of reactive dyes .............................................. 1696.1.1.2. Substitution of conventional lubricants with hydrosoluble oils in the

manufacturing of knitted fabric .......................................................... 1716.1.1.3. Substitution of surfactants with biodegradable surfactants ............... 1736.1.1.4. Replacement of the afterchroming wool dyeing process with the

dyeing process using reactive dyes ................................................... 1746.1.1.5. New selected sulphur dyes ................................................................ 1756.1.1.6. New oxidising system for dyes made with sulphur dyes .................... 1766.1.1.7. New formulas for reductive baths following polyester dyeing with dis-

perse dyes .......................................................................................... 1786.1.2. New technologies ............................................................................................. 179

6.1.2.1. The Econtrol process for the dyeing of cellulosic fabric with selectedreactive dyes ...................................................................................... 179

6.1.2.2. Colorite ............................................................................................... 1836.1.2.3. Recovery and reuse of printing pastes ............................................... 1856.1.2.4. Reductive treatment following the dyeing of polyester with disperse

dyes in the same dye bath .................................................................. 1866.1.2.5. Jet-overflow dyeing machine with fabric movement by means of an

air-water system ................................................................................. 1876.1.2.6. Liposomes as auxiliaries for the dyeing of wool ................................. 1886.1.2.7. Washing of knitted elastic fabric prior to the thermofixing process ..... 1916.1.2.8. Easy care finish low in formaldehyde ................................................. 1926.1.2.9. The bioscouring process of cotton fabric and blends in overflow-type

discontinuous processes .................................................................... 1946.1.2.10. Pretreatment of cotton with cationic agents .................................... 1976.1.2.11. Samples by digital printing ............................................................... 1986.1.2.12. Transfer printing technology ............................................................. 2006.1.2.13. Systems of minimum finish application ............................................ 201

Index

6.1.3. Good housekeeping practices .......................................................................... 2026.1.3.1. Substitution of traditional paraffin with synthetic paraffin in the for-

mula for the sizing of cellulose warp threads and its blends with che-mical fibres ......................................................................................... 202

6.1.3.2. Demineralisation and desizing of woven cotton fabric by the pad-batch system ...................................................................................... 204

6.1.3.3. Washing and dyeing of knitted polyester fabrics in a single bath ..... 2056.1.3.4. Single stage desizing, scouring and bleaching of cotton fabric ......... 2066.1.3.5. Printing with pigments ........................................................................ 2086.1.3.6. Other good housekeeping practices .................................................. 209

6.2. Opportunities for recycling at source .......................................................................... 2126.2.1. Recyclint at source ........................................................................................... 212

6.2.1.1. Substitution of starch-type sizing products with synthetic, hydrosolu-ble sizes in the sizing of warps for manufacturing woven fabric ..... 212

6.2.1.2. Membrane technology for recycling wastewater ................................ 2136.3. Opportunities for waste recovery ................................................................................ 2156.4. Summary table of the environmental benefits of the pollution prevention

opportunities ................................................................................................................ 216

7. CASE STUDIES .................................................................................................................. 219

8. PROPOSALS AND FINAL CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................... 241

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................................... 245


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1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

In response to the recommendations made by the National Focal Points of the Regional Activity Centrefor Cleaner Production (RAC/CP), the RAC/CP has carried out a Study on prevention and reduction ofpollution at source in the textiles industry of the countries of the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP).

The textiles sector encompasses a wide diversity of activities. Below we present one such possi-ble group by subsectors:

• Washing and combing of wool and hair• Preparation and spinning of textile fibres• Manufacture of woven fabrics • Manufacture of knitted fabrics• Textile dyeing• Textile printing• Textile finishing• Apparel manufacture (garments)• Rug and carpet manufacture• Manufacture of rope, twine, netting, etc.• Manufacture of non-woven fabrics

This variety of activities, together with the diversity of existing fibres and combinations of fibres,the handling requirements of each of them and the constant change in the market demand, sub-ject to the dictates of fashion, make the textiles sector dynamic and of great interest, but at the sa-me time a highly complex sector which is constantly evolving.

In addition, in the Mediterranean framework which is considered for this study, we should add tothe previously mentioned diversity, the peculiarities that derive from the different geographical, cul-tural, social and economic areas.

Thus, we have considered that essential to clearly delimit the scope of the study, which has beenrestricted to the dyeing, printing and finishing subsectors as they are considered the most relevantin the Mediterranean basin and, also, since these are activities that have significant effects on theenvironment, both in regard to the consumption of resources, especially water, and due to the ge-neration of pollution, especially wastewater.

For these subsectors, cotton, wool, cellulosic and synthetic fibres have been considered, as wellas blends thereof, either in yarn, fabric or knitwear form.

To carry out the study, we have had the collaboration of and received information from the NationalFocal Points of the MAP countries. Specifically, for the elaboration of the chapter concerning thedescription of the textiles subsectors being studied in the MAP countries, a questionnaire over-seen by the staff of the RAC/CP, was sent to the focal points to be duly filled out.

The questionnaire was sent to: Albania, Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt,France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Monaco, Morocco, Spain, Syria, Tunisia andTurkey. It was not possible to send it to Slovenia given that there is no National Focal Point whichcould take charge of filling out the questionnaire.

No data have been included on either Monaco or Cyprus given that they do not have a textilesindustry.

Nor have any data been included on Greece or Lebanon, given that these countries have notanswered the questionnaire that was sent.

The data quoted in the case of Italy refer exclusively to the Prato region and not the country as awhole. However, an important part of the textiles industry, specifically the most technologically ad-vanced, is concentrated in this region.

Based on the questionnaire and supplementary information as well as comments presented byeach of the countries, a description of the situation of the textiles subsectors being studied in eachof the countries and a comparison between them was drawn up. These texts were later sent by theRAC/CP to each of the countries participating in the project for their revision.

In the following chapters, a brief description is presented concerning the textiles subsectors stu-died in the different MAP countries, a description of the main processes of each of the subsectors,a description of the main waste flows generated and the opportunities for pollution prevention iden-tified, as well as some case studies of companies that have successfully implemented practices,equipment or technology that make pollution prevention possible.


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The textiles sector can be considered an important input to the economy of most of the countriesof the Mediterranean basin, as may be seen from the data received on their contribution to the GDP,which varies between 1%, in the case of Israel, and 23%, in the case of Syria. Nevertheless, thetextiles sector presents differentiated structures in then MAP countries. This, together with the he-terogeneity of the information received with regard to the subsectors that are the object of thisstudy —dyeing, finishing and printing— makes comparison among countries difficult. In somecountries, these subsectors are not dealt with separately, and so it has not been possible to obtaindata that refer to them exclusively.

Based on the information received, it can be seen that most companies in the dyeing, finishing andprinting subsectors may be considered as being SMEs, although large companies also exist, so-metimes in the public sector, in countries such as Egypt and Libya.

Regarding types of raw materials, the great importance of the cotton industry in countries suchas Egypt, Turkey and Syria should be highlighted; and for wool, in countries such as Libya, Syria,Tunisia and Turkey.

The situation of the textiles sector concerning environmental management is diverse, specificallyin the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors, given that both legal obligations and the in-frastructures available in the different countries are also diverse. With regard to costs relating toenvironmental management, it can be concluded that the main costs concern the supply of wa-ter, the cost of treating wastewater and the taxes applicable as well as the cost of waste ma-nagement. Other costs, such as taxes on water consumption, waste generation or emissionsinto the atmosphere, or the cost of treating these emissions are of less importance or are non-existent.

As far as the description of the dyeing, printing and finishing subsectors are concerned, this hasbeen limited to:

• Dyeing of cotton, wool, cellulosics and synthetic fibres and yarn, and blends of each of these withother fibres.

• Dyeing and finishing of cotton and wool fibres, and blends of both with other fibres.• Dyeing and finishing of cotton, wool and cellulosic knitwear, and blends of each of these with

other fibres.• Printing of cotton, wool, cellulosics and synthetics, and blends of each of these with other

fibres.

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2. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

2.1. DYEING AND FINISHING PROCESSES

Prior to the dyeing process, the fibre or the fabric must be prepared. There are several preparationprocesses depending on the type of fibre in question. Below there is a table showing the most com-mon as well as the reagents used and the waste flows generated:

Table 1

RAW PRE-TREATMENT AUXILIARIES/ WASTEWATER WASTE EMISSIONS INTOMATERIALS STAGES REACTIVE AGENTS ATMOSPHERE

FIBRES

Cotton and Scouring • NaOH • DQO — • Alkaline blends • Detergents • Alkalinity vapours

• Sodium hydrosulphite • Dirt from• Chelating agents fibres

Mercerising • NaOH • Alkalinity — —• Anionic wetting agents• HCl / H2SO4

Optical and chemical • H2O2 / NaClO4 • Oxidising — • Vapoursbleaching • pH buffer agents • Aerosols

• Optical bleachers • AOX• COD

Wool and Special anti-felt • Chlorine gas • Acidity — • Vapoursblends treatment • AOX • Aerosols

• Sodium hypochlorite • Oxidising • Chlorine• Formic acid agents

• Sodium sulphate • Acidity • Vapours• Potassium • Oxidising / • Aerosols

permanganate reductive• Sodium bisulphite agents

• Permono-sulphuric • CODacid

• Sodium sulphite

Degreasing • Sodium carbonate • Basicity — • Vapours• Detergents • COD • Aerosols• Non-ionic surfactants • Conductivity

Optical and chemical • Liquid or gas SO2 / • Reductive — • Vapoursbleaching sulphuric acid agents • Aerosols

• Optical bleaching ag. • COD • SO2

• Hydrogen peroxide • Oxidising — • Vapours• Sodium perborate agents • Aerosols• Optical bleaching • COD

agents

Cellulosic Scouring • Anionic surfactants • COD — • Alkaline• Sodium carbonate • Alkalinity vapours• Acetic / formic acid (if not

neutralised)

Optical and chemical • Hydrogen peroxide • Oxidising — • Vapoursbleaching (Alkaline medium) agent • Aerosols

• Sodium chloride • COD

• Optical bleaching agent(Acid medium)


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Synthetic Scouring • Anionic surfactants • COD — • Alkaline• Sodium carbonate • Alkalinity vapours• Acetic / formic acid (if not

neutralised)

Steaming — — — • Water vapour• VOCs

FABRICS

Cotton and Singeing — — — • Combustionblends gases

Desizing • Amylases • COD — • Vapours(quenching) • Cellulases • BOD

• Sodium persulphate • Alkalinity• Detergents (generally)(Acid or basic medium)

Scouring • NaOH • COD — • Alkaline• Detergents • Alkalinity vapours• Sodium hydrosulphite • Dirt from• Chelating agents fibres

Mercerising • NaOH • COD — —• Anionic wetting • Alkalinity

agents• HCl / H2SO4

Optical and chemical • NaClO4 / H2O2 • Oxidising — • Vapoursbleaching • pH buffer agents • Aerosols

• Optical bleaching • AOX (if hypo-agents chlorite is used)

• COD

Wool and Carbonisation • Detergents • Acidity / • Carboni- • Acid vapoursblends • Wetting agents basicily sed • Combustion

• Inorganic acid • COD vegetable gases(HCl / H2SO4) particles

• Electrolyte (NaCl /Na2SO4)

Chemical washing • Detergents • Alkalinity — —• Electrolytes • COD

• Conductivity

Solvent washing • Perchloroethylene • Fatty • Exhausted • PER and TRI• Trichloroethylene emulsions PER & TRI vapours

• AOX (PER and • PER and TRI) TRI

• Toxicity distillation pastes

Heat setting — — — • Water vapour• VOCs

Fulling • HCl / H2SO4 • Acidity • Lint (short —• COD fibres)

• Detergent • Basicity• COD

Fixing • Vapour — — • Water vapour

Executive summary

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• Hydrogen peroxide • Oxidising • Vapours• Sodium perborate agents • Aerosols• Optical bleaching • COD

agents

KNITWEAR

Cotton and Scouring • NaOH • COD — • Alkaline blends • Detergents • Alkalinity vapours

• Sodium hydrosulphite • Dirt from • Chelating agents fibres

Mercerising • NaOH • COD — —• Anionic wetting • Alkalinity

agents• HCl / H2SO4

Optical and chemical • H2O2 • Oxidising — • Vapoursbleaching • pH buffer agents • Aerosols


• COD

Wool and Washing/degreasing • Detergents • Alkalinity — —blends • Electrolytes • COD

• Conductivity

Solvent washing • Perchloroethylene • Fatty • Exhausted • PER and TRI• Trichloroethylene emulsions PER & TRI vapours

• AOX • PER & TRI(PER and TRI) distilaation

• Toxicity pastes



• Hydrogen peroxide • Oxidising • Vapours• Sodium perborate agents • Aerosols• Optical bleaching • COD

agents

Cellulosics Scouring • NaOH • COD — • Alkalineand • Detergents • Alkalinity vapoursblends

Optical and chemical • H2O2 / NaClO4 • Oxidising — • Vapoursbleaching • pH buffer agents • Aerosols


• COD

As far as the dyeing process is concerned, there is a wide variety of dyes, auxiliaries and chemi-cals used, depending on the desired fibre and colour. The following table summarises the influenceof the dyeing operation on the environment:


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Table 2

RAW DYES AUXILIARIES/ WASTEWATER WASTE EMISSIONS INTOMATERIALS REACTIVE AGENTS ATMOSPHERE

FIBRES

Cotton Direct • Neutral electrolyte • COD — • Vapoursand blends • Wetting agents • Colour

• Levelling agents • Specific pollutants

Insoluble azo dyes • Wetting agents or according to detergents the dyes used

• Acids

Sulphurs • Reductive agent• Neutral electrolyte• Wetting agent• Oxidising agent• Detergent• Sodium acetate

Vat • NaOH• Sodium hydrosulphite• Neutral electrolyte• Wetting agents• Levelling agents• Oxiding agents• Detergent

Reactive • Neutral electrolyte (NaCl or Na2SO4)

• Wetting agents• Alkali (NaOH, NaHCO3

or Na2CO3)

Wool and Acids • Levelling agents • COD — • Vapoursblends • Acetic / formic acid • Colour

• Ammonium sulphate • Specific • Sodium sulphate pollutants

according to Premetallised • Detergents the dyes used

• Acetic acid (metals, for • Levelling agents example)

Chromium acids • Chromium salts

Reactive • Neutral electrolyte• Wetting agents• Alkali (NaOH, NaHCO3

or Na2CO3)

Cellulosic Reactive • Neutral electrolyte • COD — • Vapours• Wetting agents • Colour • Aerosols• Alkali (NaOH, NaHCO3 • Specific

or Na2CO3) pollutants according to

Sulphur • Reductive agent the dyes used • Neutral electrolyte (conductivity • Wetting agent for example)• Oxidising agent• Detergents• Sodium acetate

Executive summary

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Synthetic Acids • Levelling agents • COD — • Vapours• Acetic / formic acid • Colour • Aerosols• Ammonium sulphate • Specific • Sodium sulphate pollutants

according toDisperse • Dispersing agents the dyes used

• Reductive agent

Cationic • Acetic / formicacid

• Cationic or anionic retarders

• Levelling agents

FABRICS

Cotton Direct • Neutral electrolyte • COD — • Vapoursand • Wetting agents • Colourblends • Levelling agents • Specific

pollutants Insoluble azo dyes • Wetting agents according to

or detergents the dyes used• Acids

Sulphur • Reductive agent• Neutral electrolyte• Wetting agents• Oxidising agent• Detergent• Sodium acetate

Vat • NaOH• Reductive agent• Neutral electrolyte• Wetting agents• Levelling agents• Oxidising agents• Detergent

Reactive • Neutral electrolyte• Wetting agents• Alkali (NaOH, NaHCO3,

Na2CO3)

Cationic • Acetic / formic acid

• Cationic or anionic retarders

• Levelling agents

Disperse • Dispersing agents

Acid • Levelling agents• Acetic / formic

acid• Ammonium sulphate• Sodium sulphate

Premetallised • Detergents• Acetic acid• Levelling agents• Ammonic salts


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Wool Acids • Levelling agents • COD — • Vapoursand • Acetic / formic acid • Colourblends • Ammonium sulphate • Specific

• Sodium sulphate pollutants according to

Premetallised • Detergents the dyes used • Acetic acid (eg metals)• Levelling agents• Ammonic salts

Chrome • Chromium salts

Cationic • Acetic / formic acid•Cationic or anionic

retarders• Levelling agents


or Na2CO3)

KNITWEAR

Cotton Direct • Neutral electrolyte • COD — • Vapoursand • Wetting agents • Colourblends • Levelling agents • Specific

pollutants Insoluble azo dyes • Wetting agents or according to

detergents the dyes used• Acids

Sulphur • Reductive agent• Neutral electrolyte• Wetting agents• Oxidising agents• Detergent• Sodium acetate

Vat • NaOH• Reductive agent• Neutral electrolyte• Wetting agents• Levelling agents• Oxidising agents• Detergent


or Na2CO3)

Cationic • Acetic / formic acid• Cationic or anionic


Disperse • Dispersing agents

Acid • Levelling agents• Acetic / formic acid• Ammonium sulphate• Sodium sulphate

Executive summary

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Premetallised • Detergents• Acetic acid• Levelling agents• Ammonic salts

Wool and Acid • Levelling agents • COD — • Vapoursblends • Acetic / formic acid • Colour

• Ammonium sulphate • Specific • Sodium sulphate pollutants

according to Premetallised • Detergents the dyes used

• Acetic acid (eg metals)• Levelling agents• Ammonic salts

Chrome • Chromium salts• Levelling agents

Cationic • Acetic / formic acid• Cationic or anionic



or Na2CO3)

Cellulosics Direct • Neutral electrolyte • COD — • Vapoursand • Wetting agents • Colourblends • Levelling agents • Specific

pollutants Sulphur • Reductive agent according to

• Neutral electrolyte the dyes used • Wetting agents (metals, for • Oxidising agent example)• Surfactants• Sodium acetate

Vat • NaOH• Reductive agent• Neutral electrolyte• Wetting agents• Levelling agents• Oxidising agent• Detergents

Soluble-type • Reductive agentsulphur • Neutral electrolyte

• Wetting agents• Oxidising agent• Cationising agent• Sodium acetate


or Na2CO3)


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2.2. PRINTING PROCESSES

As in the case of dyeing, the fabric must also be prepared prior to the printing process. There areseveral types of printing. The table below shows the most common, as well as the stages that fo-llow printing, the most commonly used chemicals and their influence on the environment (bothfor fabrics and knitwear).

Table 3

PROCESS STAGES AUXILIARIES/ WASTEWATER WASTE EMISSIONS INTOREACTIVE AGENTS ATMOSPHERE

Printing Spray printing • Dyes / — — • Aerosolspigments • VOCs

• Organic solvent (solvents)• Resins• Emulsifier

Corrosion • Dye • Thickeners • Paste • VOCs• Thickeners and products remains• Auxiliaries not fixed in • Corrosives the fibre

Direct • Dye • Thickeners • Paste • VOCs• Thickeners and products remains• Auxiliaries not fixed in

the fibre

Pigment printing • Pigments — • Paste • VOCs• Resins remains• Thickeners• Additives

Drying — — — • VOCs

Steaming • Steam — — • Vapours• VOCs

Washing • Detergents • COD — • Vapours• Colour • Aerosols• Metals • VOCs

(printing by corrosion)

Polymerisation — — — • Water vapour• VOCs

2.3. FINISHING PROCESSES

As far as finishing is concerned, both for dyed and printed fabrics, a distinction should be madebetween mechanical and chemical finishing. The chemicals used, as well as the waste flows thatare generated, depend on the type of finish desired, and so it is not possible to generalise. Belowis a table showing the waste flows that are considered as being the most common:

Executive summary

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Table 4

TYPE OF WASTEWATER WASTE EMISSIONS INTOFINISHING THE ATMOSPHERE

MechanicaL — • FibrEs • Fibre particles and • Lint dust

• VOCs

Chemical • COD • Finishing bath • VOCs• Specific pollutants remains

according to finishes used (AOX, surfactants, fats, etc.)

2.4. POLLUTION PREVENTION OPPORTUNITIES

Below, in the form of a table, we present the most relevant opportunities for preventing pollution,which are classified according to the following breakdown:

OPPORTUNITIES FOR REDUCTION AT SOURCERedesigning of productsRedesigning of processes

Substitution of raw materialsNew technologiesGood housekeeping practices

OPPORTUNITIES FOR RECYCLING AT SOURCE

OPPORTUNITIES FOR WASTE RECOVERYExternal recyclingEnergy recovery


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Table 5

REDUCTION AT SOURCE

SUBSTITUTION NEW SUBSTITUTION RECYCLINGOF RAW TECHNOLOGIES OF RAW AT SOURCE

MATERIALS MATERIALS

REDUCTION IN WATER 6.1.1.2 6.1.2.1 6.1.3.1 6.2.1.1CONSUMPTION 6.1.1.5 6.1.2.2 6.1.3.2 6.2.1.2

6.1.1.7 6.1.2.3 6.1.3.3 6.1.2.36.1.2.4 6.1.3.46.1.2.5 6.1.3.56.1.2.7 6.1.3.66.1.2.9

6.1.2.116.1.2.126.1.2.13

REDUCTION IN ENERGY 6.1.1.1 6.1.2.1 6.1.3.1 6.1.2.3CONSUMPTION 6.1.1.2 6.1.2.2 6.1.3.2

6.1.2.3 6.1.3.36.1.2.4 6.1.3.46.1.2.5 6.1.3.56.1.2.6 6.1.3.66.1.2.86.1.2.96.1.2.13

REDUCTION IN THE 6.1.1.1 6.1.2.1 6.1.3.1 6.2.1.1CONSUMPTION OF RAW 6.1.1.5 6.1.2.2 6.1.3.4 6.1.2.3MATERIALS 6.2.1.1 6.1.2.3

6.1.2.66.1.2.10

REDUCTION IN WASTEWATER 6.1.1.1 6.1.2.1 6.1.3.1 6.2.1.1POLLUTANT LOAD 6.1.1.3 6.1.2.2 6.1.3.2 6.2.1.2

6.1.1.4 6.1.2.3 6.1.3.4 6.1.2.36.1.1.5 6.1.2.4 6.1.3.56.1.1.6 6.1.2.6 6.1.3.66.1.1.7 6.1.2.96.2.1.1 6.1.2.10

6.1.2.116.1.2.126.1.2.13

REDUCTION IN EMSISSIONS INTO 6.1.1.5 6.1.2.2 6.1.3.5 —THE ATMOSPHERE 6.1.2.7 6.1.3.6

6.1.2.8

REDUCTION IN THE AMOUNT — 6.1.2.2 6.1.3.6 6.1.2.3OF WASTE GENERATED 6.1.2.3

6.1.2.11

IMPROVEMENTS FOR THE 6.1.1.1 6.1.2.2 — 6.1.2.3TREATMENT SYSTEM 6.1.1.3 6.1.2.3

INCREASE IN PRODUCTIVITY 6.1.1.1 6.1.2.1 6.1.3.3 —6.1.1.2 6.1.2.2 6.1.3.46.1.1.4 6.1.2.4

6.1.2.66.1.2.76.1.2.9

OTHER BENEFITS — 6.1.2.8 — —

Executive summary

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2.5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Given the characteristics of the subsectors studied, it is considered that their main effects on theenvironment are the following:

• High water and energy consumption.

• Greater or lesser consumption of colouring agents, auxiliary and chemicals depending on theavailable technology.

• Large volume of wastewater with a significant pollutant load. (Although the pollutant load ofwastewater generated depends on the processes carried out, the parameters that are usuallymost significant are COD, BOD, total solids, AOX, toxicity, and sometimes nitrogen).

• Generation of colouring agents, auxiliary and out-of-date chemicals due to the great varietythat an establishment must handle and the changes in their level of consumption from one sea-son to another.

• Generation of a large number of empty containers, corresponding to colouring agents, auxiliaryand chemicals used in the process.

• Emission into the atmosphere of volatile organic compounds, if colouring agents and/or auxiliaryproducts that contain such compounds have been used in formulating them.

However, this situation allows for the implementation of a great number of improvements in orderto achieve pollution prevention and savings in natural resources. Broadly speaking, bearing in mindthe diversity of the sector, and in order to maintain competitiveness among companies, the solu-tion lies in the introduction, in each particular case, of the improvement or improvements that areconsidered as being most suitable from among all those possible. A brief list of such improvementswould be:

• The insulation of all pipes and equipment that use steam or hot water, in order to minimise energyloss.

• Assessing possibilities for heat recovery, whether by means of hot gases, steam or hot wa-ter.

• Identifying the possibility of reducing the number of stages carried out wet, by carrying out twoor more stages in the same bath. In this way, usually, water and energy consumption as well asauxiliary and chemical product consumption is reduced.

• The optimisation of processes and equipment in order to reduce the number of baths used andthus minimise water consumption.

• To implement the automatic control of the critical variables of the process in order to minimisethe indices of “re-operation” and “additions”, with which not only are water, energy, colouringagents, auxiliary and chemicals saved, but also the establishment’s productivity can be increa-sed.


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• The automation of the preparation of dye baths, pastes for printing and additives, by means ofautomatic colour laboratories and the automatic dosage of auxiliaries in order to minimise po-tential errors which would have repercussions on a higher incidence of “re-operation” and“additions”.

• Identifying the possibilities of wastewater reuse in specific processes such as preliminary rin-sing.

• Assessing the possibility of recycling at source some of the baths, some sizing agents and re-mains of printing pastes.

• The optimisation of machine and utensil cleaning operations.

• A progressive increase in the use of dyes and processes that lead to high exhaustion onto fibres.

• The reduction, as far as possible, of the variety of colouring agents, auxiliary and chemicalsthat are used; and the correct storage and control of stocks of all of these in order to reducethe generation of out-of-date products or products that are in a bad state that need to be ma-naged as waste.

• The adaptation of the volume of the containers in which colouring agents, auxiliary and chemi-cals are acquired, to the degree of consumption of each product. In the cases in which con-sumption is high, it would be interesting to have facilities for the bulk reception of the product,given that in this way, the generation of empty containers would be avoided.

However, in order to carry out some of these measures, it is necessary to substitute certain rawmaterials, acquire certain facilities and/or introduce certain new technology (as indicated in chap-ter 6). Analysis of the economic feasibility of the different alternatives should be made in each par-ticular case, given that the investments that are required will depend on each company’s pre-exis-ting technology.

In any case, the introduction of any of the aforementioned cleaner production options and, espe-cially when dealing with the substitution of raw materials or modifications in the processes, shouldbe accompanied by information and the training of employees so that the desired environmentalbenefits may be obtained and maintained without affecting either the quality of the product or theestablishment’s productivity.

Executive summary

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This chapter has been drawn up with information supplied by the different countries that belong tothe MAP. When compiling this information, we used a questionnaire, which was overseen by thepersonnel of the RAC/CP, and was sent out in July 2001 to the focal points on which we are fo-cussing our attention, to be duly filled in.

The questionnaires were sent to the following countries: Albania, Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina,Croatia, Cyprus1, Egypt, France, Greece2, Israel, Italy3, Lebanon2, Libya, Malta, Monaco1, Morocco,Spain, Syria, Tunisia and Turkey4.

Based on the questionnaire and supplementary information as well as comments presented byeach of the countries, a description of the situation of the textiles subsectors being studied in eachof the countries and a comparison between them was drawn up. These texts were later sent by theRAC/CP to each of the countries participating in the project for their revision and final approval.

Data supplied in US dollars have been converted into ¤ at the following exchange rate:1 ¤ = 0.93 US$.

3.1. DESCRIPTION OF THE TEXTILES SECTOR IN THE MAP COUNTRIES

3.1.1. Albania

The information contained in this document was supplied by the Environmental Pollution Controland Prevention Directorate of the National Environmental Office (today Ministry of Environment),with the collaboration of M. Sc. Mirela Kamberi.

The main sources of data related to environmental practices in the textiles industry of Albaniacome from:

• National Environmental Agency • INSTAT: Albanian National Statistics Institute • Municipal Offices; Statistical Offices;• National Energy Agency• Ministry of Public Economy and Privatisation

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3. SITUATION OF THE TEXTILES INDUSTRYIN THE MAP COUNTRIES

1 No data have been included on either Monaco or Cyprus given that they do not have a textiles industry.2 No data have been included on Greece and Lebanon since neither from the country filled in the questionnaire.3 The data quoted in the case of Italy correspond, exclusively, to the Prato region and not the country as a whole.

This region hosts an important part of the textiles industry, specifically, the most technologically advanced.4 The questionnaire was not sent to Slovenia since there was no national focal point that could fill in the ques-

tionnaires.

3.1.1.1. General data concerning the country’s textiles industry

Main geographical areas with textiles industry

The textiles industry in Albania is located mainly in the following areas:

• Tirana• Korca• Gjirokastra• Durres• Shkoder

Main textiles subsectors which are present in the country

According to INSTAT sources, from the municipal offices and the Yearly Statistical Book for the ye-ar 2000, the subsectors of dyeing and finishing use the following as raw materials: wool, producing4,960,024.7 ¤/year, cotton, producing 13,226,731.2 ¤/year, artificial fibres, with a production of6,613,365.5 ¤/year, synthetic fibres, with a production of 992,005.38 ¤/year and blends, with a pro-duction of 7,274,702.1 ¤/year.

As far as printing is concerned, according to the same sources, the printing subsector uses the sa-me raw materials, with the following yearly production: wool with 2,670,782.8 ¤/year, cotton with7,122,086.02 ¤/year, artificial fibres with 3,561,043.0 ¤/year, synthetic fibres with 534,156.99 ¤/yearand blends with 3,917,147.3 ¤/year.

Total number of textiles companies and workforce in the country

According to data from the year 2000, supplied by INSTAT, the following figures are provided:

• 138 is the total number of companies that correspond to the dyeing and finishing sectors, witha total of 2,539 workers; and 113 the number of companies that deal with printing, employing1,223 workers.

• 251 is the total number of companies from the group of dyeing, finishing and printing sectors,with a total of 3,762 workers.

• 123,643 the overall number of industries in the country, with a total of 970,020 workers.

% contribution to GDP

According to data from INSTAT concerning the year 2000, the set of all activities correspon-ding to the textiles sector contributed 3.74% to the total of the country’s GDP which is2,473,120,000 ¤.

According to the same sources, the dyeing and finishing sectors correspond to 65% of the textilesindustry and the printing subsector corresponds to the remaining 35%.


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3.1.1.2. Environmental aspects

National infrastructures of environmental management

The existence of only urban solid waste landfills is recognised and it is specified that industrial wasteis taken to these landfills. No further environmental infrastructures exist. The information dates fromthe year 2000 and comes from the National Environmental Agency.

Annual energy consumption in the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors

All data in this section correspond to the year 2000 and come from the National Energy Agency.

The annual consumption of electrical energy is 124,200 MW/year, with a unit cost of 90.87 ¤/MW.

The annual consumption of diesel oil is 14,400 t/year, with a unit cost of 530.06 ¤/t.

The annual consumption of fuel oil ascends to 16,000 t/year, with a unit cost of 189.31 ¤/t.

It must be stated that the consumption of natural gas was negligible and that other energy sour-ces were used in addition to those mentioned above.

Annual water consumption in the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors

According to data from water supply companies corresponding to the year 2000, most of the wa-ter for consumption by the studied subsectors is supplied by the public supply network, with atotal of 49,640,000 m3/year and a cost of 0.45 ¤/m3. Also, 28,000,000 m3 of water are used thatcome from superficial catchment, with a cost of 0.13 ¤/m3.

Annual consumption of chemical products in the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors

According to information corresponding to the year 2000, supplied by the INSTAT, the studied sub-sectors in Albania consumed:

• 500 t of pigments and colouring agents• 301 t of auxiliary chemical products• 12,000 t of inorganic salts• 2,993 t of halogenated solvents• 1,212 t of non-halogenated solvents• 1,000 t of other unspecified products

Annual generation of wastewater and fate in the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors

According to data supplied by municipal offices, 10% of the industries corresponding to the tex-tiles subsectors of dyeing, finishing and printing, possess a wastewater treatment plant, treating atotal of 7,764,000 m3/year. The remaining 90% do not perform any sort of water treatment and dis-charge 5,124,000 m3/year.

Situation of the textiles industries in the MAP countries

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Annual generation of waste and fate in the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors

According to information supplied by municipal offices, Albania produces yearly:

• 120 t of waste corresponding to traces of solid pigments and colouring agents• 220 t of remains of liquid pigments and colouring agents• 90 t of remains of solid auxiliary chemical products• 150 t of remains of liquid auxiliary chemical products• 4,000 t of inorganic salts• 1,600 t of used halogenated solvents• 680 t of used non-halogenated solvents• 200 t of used oils

It should be noted that information regarding other waste such as packaging or leftover fabric isnot available.

As far as the fate of the different types of waste is concerned, the same sources indicate that thesolids (remains of pigments and colouring agents, remains of auxiliary chemical products, contai-ners, packaging and left-over fabric) are sent to landfills while liquids (remains of pigments and co-louring agents, remains of auxiliary chemical products, solvents and oils) and inorganic salts areusually discharged in wastewater.

Environmental management costs of the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors

According to data for 2000, supplied by statistics offices, the annual cost of environmental ma-nagement for the companies in the studied subsectors would correspond to the cost of the taxeson the dumping of wastewater 1,182,795.6 ¤/year, and the cost of the taxes on the generation ofwaste 1,612,903.2 ¤/year.

The data supplied consider that other factors, such as external treatment of waste, treatment ofatmospheric emissions, taxes on the consumption of water and taxes on the generation of emis-sions into the atmosphere did not represent any cost.

No data are available on the cost of wastewater treatment at source for those companies thathave their own water treatment plant.

State aid for the textiles sector

Environmental projects have not received any state aid up to now.

Common environmental practices in the dyeing, finishing and printing industries

Concerning the degree of establishment of environmental practices aimed at the prevention of po-llution, the information received was supplied by audits performed in textiles industries. The datarefer to the percentage of companies that are considered to carry out a specific practice, overthe total number of companies pertaining to the studied subsectors.


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Based on these audits, it can be concluded that 10% of medium-sized companies treat theirwastewater at source.

Information regarding the existence of automatic colour laboratories, preventive maintenance ofthe facilities, automatic dosage of auxiliary products and “on-line” control systems of the pro-cesses is not available.

Other environmental practices, such as reuse of wastewater or of finishing baths, recycling ofsolvents at source, recovery of printing pastes, optimisation of the size of the containers on thescale of the consumption of each product and the application of systems of prevention aimed atavoiding the generation of products that have expired, as well as ISO 14001 certification and/orEMAS verification are not carried out by the companies in the textiles subsectors that are the ob-ject of this study.

Environmental legislation

According to the Ministry of the Environment, Albania has legislation on collection of waste and at-mospheric emissions.

Concerning the legislation on wastewater treatment and soil pollution, Albania is in the stage ofpreparation of their draft laws.

3.1.2. Algeria

The information contained in this document has been supplied by the “Ministère de l’Amé-nagement du Territoire et de l’Environnement” with the collaboration of Ms Dalila Boudjemaa.The main sources of data related with environmental practices in the textiles industry inAlgeria come from:

• MATE: Ministère de l’Aménagement du Territoire et de l’Environnement



It should be noted that Algeria’s textiles industry is located in the East, the West, the Central-Northern area and the Southeast of the country.

Main textiles subsectors in the country

The data supplied by the MATE correspond to the years 1998-1999 and refer to the dyeing andfinishing subsector.

Regarding the raw materials used, annual production totalled 540 t of wool (corresponding to1,020,000 metres), 428,815 t of cotton (corresponding to 18,000,000 metres and 5,320,020 arti-


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cles), 3,560 t of blends (corresponding to 14,972,444 metres), 7 t of artificial fibres and 390 t ofsynthetic fibres (corresponding to 629,922 metres and 1,765,000 articles).


In the information supplied, according to data for 1998-1999 from MATE, the following figures arepresented:

• 4 is the total number of companies corresponding to the dyeing and finishing sectors, with atotal of 1,570 workers.

• 39 is the total number of companies in the textiles sector as a whole, with a total of 9,589 wor-kers.



The information refers to the years 1998-1999 and comes from the MATE.

It is specified that there are 11 wastewater treatment plants, 8 used oil treatment plants,1 container recycling unit, 10 for the valorisation of fabric leftovers, 5 non-polluted contai-ner valorisation facilities and 2 plastics valorisation plants. No indication is made as to theexistence of hazardous waste landfills or of urban solid waste landfills or of solvent valorisa-tion plants.


The greatest amount of water consumed by the companies in the textiles sector comes from thepublic water supply network, with a total of 16,029 m3/day (4,808,700 m3/year). Also, 2,543 m3/day(763,000 m3/year) of well water are used.

The information refers to the years 1998-1999 and comes from the MATE.

Annual consumption of chemical products in the dyeing, finishing and printing sub-sectors

Annually, the Algerian textiles industry consumes:

• 40.12 t of pigments and colouring agents• 16,356 t of solid auxiliary chemical products• 156,584 litres of liquid auxiliary chemical products• 4,381 t of inorganic salts• 7,850 t of other unspecified products


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Annual generation of wastewater and fate in the dyeing, finishing and printing sub-sectors

According to data supplied by the MATE, 30% of the industries corresponding to the dyeing,finishing and printing textiles subsectors possess a wastewater treatment plant, while 70% dumpswith no previous treatment.


According to MATE sources, the following quantities of waste are produced annually:

• 632.15 t of liquid auxiliary chemical products waste, which are discharged together with thewastewater

• 11,000 t of used oils, which are recovered by NAFTEL • 208 t of container remains, which are valorised by means of sale • 430.5 t of fabric leftovers, which are recovered• 68.3 t of packaging leftovers that are partially reused or disposed of at landfills• 74.9 t of wastewater treatment plant sludge • 13 t of other products that are recycled


Concerning implementation of good housekeeping practices, it is only indicated that no com-pany in the textiles industry has ISO/EMAS certification.


According to the MATE, Algeria possesses environmental legislation on waste, wastewater and soilpollution. Nevertheless, there is no legislation on atmospheric emissions.

3.1.3. Bosnia-Herzegovina

The information contained in this document has been supplied by the Hydro-EngineeringInstitute, the Center for Environmentally Sustainable Development, with the collaboration ofMs Irem San.

The main sources of data related to environmental practice in the textiles industry in Bosnia-Herzegovina are:

• B&H in numbers, 2000• Statistical Yearbook of FB&H, 1999• Statistical Yearbook of RS, 1998• BiH Economic Update 2000-Third Quarter, USAID report• Hydro-Engineering Institute


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It is explained that the majority of data are only available for the Federation of Bosnia-Herze-govina.

Unfortunately, in Bosnia-Herzegovina, the general state of industry is very poor. Most indus-tries were destroyed or damaged during the war between 1992 and 1995 and so today, they arefunctioning at 30% of the capacity that they had prior to the conflict. 99% of industry is in theprocess of being privatised and does not perform any kind of investment in improvements, bethey technological or environmental, and so work with outdated technology.


Bosnia-Herzegovina consists of two entities that correspond to different geographical areas andare highly autonomous. Both have their own Statistics Offices and produce their own data sepa-rately:

• The Federation of Bosnia-Herzegovina (FB&H): a decentralised entity, divided into ten can-tons, each being a separate governmental entity with high legislative and executive capa-city.

• The Republic of Srpska (RS): a centralised entity divided into seven regions. The local admi-nistration in each of the regions exists only on the municipal scale. The Republic is responsi-ble for environmental protection, and the municipalities, in accordance with the law, are incharge of satisfying the specific needs of the population concerning the protection of theenvironment.


The most relevant geographical regions or areas in which textiles activities take place are:

• Northern Bosnia-Herzegovina• Central Bosnia-Herzegovina


The information available divides the textiles industry into subsectors that are different from theones proposed, i.e.: the manufacturing of fabrics and the making of clothing. The fabric manu-facturing sector includes the processes of cotton and wool yarns, the manufacture of cotton andmixed fabric sheets, the manufacturing of woollen and synthetic fibre blankets; while the manu-facturing sector includes the manufacturing of cotton garments, knitwear, lingerie and “prêt à por-ter”. Thus, the information refers to these two subsectors.

According to data for 1999 supplied by “FB&H in numbers, 2000”, in Bosnia-Herzegovina, thetextiles industries corresponding to the subsectors of manufacturing use wool, cotton and artifi-cial fibres as raw materials.


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Annual production in 1999 for the subsector of the manufacturing of fabric was: 29 t/year ofcotton yarns, 216 t/year of wool yarns, 81 t/year of cotton fabric and 105 t/year of woollen fabric.It should be noted that annually 1,803,000 pairs of socks and 302,000 m2 of household cloths areproduced.

Concerning the clothing subsector, 109 t/year of knitwear, 58,000 m2 of household cloths and5,897,000 m2 of garments are produced annually.

Data supplied by FB&H refer to 2000.


According to the “Statistical Yearbook of FB&H, 1999”, the “Statistical Yearbook of RS, 1998” andthe “BiH Economic Update 2000-Third Quarter, USAID report”, which use data from 1998, 1997and 2000 respectively, there are 701 industries in the country employing 633,540 workers. Ofthese, 91 companies operate in the textiles sector, providing jobs for 12,750 workers. Of the latter,16 belong to the subsector of fabric manufacturing (1,832 workers) and 75 to clothing manufac-turing (10,918 workers).

% Contribution to GDP

No data concerning the textiles sector’s contribution to the country’s GDP is available.

The industry’s total contributes 20% in FB&H, and 27% in RS to the country’s total GDP, which is3,554,700 ¤.

This information was obtained from the “Statistical yearbook of FB&H, 1998”, the “Statistical ye-arbook of RS, 1998” and the “BiH Economic Update 2000-Third Quarter, USAID report”.



The only existing environmental infrastructures are landfills for urban solid waste. Almost all facto-ries have a landfill nearby, but only three of them are controlled, one is currently operating andthe other two have yet to open. The rest correspond to non-controlled dumps.

These data have been obtained from the Hydro-Engineering Institute, and correspond to 2001.

Annual energy consumption in the textiles sector

The data supplied refer only to the consumption of electricity in the Federation of Bosnia andHerzegovina, which amounts to 21,627 MW/year (5,331 MW in the fabric manufacturing subsec-tor and 16,296 MW in clothing manufacturing). The unit cost is 0.13 ¤/kW.

This information is taken from the “Statistical Yearbook of FB&H, 1999”.


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Annual water consumption in the textiles sector

This information, which has been provided by the Hydro-Engineering Institute, is an estimatebased on consumption prior to the war (1992). The information that refers to prices is up-to-date(2001) and is an average, since the price varies from municipality to municipality.

The water used comes from the public network and it is estimated that the textiles sector con-sumes approximately 1,620,000 m3/year, at cost of 0.97 ¤/m3.

Annual consumption of chemical products in the textiles sector

This information is not available.

Annual generation of wastewater and fate in the textiles sector

It is specified that 26% of companies have their own wastewater treatment systems, today annuallyprocessing 1,296,000 m3. Nevertheless, these plants either do not work or yield poorly due to thedamage suffered during the war. The volume of treated wastewater has been estimated by consi-dering only 80% of the water consumed. It is considered that the remaining 74% of the enterpri-ses, do not treat their wastewater.

This information is approximate and has been provided by the Hydro-Engineering Institute.

Annual generation of waste and fate in the textiles sector

Information on the quantity of different types of waste generated by the studied subsectors has notbeen provided, as it is not available.

According to data (the year they refer to is not stated) provided by the Hydro-Engineering Institute,waste such as remains of pigments and colouring agents, solids and liquids, auxiliary chemicalproducts, solids and liquids, inorganic salts and solvents, halogenated or non-halogenated, aredischarged by means of the wastewater, given that no infrastructures are available for their ade-quate treatment and management.

On the other hand, used oils, remains of containers and packaging, leftover fabric and sludge fromthe wastewater treatment plant are usually taken to a landfill with no valorization or recycling beingperformed.

Environmental management costs of the textiles sector

The costs of environmental management that must be assumed by the companies in the textilessector are limited, according to the information received, to the taxes on the consumption of waterand on the dumping of wastewater, and the cost involved in treating wastewater and the wastegenerated.

Nevertheless, what the latter two may involve is not known.


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As far as the previously mentioned taxes are concerned, according to data from the Water Law ofB&H referring to 2001, the following taxes are applied:

Tax on the consumption of water: 0.023 ¤/m3

Tax on the dumping of wastewater: 0.97 ¤/IE*

In Bosnia-Herzegovina, there are no environmental taxes either on industrial waste or on atmos-pheric emissions.

State aid for companies in the textiles sector

A total of 10.8 M¤ have been assigned as economic aid for the textiles sector as a whole, whichwere distributed equally (2.7 M¤) for each of the following activities:

• Environmental Protection. No information concerning the amount awarded has been provi-ded

• New facilities (1.2 M¤ granted)• Reconstruction, modernisation and expansion (1.2 M¤ granted)• Maintenance of the facilities (0.027 M¤ granted)

These data have been obtained from BiH Economic Update 2000-Third Quarter, USAID report.

Common environmental practices in the textiles sector

Concerning the degree of establishment of environmental practices aimed at preventing pollution,the information received comes from the Hydro-Engineering Institute and no information concer-ning the year it refers to has been facilitated.

According to data referring to the textiles sector as a whole, only one large company performs au-tomatic dosage of auxiliary products, while 26% of industries treat wastewater at source.


By means of the “EC Environment program for B&H” the European Commission has providedtechnical and financial support to FB&H and RS for the drafting of laws on environmental pro-tection. Specifically, they are at the final phase of the drafting of an Environmental FrameworkLaw, a law that establishes the framework for granting environmental licences both in FB&Hand RS, and laws on the protection of water, waste, polluted soils, protection of the air andof nature.


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* IE: Inhabitant Equivalent, unit used to determine the organic load of wastewater. Its calculation is based on a pro-cedure established by the law on water.

3.1.4. Croatia

The information contained in this document has been supplied by the Croatian Cleaner ProductionCentre, with the collaboration of Dijana Baksa B.Sc. (Econ).

The main sources of data related to environmental practice in the textiles industry in Croatiaare:

• CBS: Central Bureau of Statistics

• CCE: Croatian Chamber of Economy

• MZOPU: Ministry of Environmental Protection

For the filling in of the questionnaire sent, all members of the Association of Textiles Industriesand Clothing, belonging to the Department of Industry of the Croatian Chamber of Economy(CCE), were contacted and asked for case studies of the introduction of pollution preventionmeasures in 80 companies belonging to the Association of Textiles Industries and Clothing ofthe CCE.

Some companies do not wish to participate in the study because they think that the informationrequested is confidential.



According to the CCE, the most relevant geographical regions or areas in which textiles activitiestake place are the counties of:

• Cakovec

• Karlovac

• Varazdin

• Osijek

• Zagreb


In Croatia, the subsectors of the textiles industry are: the manufacturing of fabric (cotton yarns,wool yarns, fabric, etc.), the manufacturing of clothes, and the dyeing and making of leather go-ods. Based on the information supplied, it is considered that the dyeing, finishing and printingsubsectors would be included in the sector of fabric manufacturing, however, the information isunclear.

According to data from the year 2000, from the CCE, in Croatia the textiles industries correspon-ding to the subsectors of dyeing and finishing use wool, cotton, artificial fibres, synthetic fibres andblends as raw materials. No information has been provided on the printing sector.


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As for annual production, for the dyeing and finishing subsector, which uses wool as a raw ma-terial, the total is 375 t/year, for cotton, 6,074 t/year, for blends, 55,786,000 m2/year, for artificialfibres, 2,589 t/year, and 823 t/year for synthetic fibres (data form the CBS).


No data are available on the number of companies by subsectors.

As for the total of the textiles sector, data supplied by the CBS and the CCE corresponding to theyear 2001 are as follows:

• The total number of companies in the sector as a whole is 720, with a total of 39,200 workers (da-ta from the year 2000). In the dyeing and finishing sector there is a total of 11,192 workers and28,008 in printing (data from the year 2001).

• The overall number of the country’s industries is 84,394, with a total of 1,008,415 workers (datafrom the year 2001).


According to the information supplied by the CBS corresponding to the year 1998, the textiles sec-tor contributed with 1.3% of the total GDP. Based on data provided, this contribution could beattributable, solely, to the dyeing and finishing subsector.



There are no data concerning this point.


All data in this section correspond to the year 1999, and come from the CBS. No information issupplied on the unit cost of different types of energy sources.

The consumption known of the different types of energy is as follows:

Electrical energy: 150 MW/year Natural gas: 9,000 m3/year Petroleum products: 7,000 t/year


According to data from the CBS referring to 1998, most water consumed by studied companiescomes from the public supply network, with a total of 1,846,000 m3/year, followed by surface wa-


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ter from rivers with a total of 1,295,000 m3/year. It is estimated that water from wells provides a to-tal of 5,000 m3/year and other types of ground water, 971,000 m3/year.


No data exist on this point.


No data exist on this point.


The only information on this point, facilitated by the CCE, consists of the generation of 21 t/year ofleftover fabric.

Environmental management costs

No information exists on this point.


No information exists on this point.


According to the Croatian Society for Quality, today, 18 of the country’s companies have ISO 14001Certification, and none belong to the textiles sector.

It should be noted that the companies in this sector carry out, above all, subcontracted work,and so they do not have the resources to improve equipment or for new technology.


Croatia possesses environmental legislation concerning dumping of wastewater, disposal and ma-nagement of waste, control of atmospheric emissions and on polluted soils, according to data ob-tained from the MZOPU.

Companies are obliged by law to produce with respect for nature. Those that do no comply withthis requirement may be fined and even shut down.


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3.1.5. Egypt

The information contained in this document has been supplied by the Ministry of State for En-vironment Affairs, with the collaboration of Dr Ahmed Hamza (Senior Technical Advisor).

The main sources of data concerning environmental practice in the textiles industry in Egyptare:

• EMTF: Egyptian Manufacturing Textiles Federation (Year book 2000)

• National Statistics Yearbook

• Ministry of the Environment

• Ministry of Housing



The most relevant geographical areas or regions in which the textiles activity takes place are, in ac-cordance with the EMTF:

• Cairo

• Alexandria

• Shoubra (Kaliobia)

• Mehalla (Gharbia)

• Mansoura (Dakhlia)


The textiles sector is the country’s number two industrial sector, after food, representing25% of the industrial product, excluding petroleum products. Within the textiles sector, cottoncrops, yarns and fabric are worthy of mention. Egypt produces 25-30% of the world’s top qua-lity cotton.

According to data for 1999 supplied by the EMTF, the textiles industries corresponding to thedyeing and finishing subsectors use wool, cotton, artificial fibres, synthetic fibres and blends asraw materials. The chemical products that are necessary for the production of artificial and syn-thetic fibres are mainly imported. The printing subsector, with the exception of wool, uses thesame raw materials cited.

As for annual production, for the dyeing and finishing sector that uses wool as a raw material,there is a total of 19,000 t/year, for the remaining raw materials, production is 659.5 M¤/year. Ofthis, 426.9 M¤/year correspond to the production of cotton, 32.8 M¤/year to the production of mi-xed fibres, 110.2 M¤/year to artificial fibres and 79.5 M¤/year to synthetic fibres.

These data correspond to 1999 and were supplied by the National Statistics Yearbook.


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The main products manufactured are T-shirts, beach towels, sports clothes and casual clothesaimed at the European and American markets.

No information regarding annual production has been supplied for the printing subsector.


The “Arab Economic Report” of the year 1999, includes the following data for 1998:

• 10,444 as being the total number of companies in the textiles sector as a whole, with a total of213,103 workers

• the total number of the country’s industrial establishments is about 25,500, with a total of25,000,000 workers.

No separate information exists for each of the subsectors in the study.

About 31% of the Egyptian textiles industry corresponds to large public companies. These largepublic companies constitute 100% of the country’s yarns, 70% of weaving, 40% of knitwear ma-nufacture and 30% of the finishing industry. The largest company has 34,000 workers and manu-factures approximately 25% of the country’s textiles production.

The distribution of the workforce in Egypt is as follows:

• 40% agriculture• 38% services• 22% industry


Egypt’s total GDP in 1999 was 81,308 M¤, and the contribution by the textiles sector was2,488 M¤.

According to the “Arab Economic Report” of the year 1999, the textiles sector contributed appro-ximately with 3% of the total GDP.



The information below on infrastructures for environmental management refers to the wholecountry. In each case, the source of information is mentioned although in most of them, no infor-mation regarding the year to which they refer is given.

The country has:

• 185 municipal wastewater treatment plants. (Source: Ministry of Housing)


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• 150 controlled urban solid waste landfills. (Source: Ministry of the Environment) • 25 solvent recycling plants. (Source: Ministry of the Environment) • Approximately 200 container and packaging recycling plants. (Source: Ministry of Industry)

No hazardous waste landfills or treatment plants exist now in Egypt, though there are plans for theconstruction of facilities for treatment and safe disposal of hazardous waste in several locations inthe country.

No information has been supplied on the existence of valorization companies of leftover fa-bric.

It is indicated that there are currently secondary water treatment plants being built. For 2010, it isforecast to have a further 500 plants in addition to the existing ones.


All data in this section correspond to the year 1999, and are obtained from the National Energy re-port published in 2000. No information has been supplied on the unit cost of the different energyforms.

The consumption known of the different types of energy is as follows:

• Electrical energy: 1,100,000 MW/year• Natural gas: 550,000,000 m3/year• Gas-oil: the equivalent of 680,000,000 Mcal/year

A programme is being implemented to substitute liquid fuels with natural gas in 2010.


According to estimates by the Ministry of Housing, most water consumed by the companies stu-died comes from the public supply network with a total of 400,000,000 m3/year, at a cost of 0.21¤/m3. It is estimated that water from wells provides some 100,000,000 m3/year, with a cost rangingbetween 0.16 and 0.32 ¤/m3.

It is estimated that the industry of the subsectors in this study recycles a total of 35,000,000 m3/ye-ar, according to data supplied by the Ministry of the Environment.

No data have been supplied on the consumption of surface water.

All data supplied are estimates since no exact measurements of volume are available.


Data available from the Ministry of Industry for the year 2000 refer solely to auxiliary chemicalproducts. They have been obtained from audits carried out in the thirty principal establishments


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and estimates of consumption of small and medium-sized companies, are calculated by extra-polation.

Consumption is presented in t/year:

• NaOH 7,000• H2O2 1,600• Wetting agents 750• Sodium silicate 1,400• H2SO4 300• Others ≈ 2,000


The data, although they come from two different sources, have been obtained from audits ca-rried out at the main establishments and estimates of the volume of wastewater generated bysmall and medium-sized companies.

There is no information regarding the year that the data supplied refer to.

According to the Ministry of the Environment:

• About 20% of the companies in the subsectors in question possess wastewater treatment plants,treating a total of approximately 90,000,000 m3/year.

• Approximately 35% dump their wastewater untreated, reaching a value of approximately100,000,000 m3/year.

According to the Ministry of Housing:

• About 45% of the companies in the subsectors in question dump their wastewater at municipalwastewater treatment plants, which treat a total of approximately 2.4 Mm3/year.


According to data (the year they refer to is not stated) from the Ministry of the Environment, thefate of the different types of waste is as follows:

Controlled landfills:

• Remains of solid and liquid pigments• Solid auxiliary chemical products• Sludge from wastewater treatment plants


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Discharged together with wastewater:

• Liquid auxiliary chemical products• Inorganic salts

Recycling:

• Halogenated and non-halogenated solvents• Used oils

Valorization (sale):

• Empty containers• Packaging• Remains of fabrics

Environmental management costs in the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors

Data concerning environmental management come from the “Industrial Pollution Control Fund ofthe Ministry of the Environment” and are estimates. The year referred to is specified in each casewhenever it is available.

In Egypt, no environmental taxes exist for any of the following activities:

• Dumping of wastewater in waterways. In a few instances, there are fees imposed on the dum-ping of industrial effluents in municipal sewage networks.

• Disposal of industrial waste.• Generation of atmospheric emissions.

According to data from the year 2000, the estimated annual cost for:

• The treatment of wastewater at the different industries’ own water treatment plants is va-riable

• External management of industrial waste: 215 M¤

• Treatment of atmospheric emissions: 26.8 M¤

• Fees for the consumption of water: around 5.4 M¤


There is economic aid for industry in different fields within the framework of the Ministry of theEnvironment’s Programme for Industrial Pollution Control.

For investment in the treatment of wastewater, the programme’s budget totals 16 M¤. The amountawarded was 5.7 M¤, for a total of 30 companies.

For investment in systems for end-of-pipe treatment of pollution, the programme’s budget totalled5.4 M¤. The amount awarded was 2.25 M¤, for a total of 12 companies.


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For investment in recycling equipment at the source of pollution, the programme’s budget was 21.5M¤. The amount awarded was 9.1 M¤.

For investment in equipment aimed at reducing pollution, the programme’s budget was 10.75 M¤.The amount awarded was 3.76 M¤.

For the introduction of good practices, the programme’s budget was 2.15 M¤. The amount awar-ded was 1.6 M¤.

The total given over to environmental education was 0.54 M¤, of which 0.28 M¤ have been awar-ded.

No help is foreseen in the field of research and development.


Concerning the degree of establishment of environmental practices aimed at pollution prevention, theinformation received comes from the Ministry of the Environment and refers to the percentage ofcompanies that carry them out, compared to the total number of companies from the subsectors in thestudy.

• ISO 14001 and/or EMAS Certification: 2%• Reuse of wastewater in the production process: 60% • Reuse of finishing baths: 15%• Recycling of solvents at source: 25%• Laboratories for the automatic preparation of colours: 10%• Automatic dosage of auxiliary products: 5%• Optimisation of the size of containers compared with consumption: 3%• Preventive maintenance of the facilities: 25%• “On-line” process control systems: 10%• Wastewater treatment at source: 20%

No information is available on the predominant type of company that has applied each of the above-mentioned practices.


Egypt possesses environmental legislation related to dumping of industrial wastewater, disposaland management of waste, control of atmospheric emissions and polluted soils. It must be notedthat although legislation exists, enforcement must be increased.

3.1.6. France

The information contained in this document has been supplied by the Agence de l’Environnementet de la Maîtrise de l’Énergie (délégation régionale - Midi-Pyrénées et Direction de l’Industrie).


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The main sources of data relating to environmental practice in the textiles industry in France comefrom:

• ADEME: Agence de l’environnement et de la maîtrise de l’énergie • IUT: Institut universitaire de technologie• UIT: Union des industries textiles• FET: Fédération de l’ennoblissement textile• ITFH: Institut textile français de l’habillement• Service des statistiques du Ministère de l’industrie



The main areas with a textiles industry in France, according to data supplied by the IUT, ADEMEand the Ministry of Industry correspond to:

• Nord-Pas de Calais• Rhône-Alpes• Champagne Ardennes Picardie• Alsace-Lorraine• Midi-Pyrénées


According to data supplied by the ADEME, the French textiles industries for the dyeing, finishingand printing subsectors use wool, cotton, artificial fibres, synthetic fibres and blends.

Overall production corresponding to the dyeing and finishing subsectors is 300,000 t/year and pro-duction corresponding to the sector of printing rose to 370,000 million m2/year.

These data are from the UIT and the FET and refer to the year 2000.


The information, supplied by the UIT and the FET referring to the year 2000 is as follows:

• 240, the total number of companies corresponding to the dyeing, finishing and printing subsec-tors, with a total of 14,000 workers. The printing subsector is not dealt with separately from thefinishing and dyeing subsector.

• 1,300 is the total number of companies that make up the textiles sector, with a total of 122,000workers.


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National infrastructure of environmental management

Information has only been facilitated concerning the valorisation of leftover fabrics. They refer tothe year 2000 and were supplied by the ADEME. There are 15 companies (garnetting and com-panies that perform the collection of leftover fabric).


All data in this section correspond to the year 1998 and come from the Service des statistiquesof the Ministère de l’industrie.

Annual electrical energy consumption totals 495.5 GWh, for natural gas, 959.5 GWh and for oil-bearing products as a whole 252.2 GWh.

The consumption of steam is quoted at 13.5 GWh.


ADEME, based on the survey and study called “TRIVALOR” which was carried out in the year 2000,estimates the total consumption of water by the subsectors that are the object of this study at 31million m3/year, without specifying whether the water comes from the public water supply network,wells or surface collection.


According to data estimated by ADEME, based on the “TRIVALOR” study and survey of the year2000, 12% of companies possess their own wastewater treatment plant, 53% dump their watersat other types of wastewater treatment plants and 35% do not treat their wastewater.


According to data supplied by the ADEME and the ITFH, the studied subsectors produce a yearlytotal of 9 t of waste corresponding to remains of colouring agents and solid and liquid pigments,remains of auxiliary chemical products, inorganic salts, remains of halogenated and non-haloge-nated solvents, used oils and empty containers. Nevertheless, it is considered that this figuremay be wrong given that it is so low.

Likewise, it is indicated that 7,650 t/year of packaging leftovers are produced, 8,500 t/year of fa-bric leftovers and between 7,000 and 9,000 t/year of sludge (dry matter). 75% of this sludge is usedto produce compost and to be used in agriculture soil, 25% is taken to controlled landfills and 5%is incinerated.

In addition, 765 t/year of other waste are produced.


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The only data supplied concerning this section was provided by the ADEME and the ITFH, and co-rrespond to the cost of industrial waste disposal by means of specialised waste managers. In theyear 1992, this totalled from between 54 and 93 ¤/t.


Concerning the degree of establishment of environmental practices aimed at prevention pollution,the only data that has been facilitated are the following:

• Laboratories for the automatic preparation of colours: more than 50% of companies have them.The type of company is not specified.

• Automatic dosage of auxiliary products: more than 50% of companies have them. The type ofcompany is not specified.

Neither the source nor the year that the data refer to have been supplied.


France possesses environmental legislation related to dumping of wastewater, disposal and ma-nagement of waste, control of atmospheric emissions and polluted soils.

3.1.7. Israel

The information contained in this document was supplied by the Industry and Business LicensingDivision of the Ministry of the Environment, with the collaboration of Dr Mordechai Sela.

The main sources of data concerning environmental practices in the textiles industry in Israelare:

• MAI: Manufacturer’s Association of Israel • CBSI: Central Bureau Statistics-Israel



The textiles industry in Israel is spread throughout the country.


According to MAI sources, in Israel, the textiles industries for the sectors of dyeing, finishing andprinting use cotton, artificial fibres, synthetic fibres and blends as raw materials.


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It should be noted that, for these subsectors, no industries use wool as a raw material. No infor-mation on the year the data refer to is available.

It is explicitly to be noted that the information concerning annual production is not available.


In the information supplied, according to data from 2000 supplied by the MAI and/or the CBSI, thefollowing is to be observed:

• 22 is the total number of companies corresponding to the sectors of dyeing, finishing and prin-ting, with a total of 1,300 workers. The printing subsector is not dealt with separately fromthose of dyeing and finishing.

• 300 is the total number of companies of the textiles sector as a whole, with a total of 36,000 wor-kers.

• 18,000 is the overall number of the country’s industries, with a total of 360,000 workers.


The set of all activities corresponding to the textiles sector contribute 0.9% to the country’s totalGDP, while dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors contribute 0.5%, and the total for the industrycontributes 19%.

These data refer to the year 2000 and are supplied by the MAI.



It is stated explicitly that the information supplied, which is given below, refers to the whole country.

According to data from the year 2000, supplied by the MAI, there is a total of:

• 50 wastewater treatment plants • 8 important urban solid waste landfills • 1 controlled hazardous waste landfill• 4 solvent recycling plants• 3 container and packaging recycling plants• 1 hazardous waste treatment plant


All data in this section correspond to the year 2000, and are supplied by the MAI, except those thatrefer to electrical energy, which have been supplied by the CBSI.


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The annual consumption of electrical energy ascends to 458,300 MW/year, with a unit cost of 0.075¤/kW.

Regarding the annual consumption of diesel oil or fuel oil, data are not available, although data co-rresponding to unit cost is available, which are 0.21 ¤/kg and 0.15 ¤/kg respectively.

It should be noted that Israel still does not have natural gas.


According to data supplied by the MAI, most water for consumption by the studied companies,is supplied by the public water supply network, with a total of 7,000,000 m3/year and a cost ofbetween 0.54-1.07 ¤/m3. No data or information concerning the volume of water consumed fromanother source is available.


It should be noted that no information concerning this section is available.


According to data supplied by the MAI, 100% of the industries corresponding to the textiles sub-sectors of dyeing, finishing and printing, possess a wastewater treatment plant, treating a total of5,500,000 m3/year.


Every year, Israel produces a total of 130,000 t of waste corresponding to mineral salts, of which3,202 undergo some kind of treatment, while the remaining 126,798 t have another, unspecifiedfate (data supplied by the MAI). The mineral salts and brine constitute the country’s biggest pollu-tant and its dumping into the public sewerage system is forbidden, and so it is separated and trans-ported to authorised dumping areas.

Likewise, it is noted that information is not available for the other types of waste (chemical products,solvents, oils, recipients, packaging, treatment plant sludge,…) that may have been generated bythe textiles subsectors that are the object of this study.

It is explicitly stated that containers and packaging waste are partially recycled.


According to data from the year 2000, supplied by the MAI, the annual cost of wastewater treatment,at the industries’ own wastewater treatment plants, was a total of 10.5 to 17.1 M¤/year, while the en-vironmental taxes applied to the dumping of wastewater were 4.3 M¤/year).


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According to the same source, and for the same period, the management of industrial waste by spe-cialised managers was 9.8 M¤/year.


Environmental projects do not receive any state aid.


Concerning the degree of establishment of environmental practices aimed at pollution prevention,the information received is from the MAI and refers to the percentage of companies that carry themout over the total number of companies in the studied subsectors.

• Reuse of wastewater in the production process: 30% (large national companies)

• Reuse of finishing baths: 20% (large national companies)

• Automatic colour laboratories: 100% (large and medium-sized national companies)

• Automatic dosage of auxiliary products: 100% (large and medium-sized national compa-nies)

• Recovery of printing pastes: 100% (large and medium-sized national companies)

• Optimisation of the size of containers compared to consumption: 100% (large and medium-si-zed national companies)

• Preventive maintenance of the facilities: 50% (large and medium-sized national companies)

• “On-line” process control systems: 100% (large, medium-sized and small national compa-nies)

• Treatment at source of wastewater: 100% (large, medium-sized and small national compa-nies)

• Currently, no company in the sector object of this study holds ISO 14001 and/or EMAS Certi-fication, nor are there any that recycle solvents at source, or have systems to prevent the gene-ration of products that have expired.


Israel possesses environmental legislation related to dumping of wastewater, disposal and mana-gement of waste, and control of atmospheric emissions. On the other hand, Israel does not havelegislation concerning polluted soils.

The main industries have signed the Reduction of Atmospheric Emissions Agreement.


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3.1.8. Italy

The data supplied in reply to the questionnaire sent out only correspond to the Italian province ofPrato. Data have not been facilitated on the national scale. Nevertheless, Prato constitutes a veryimportant industrial area in Italy, in which the most modern, technologically advanced textiles in-dustry in the country is located.

The information contained in this document has been supplied by the Italian National EnvironmentalAgency (ANPA) with the collaboration of:

Dr Maria Dalla Costa

Dr Luca Manuta

Dr Paola Lucchesi (Studio Biosfera)

The main sources of data related to environmental practices in the textiles industry of the provinceof Prato, are:

• CCIAA: Camera di Commercio di Prato

• UIP: Unione Industriale Pratese

• IRPET: Instituto Regionale per la Programmazione Economica Toscana

• ARPAT: Agenzia Regionale per la Protezione Ambientale Toscana

3.1.8.1. General data concerning the textiles industry (Province of Prato

Main geographical areas with textiles industry (Province of Prato)

Prato textile industrial area:

• Province of Prato1. Prato2. Montemurlo3. Vaiano4. Cantagallo5. Vernio6. Poggio a Caiano7. Carmignano

• Agliana (PT)

• Montale (PT)

• Quarrata (PT)

• Calenzano (FI)

• Campi Bisenzio (FI)

These data are from the CCIAA, 2000.


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Total number of textiles companies and workforce in the country (Province of Prato)

According to data from the year 2000 from the CCIAA, the number of workers in the textiles areaof the District of Prato in the manufacturing industry is 58,648, of which 37,169 correspond to thetextiles sector and 5,512 to the finishing subsector.

% Contribution to GDP (Province of Prato)

No data is available on the national scale. In the year 2000, the industrial sector contributed 37.4%to the added value generated in the province of Prato, which for that year was estimated at4,990,000 ¤. The most specific datum concerning the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors in-dicates that the added value from sales is 46%.

3.1.8.2. Environmental aspects (Province of Prato)

National infrastructures of environmental management (Province of Prato)

On the scale of the Prato Commune, there are 2 wastewater treatment plants, and 5 on the pro-vincial scale. The opening of a new plant is foreseen in the provincial scale.

Also on a provincial scale, there is an urban solid waste landfill.

No data concerning other types of environmental infrastructures is available.

The above information mentioned is from the ARPAT and refers to the year 2001.

Annual energy consumption in the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors (Province ofPrato)

According to data supplied by IRPET, in 1999, the Prato province’s textiles industry consumed822,000 kWh of electricity. On the other hand, it is mentioned that the consumption of electricalenergy in the area of the 1st Macrolotto (industrial area located in the area to the south of the PratoCommune) was approximately 82,000 kWh, a figure which, given the slight presence of other ty-pes of industry in that area, may be considered as being the equivalent to consumption by the tex-tiles sector.

As for the consumption of natural gas, the only data available corresponds to the industry in thearea of the 1st Macrolotto, which reaches 30.000 Nm3/year (data supplied by Policarbo SpAMilano). The consumption of other energy sources has not been indicated.

Annual water consumption in the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors (Province ofPrato)

According to data supplied by CONSER for 1999, the greatest amount of water for consumptionby the companies that are the object of this study came from the public water supply network (theurban industrial aqueduct of the city of Prato), with a total of 3,060,060 m3/year. This consump-


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tion refers to the water distributed, among others, to the 32 industries located in the 1stMacrolotto and to a limited number of industries located in the urban area which are connectedto the same aqueduct. Water from wells supplied a total of 998,467 m3/year to the 32 previouslymentioned companies.

No information concerning the cost resulting from with water consumption is available.

Annual consumption of chemical products in the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors(Province of Prato)

Data are only available on the consumption of the different chemical products in the industrial areaof Prato and they correspond to the following quantities expressed as t/year:

Surfactants: 850Oils: 1,175Acids: 9,266Alkaline products: 5,773Salts: 23,592.6

Annual generation of wastewater and fate in the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors(Province of Prato)

Since companies do not have water meters, it is not possible to precisely quantify hydric dis-charge, but by carrying out an estimation based on the initial phase of environmental analysis, areduction of approximately 5% of the quantity of incoming water can be estimated.


For the industries object of this study, the tariffs are different according to the activity.

Common environmental practices in the dyeing, finishing and printing industries (Provinceof Prato)

According to data supplied by UIP for the dyeing and finishing subsectors, it is indicated that, ona scale of the Prato Commune, there are 4 companies having ISO 14001 and/or EMAS certifi-cation.

The same source of data indicates that, on the provincial scale, 5 companies in this subsectorhas one of these types of certification. There is one company that makes yarns that has an Eco-label.


Italy has environmental legislation related to dumping of wastewater, disposal and management ofwaste, control of atmospheric emissions and polluted soils.


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3.1.9. Libya

The information contained in this document was supplied by the Environment General Authority(EGA) with the collaboration of Mr Jalal Ibrahim Eltreki.

The main sources of data concerning environmental practice in the textiles industry in Libyaare:

• The General National Company for Spinning & Weaving (GNC S&W)

• Regional study for textiles industry in Libya



According to data supplied by GNC S&W, the Libyan textiles industry is mainly found in the follo-wing areas:

• Tripoli (cotton weaving, dyeing and finishing industry)

• Benghazi (cotton weaving, dyeing and finishing industry)

• Musratta (cotton weaving, dyeing and finishing industry)

• Bani-Walid (yarns, finishing and weaving of wool)

• El-Marg (yarns, finishing and weaving of wool)

• Additionally, there are 3,681 small factories making clothes and other textile-related products dot-ted around the territory.


Based on information supplied, it seems that the subsectors into which the Libyan textiles industryis divided are those of the modern textiles sector and the traditional textiles sector, as well as thewool subsector, producing rugs and blankets, and the cotton and blends subsector, producing fa-brics and garments.

It is indicated that the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors are not considered as being spe-cific subsectors of the Libyan textiles industry, rather they are included as sections within the com-plex of the wool and cotton industry.

According to sources of the Regional study for the textiles industry and the GNC S&W in 2000, thedyeing and finishing subsectors use different raw materials with the following annual production:wool (900 t/year, that correspond to 13,367,414 m), cotton (14,829,750 kg/year) and blends (unk-nown quantity). On the other hand, for the printing subsector, the corresponding data are: wool(884 t/year), cotton (unknown quantity) and blends (annual production unknown).

Synthetic and artificial fibres are imported as dyed yarns. This is the only supply source for the stu-died subsectors.


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According to the information supplied by the Regional study for the textiles industry in 2001, thereare 8,035 workers employed in the Libyan textiles industry.

There are three large companies in the textiles sector, corresponding to the public sector andemploying 5,014 workers:

• The General National Company for Spinning & Weaving (3,194 workers)

• The Garments National Company, in Tripoli (1,120 workers)

• The General Garments Company in Benghazi (700 workers)

In addition, there are 672 small companies operating in the private sector employing 3,021workers.


The set of all activities corresponding to the textiles sector (both production and trade) contribute10% to the country’s total GDP, although it is indicated that this information is approximate be-cause trade is susceptible to profits and losses.

These data refer to the year 2000 and are supplied by the Regional study for the textiles industryin Libya.



According to the GNC S&W, Libya possesses 3 wastewater treatment plants, 1 urban solid wastelandfill, 1 solvent recycling plant and 1 container and packaging recycling plant. In the com-ments, it is indicated that the three wastewater treatment plants belong to the GNC S&W, and arelocated in Janzur, Bani-Walid and El-Marg.

This information corresponds to the year 2000.


All data in this section correspond to the year 2000 and are from the GNC S&W.

The annual consumption of electrical energy ascends to 18.5 MW/year, with a unit cost of 0.27¤/MW.

Annual consumption of fuel oil is 1,180 t/year, with a unit cost of 0.13 ¤/t.

Also, 361.8 t/year of kerosene are consumed at a cost of 0.09 ¤/t.


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It should be noted that the consumption of natural gas and diesel oil was negligible.

The consumption at the three major complexes working in the textiles industry in Libya was:

• Janzur Complex: 1,700,000 kW of electricity and 580 m3 of fuel oil• Bani-Walid Complex: 15,850,000 kW of electricity and 560 m3 of fuel oil• El-Marg Complex: 600,000 kW of electricity and 40 m3 of fuel oil


According to data supplied by the GNC S&W corresponding to the year 2000, the water consumedby the companies that are the object of this study comes from both wells, with annual consump-tion of 344,850 m3, and the public water supply network, with a total of 180,000 m3/year and a costof 0.17 ¤/m3.

For the different complexes of the textiles industry, water consumption is as follows:

• Janzur: 180,000 m3 from the water treatment plant at Tripoli west• Bani-Walid: 182,425 m3 from wells• El-Marg: 162,425 m3 of water from wells


The information concerning this section is unknown.


According to the data supplied, the volume of wastewater generated by the sector is 524,850m3/year. This figure coincides with the water consumed.

Nevertheless, this information does not coincide with the data on the generation of wastewatersupplied for the three main industrial complexes:

• Janzur: 45,000 m3/year• Bani-Walid: 45,606 m3/year• El-Marg: 40,606 m3/year

Additionally, according to data on the El-Marg Complex, a third (one in three companies) possessa wastewater treatment plant.

Annual generation of waste and fate in dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors

No information is available regarding the types of waste produced or its final destination. Theinformation that is available corresponds to the total amount of waste generated by the tex-tiles industry:


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• Janzur: 135 t/year• Bani-Walid: 137 t/year• El-Marg: 122 t/year

Information comes from the GNC S&W.


The total cost for the three major complexes is around 949,725 ¤, (GNC S&W). No detailed infor-mation exists on the concepts that make up this cost. This information corresponds to the year2000.

The environmental taxes related to wastewater are around 8%.


Since the textiles industry largely belongs to the State, it is not applicable to talk about stateaid.


The information received indicates that no independent dyeing, finishing or printing companiesexist; rather there are production lines that carry out these processes within the large wool and cot-ton textiles complexes.

The only improvements implemented seem to be wastewater treatment plants and automatic co-lour laboratories (the latter on the printing production lines).


Libya possesses legislation on solid waste and wastewater (General Environmental form).Nevertheless, no legislation exists on atmospheric emissions or on the pollution of soils.

3.1.10. Malta

The information contained in this document has been supplied by the Cleaner Technology Centre,with the collaboration of Mr Anton Pizzuto.

It should be noted that Malta does not possess a textiles industry that operates in the studied sub-sectors and fabrics are imported from other countries (Turkey, Tunisia, Spain,...) and garments, prin-cipally jeans and garments, are made. Therefore, the description of the sector given below refersto the garment making sector.

The main sources of data related to environmental practices in Malta’s textiles industry are:


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• Cleaner Technology Centre (CTC)• Central Office of Statistics (COS)• Industry (VF): the name of a large jeans industry, with access to data from the Federation of

Industry



The most relevant geographical regions or areas in which textiles activities take place are:

• The south of Malta• Central Malta• Gozo


As we have already commented in the introduction, there are no companies in Malta operating inthe dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors.

Nevertheless, fabrics are imported from other countries (Turkey, Tunisia, Spain,...) and they are usedto make garments, principally jeans and garments. Therefore, the main textiles subsector is that ofgarment making.

The sector uses 8,000,000 m of fabric per year, mainly DENIM-type cotton.


According to data supplied by the COS, referring to 1999, there are 188 industries in the countrywith a total of 3,752 workers.

No data are available concerning the sector textiles.


Industry as a whole contributes 4% to Malta’s total GDP, according to data of the COS for1999.



According to data supplied by the CTC corresponding to 2001, very little infrastructure exists re-lating to environmental management. Specifically, Malta has a wastewater treatment plant and aurban solid waste landfill.


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Annual energy consumption in the textiles sector (garment making)

With regard to energy consumption in the textiles sector, the data available corresponding to theyear 2001 are as follows:

• Electricity: 10,950 MW/year (with a unit cost of 0.06 ¤/kWh)• Fuel oil: 1,248 m3/year

Annual water consumption in the textiles sector (garment making)

With regard to water consumption in the textiles sector, data is only available concerning con-sumption by the company VF, corresponding to the year 2001. They are as follows:

• Water from the public network: 8,000 m3/year (with a unit cost of 1.6 ¤/m3)

• Recycled water: 8,650 m3/year (with a unit cost of 0.26 ¤/m3)

Annual generation of waste and fate in the garment-making sector

According to data available, a total of 1,200 t/year of leftover fabric are produced, which are allrecycled or recovered, as well as 52 t/year of treatment plant sludge, which is disposed of atlandfills.

No information is available on other waste products.

Environmental management costs

According to data available, referring to the year 2001, the environmental costs that must be bor-ne by the textiles companies are limited to the cost of the external management of waste genera-ted, reaching an annual total of 21,505 ¤.

There are no taxes on the consumption of water, the landfilling of wastewater, the generation ofwaste or emissions into the atmosphere.


According to data supplied by the CTC, Malta possesses environmental legislation relating to dum-ping of wastewater, disposal and management of waste, control of atmospheric emissions andconcerning polluted soils.

3.1.11. Morocco

The information contained in this document has been supplied by Ms Asmâa Tazi, AssistantGeneral Director of the Centre Marocain de Production Propre.


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The main sources of information relating to the good housekeeping practices of the Moroccan tex-tiles industry are:

• MICEM: Ministère de l’Industrie, du Commerce, de l’Énergie et des Mines du Maroc• AMITH: Association Marocaine du Textile et Habillement • CMPP: Centre Marocain de Production Propre• KOMPASS for the textiles and leather sector



The geographical areas or regions in which the textiles activity is carried out are, in order of de-creasing relevance, located in:

• Casablanca-Mohammedia (two-thirds of the companies in the textiles sector are located in thisarea, representing 75% of the total textile production)

• Rabat-Salé• Fès-Meknès• Marrakech• Tangiers• Agadir


Ever since Morocco decided to progressively open up its borders to trade, competitiveness hasbecome one of the main issues of the strategic business sectors of Morocco, among these the tex-tiles sector.

This integration into the world economy offers many opportunities to the textiles sector, but italso calls for a serious effort in modernising the production facilities, as well as adapting produc-tion facilities to the new rules and demands of the export markets, both with regard to the qualityof the products, as well as in their compliance with international standards.

The year 2000 was a difficult year for the textiles sector, especially for the clothing subsector, dueto the unfavourable evolution of the exchange rate of the Dirham with respect to the Euro since1999, and also to the increase in wage costs. In the year 2000 itself, the textiles sector lost 30,000jobs and 100 companies closed. Ironically, exports from the sector in the year 2000 grew by 4%compared to the previous year, reaching ¤ 21,000 M. In the year 2000, the textiles sector repre-sented 44% of the national exports of Morocco.

Nevertheless, not all the textiles subsectors contributed to the same extent to these exports.Manufactured clothing products represented 81% of these exports. 70% of the exports were toEurope.

According to data supplied by the MICEM, the textiles sector in Morocco includes the followingactivities:


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• Spinning of wool, cotton, silk and other vegetable fibres• Finishing and sizing of cloth• Manufacturing of simple textile products, other than clothing• Manufacturing of carpets, doormats and mats• Hats• Manufacturing of lingerie and shirts• Manufacturing of clothing

In turn, these activities include subsectors of interest in this study, such as dyeing, finishing andprinting. According to the data supplied by the AMITH, these subsectors use all types of raw ma-terials: wool, cotton, artificial fibres and blends.

The subsector for denim washing is worth a special mention, and is included in the dyeing and fi-nishing subsectors. The washing is normally carried out with either pumice stone, or by usingenzyme baths, or by a combination of both methods.

The data supplied by AMITH shows an annual production figure of 24,600 t/yr for the dyeing,finishing and printing subsectors.


The information on the total number of companies in the dyeing, finishing and printing subsec-tors is supplied by KOMPASS for the textiles and leather sector, and refers to the year 2000. In ac-cordance with this data, there are:

• 1,440 companies in the textiles sector (the textiles sector include: spinning, weaving, finishingand garment manufacturing)

• 6,800 companies in the whole industrial sector of the country

The studied subsectors only represent 10% of the total companies in the textiles sector. The dyeingand finishing subsector comprises 93 companies that employ between 7,800 and 8,200 wor-kers, whereas the printing subsector comprises 45 companies and employs 3,200 workers. Theinformation is supplied by AMITH, relating to the year 2000 and is based on data obtained bysurveys carried out on the companies in the sector. In accordance with this data, the companiesin the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors have the following geographical distribution:

• Casablanca-Mohammedia: 75%• Tangiers: 6%• Fès-Meknès: 5%• Rabat-Salé: 4%• Other: 10%


The textiles and leather industry as a whole comes in third place in the ranking of Moroccan in-dustry, following the agricultural-food industries and the chemicals and related products industries.


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In the year 2000, at the national level it contributed 15% to the total production and 17% tothe total industrial GDP of the country and provided employment for 42% of the total workingpopulation.



According to data supplied by AMITH and CMPP there are:

• Approximately 50 municipal wastewater treatment plants. (Data corresponding to the year2001)

• 2 controlled landfills for urban solid waste (Tifelt and Essaouira). (Data corresponding to theyear 2000)

• 7 solvent recycling plants. (Data corresponding to the year 2001)

• 20-23 plants for recycling containers and other packaging. (Data corresponding to the year2000)

• 6 plants for valorizing textile waste. (Data corresponding to the year 2000 supplied by KOMPASSfor the textiles and leather sector). Mention is made of the fact that if all the industries that usetextile waste in their activities or processes were taken into consideration, there would at leastbe 30 of them.

In accordance with the data supplied, there are no controlled landfills or treatment plants for ha-zardous waste. For this reason certain sectors, such as the pharmaceutical industry, have built theirown management infrastructure facilities.


The energy types used by the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors are basically electricity andthermal energy generated by the combustion of petroleum products.

In accordance with the data supplied by AMITH and CMPP, the known consumption of the diffe-rent types of energy, is as follows:

• Electricity: reached 30,500 MWh/yr with a unit cost of ¤ 118.28/MWh

• Fuel oil: 112,000 t/yr with a unit cost of ¤ 258.06/t

• For liquid petroleum gases (LPG), basically butane and propane, and diesel fuel, no informationis available relating to the annual consumption. The unit costs are ¤ 322.58/t for LPGs and ¤559.14/m3 for diesel fuel.

The values relating to consumption have been estimated by using the data obtained from carryingout surveys of the industries in the sector and based on environmental audits carried out by theCMPP.


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In accordance with the data for the year 2000, supplied by AMITH and CMPP, water consumed bythe companies belonging to the studied subsectors comes on the one hand from the public supplynetwork, with a total of 5,680,000 m3/yr and a cost of ¤ 0.87/m3, and on the other from wells andown supplies with a total of 4,420,000 m3/yr and a cost of ¤ 0.08/m3.

The cost of water coming from own supplies corresponds to the costs of drilling and installingthe wells, and it is estimated that they are payed back in less than 3 years.

The catchment of surface waters is minimal and it is estimated that 30% of the wastewater isreused.


The available information is supplied by AMITH and CMPP and relates to the year 2001. Annualconsumption in t/yr for each of the families of products is:

• Dyes and pigments: 2,250-2,500 t/yr• Auxiliary chemical products (wetting agents and surfactants): 2,300 t/yr• Inorganic salts: 20,000 t/yr• Halogenated solvents: small amounts

It should be mentioned that the quantity of halogenated solvents used is being reduced as theindustries are replacing them with biodegradable products.

With regard to the use of non-halogenated solvents, such as toluene, xylene, acetone or ether, theindustries surveyed have not provided specific information.


The data from the reports on the textiles sector prepared by the CMPP in the period between June2000 and September 2001 were:

• Around 5% of the companies in the subsectors of interest have their own wastewater treatmentplants, treating approximately a total of 825,000 m3/yr

• Around 35% (2,340,000 m3/yr) have some type of pre-treatment plant that allows for decantationof the wastewater before discharge.

• Around 60% (5,500,000 m3/yr) dump their wastewater without any type of treatment.

Annual generation of waste and fate, in the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors

In accordance with the data supplied by CMPP and MICEM, there is an annual production of:


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• 194 t of remains of colouring agents and solid pigments

• 85 t of remains of colouring agents and liquid pigments, which is destined for uncontrolleddumping

• An indefinite but small amount of solid auxiliary chemical products, destined for uncontrolleddumping

• 360 t of inorganic salts, which is destined for uncontrolled dumping

• 345 t of empty containers, destined for valorization and/or recycling

• 258 t of other packaging waste, which is destined for valorization and/or recycling

• 12,500-13,200 t of textile waste, destined for valorization and/or recycling

• 3,750 t of sludge from washing baths, which is destined for valorization/incineration in the ovensof cement factories.

It is estimated that 90% of the companies recycle and/or valorize their leftover fibres and textilewaste.

Environmental management costs of the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors

Very few companies in the studied subsectors have a waste management policy. 85% of thesecompanies are affiliated companies of multinational corporations and the aforementioned costsare directly absorbed by the group within their general policies.

In accordance with the data supplied by CMPP, relating to the period from June 2000 to September2001, the costs due to the treatment of wastewater by using the companies’ own treatment plants,are between ¤ 26,800 and 43,000 per year.


In December 1997, through its Ministry of the Environment together with the German Agency forFinancial Cooperation (KfW), the government of Morocco set up the industrial pollution manage-ment funds (FODEP1 and FODEP2). These are instruments for offering incentives to invest in in-dustrial pollution management and the saving of natural resources.

The FODEP1 programme finances two types of projects:

• Integrated projects, which in addition to industrial pollution management also contemplate a re-duction in the consumption of natural resources (water, energy,...)

• Projects leading to the reduction of pollution by implementing treatment facilities or through eli-minating pollution.

54 industries have joined this programme, of which 10 (19%) belong to industries in the textilesand leather sector.


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As at December 31, 2001, the Technical Committee of FODEP had examined 30 projects, ofwhich 15 have been considered eligible. Of these 15 projects, 8 are related to the dumping of li-quids, 5 to gaseous emissions and 2 to solid waste. The 15 projects involve an overall invest-ment of ¤ 7,820,000, of which ¤ 4,077,000 will be in the form of subsidies and ¤ 3,743,000 willbe in the form of soft loans.

The FODEP2 programme is different from the previous one, in that it is a financial aid packagein the order of ¤10 M, granted by the German government. Eight companies in the textiles sectorhave expressed their interest in requesting financing through this programme, for projects rela-ting to the treatment and optimisation of the use of water.

The Moroccan Government has set other additional initiatives in motion, in order to foster the im-provement of the textiles sector. Of these, those considered most significant are the “ContratBranche” presented by the AMITH to the government in August 1999, and the creation of CMPPin June 2000, thanks to the financial support given by the Government of Switzerland, with a du-ration of 5 years.

The CMPP offers technical assistance to the industries of the textiles sector and constitutes areference body on environmental matters.


With regard to the degree of establishment of the environmental practices aimed at pollution pre-vention, the information received has been supplied by the AMITH and CMPP and refers to thepercentage of companies that carry them out, compared to the total number of companies inthe subsectors being studied.

• ISO 14001 Certification and/or EMAS: 1%. (As at March 2002, only one company in the sec-tor has obtained ISO 14001 certification and five more are in the process of being certified.The companies in this sector prefer the O-Ktex Standard 100, as it specifically pertains tothe sector).

• Reuse of wastewater in the production process: 1%

• Reuse of rinsing baths: 60%

• Although the recycling of solvents at source is a common practice, there is no percentage avai-lable for the industries that carry it out.

• Very few industries have prevention systems for the generation of obsolete products.

• Laboratories for the automatic preparation of colours: 2% (Nevertheless, it is estimated that 85%have laboratories for the non-automatic preparation of colours).

• Automatic dosage of auxiliary products: 30% (100% of the companies have systems for thedosage of auxiliary products, in 70% of the cases this is not considered automatic).

• Preventive maintenance of the facilities: 85%


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• “Online” process control systems: 99%

• On-site treatment of wastewater: 5%


Morocco has a great number of legal texts that were passed more than half a century ago. The ser-vices of the General Board of Urbanism have prepared an inventory of almost 356 texts passedbetween 1913 and 1985.

Nevertheless, these texts are not adapted to current needs as on the one hand, their main objec-tive was to protect private and State property, preserving the wellbeing of the population, and onthe other, the preservation by the State of the products “on loan”, such as water and air, which areconsidered resources in the public domain.

In order to remedy this situation, the Ministry of the Environment has prepared a strategy to pro-vide the country with a legal and institutional framework, with the following objectives:

• To establish a legal and regulatory framework for the protection and assessment of the envi-ronment, simultaneously taking into account the needs for preservation, and sustainable so-cio-economic development.

• To ensure the legal coherence of all existing or future texts as well as their adaptation to the as-sessment of new technologies and to the status of the receiving entities.

• To bring the national legislation into harmony with the commitments subscribed by Morocco ata regional and international level.

Currently there is the Law 10-95 on water, which provides for the principle of an environmental levyon water. There is presently a pilot programme in progress, on the environmental levy, in the OumErrabii river basin (Khouribga region).

The final touches are being put to the draft of a law relating to the discharge of wastewater, gasemissions and the generation of waste by several industrial sectors.

Moreover, the General Secretariat of the Government, SGG, is working on the draft of a law rela-ting to waste management and disposal.

3.1.12. Spain

The main sources of information used in drafting this document were:

• The National Statistics Institute (INE)• The Centre for Information on Textiles and Garment Making (CITYC)• The Spanish Intertextiles Council• The Ministry of the Environment of the Government of Catalonia


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According to data supplied by the INE and the Spanish Intertextiles Council, the geographical are-as or Autonomous Communities where the textiles activity is located in Spain correspond to:

• Catalonia, with 65% of the total• The Community of Valencia, with 25% of the total

The remaining 10% is shared among other Autonomous Communities. The dyeing, finishing andprinting subsector is highly relevant both in Catalonia and the Community of Valencia.


According to data from the year 1999 supplied by the CITYC, the textiles industries correspondingto the dyeing and finishing subsectors use wool and cotton, artificial fibres, synthetic fibres andblends as raw materials, producing overall 550,300 t/year for 1999.

According to the same source, in the printing subsector, the same raw materials as those men-tioned above are used with the exception of wool, which is not often used. Overall production for1999 was 58,500 t/year.

Total number of textiles companies and number of workers in the country

The information below refers to the year 2000 and was supplied by the INE and the CITYC.

It is estimated that the number of companies in the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors isapproximately 490, with 17,880 workers. The total for the textiles sector, including the garmentmaking subsector is comprised of 7,615 companies, which employ 278,200 workers.

The country’s industrial sector includes 163,265 industries which provide a total of 2,628,008jobs.


According to data from the year 1999, supplied by the INE, the textiles sector as a whole contri-buted 1.8% to the country’s total GDP, while the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors contribu-ted 0.08%.



No information on this section has been facilitated, since global data on the national scale are notavailable. However, it may be said that facilities of all the types mentioned do exist: wastewater


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treatment plants, urban solid waste landfills, industrial waste landfills, hazardous waste landfills,plants for the recycling of containers and packaging, facilities that valorise fabric leftovers andwaste treatment plants.


According to data supplied by the Spanish Intertextiles Council, in the year 1998 the subsectors inthis study consumed:

• Electrical energy: 1,014,775 MW/year, with a unit cost of 66 ¤/MW (0.066 ¤/kW)• Thermal energy: 13,270,070,000 MJ/year

Data concerning the consumption of natural gas, diesel oil and fuel oil have been estimated basedon the consumption declared for the year 2000 by the companies in the subsectors in this studyin Catalonia, bearing in mind that 65% of Spanish textiles are located in this Community. Accordingto this estimate, consumption was as follows:

• Natural gas: 7,872,000 m3/year, with a unit cost of 0.45 ¤/m3

• Diesel oil: 2,300 t/year • Fuel oil: 9,400 t/year

No information on the unit price of diesel oil, fuel oil or thermal energy has been facilitated.


According to data supplied by the Spanish Intertextiles Council, total water consumption for thesubsectors in this study was 55,397,340 m3 for the year 1998.

Although no data are available on the sources of the water consumed for the whole of Spain,they are available for Catalonia, corresponding to the year 2001. These data, supplied by theCatalan Water Agency, have been taken from the document “Declaraciones de Uso y Consumodel Agua”, —Declarations concerning the Use and Consumption of Water— which companiesmust provide every year for fiscal purposes.

According to these data, in Catalonia, 71% of the water consumed by the subsectors studiedcomes from their own sources, such as wells and surface catchment, while the remaining 29% comesfrom a supply company. The consumption of water in Catalonia for the subsectors in this studywas approximately 25,475,768 m3.

It is specifically stated that the price of water varies greatly from one Autonomous Community tothe next.


No overall data are available on the whole of Spain and, consequently, estimates have been ma-de for the different consumptions based on the data declared by the companies in the sub-


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sectors in this study in the “Declaración de Residuos” —Declaration of Waste Products— for theyear 2000 in Catalonia, bearing in mind that 65% of the country’s textiles industry is located inCatalonia.

The quantity of different chemical products used can be broken down as follows:

• Colouring agents and pigments: 9,850 t/year

• Auxiliary chemical products: 13,900 t/year (including soaps, surfactants, detergents, waxes,glues, gelatines, adhesives, sizing products, dye accelerators, fixatives for colouring agents,fire-proof preparations, water repellent preparations, etc.)

• Inorganic salts (common salt): 23,100 t/year (only data concerning the consumption of com-mon salt have been included. The remaining salts consumed are included in the section onchemical products)

• Halogenated solvents: 27 t/year

• Non-halogenated solvents: 276 t/year

• Other chemical products: 63,000 t/year (both organic and inorganic products have been con-sidered (oxides, hydroxides, peroxides, organic and inorganic acids, enzymes, urea, silicone,etc.)


No data are available concerning the whole of Spain. Nevertheless, data corresponding toCatalonia are available, corresponding to the year 2001. These data, supplied by the CatalanWater Agency, have been taken from the document “Declaraciones de Uso y Consumo del Agua”—Declarations concerning the Use and Consumption of Water— which companies must provideevery year for fiscal purposes.

According to these data, approximately 30% of the texiles companies in the sectors in this study,which dump 60% of the wastewater generated by these subsectors, have their own treatment fa-cilities of one type or another. The remaining 70%, which generates 36% of all wastewater, donot have any treatment system. However, of the companies that do not have treatment systems,the great majority (60% of the total) dump into a treatment system and the water is treated by amunicipal wastewater treatment plant. Therefore, only 10% of companies dump into public river-beds, either directly or indirectly, without any type of treatment of their water. The dumping bythis 10% of companies corresponds to 18% of wastewater generated by the subsectors in thisstudy.

The volume of wastewater dumped by the companies of the subsectors in this study in Cataloniain the year 2001, is, according to the same source, 16,998,227 m3, that is to say, 67% of the vo-lume consumed.

The treatment carried out by the companies themselves on their wastewater is more or less com-plex in accordance with whether it is poured into public riverbeds or a drainage system. In the


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former case, the most common treatment is a physical-chemical one followed by a biological one.In the latter case, the most common treatment is a primary one with an homogenisation tank withaeration and neutralisation filtration systems.


No data are available concerning the whole of Spain and so the different consumption has beenestimated based on data declared in the “Declaración de Residuos” —Declaration of WasteProducts— for the year 2000 by the companies of the subsectors in this study in Catalonia, bea-ring in mind that 65% of the textiles industry is located in this Community.

According to these estimates, the amount and fate of the different types of waste generated an-nually would be as follows:

• 1.6 t of waste from colouring agents and solid pigments. 96.6% initially end up at a collection andtransfer centre although it may be considered that in most cases, their final destination are thecontrolled landfills. The remaining 3.4% is directly disposed of at controlled landfills.

• 31 t of waste from colouring agents and liquid pigments. 97.9% is treated at specific treatmentplants, while the remaining 2.10% ends up initially at a collection and transfer centre.

• 1.7 t of halogenated solvents, 98 t of non-halogenated solvents and 107 t of used oils. 100% ofthis waste ends up being valorised and/or recycled.

• 619 t of empty chemical product containers. 83.20% of them are valorised and/or recycled, 12%end up being disposed of at controlled landfills and the remaining 4.8% initially go to a collec-tion and transfer centre.

• 95 t of leftovers of packaging materials. 83.30% of this is disposed of at controlled landfills andthe remaining 16.6% is valorised and/or recycled.

• 6,047 t of leftover fabric. 74.6% is disposed of at controlled landfills, 22.40% is valorised and/orrecycled and the remaining 3% ends up initially at a collection and transfer centre.

• 31,760 t of treatment plant sludge. 59.90% is valorised and/or recycled, 39.8% is disposed of atcontrolled landfills and 0.10% is treated at a treatment plant.

• 17,466 t of other waste products. 62.50% is disposed of at controlled landfills, 27.80% endsup initially at a collection and transfer centre, 8.30% is valorised and/or recycled and 1.40% istreated at a treatment plant.

No information has been supplied concerning auxiliary solid and liquid chemical waste.


No overall data is available concerning the whole of Spain and so the costs have been estimatedbased on data supplied in Catalonia for the year 2000. It should be borne in mind that the levieson the consumption and dumping of water vary greatly from one Autonomous Community to thenext.


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According to an estimate, the annual cost of environmental management for companies in thedyeing, finishing and printing subsectors would be:

• External waste product management: 2.5 M¤/year.

• Environmental taxes for the dumping of wastewater: 7.9 M¤/year (in order to estimate this cost,the data for the volume of water have been taken for 1998).

• Environmental taxes for the consumption of water: 3.0 M¤/year (in order to estimate this cost,the data for the volume of water have been taken for 1998).

No information is available on the cost of treating wastewater at the companies’ own treatmentplants.

In Spain, taxes are not applicable to the generation of waste or to the generation of emissionsinto the atmosphere.


Economic aid, as shown below, corresponds to calls for application for aid, which are open at pre-sent for the industrial sector in general. Such aid can come from the state, and cover the wholecountry, or may be of a regional nature, thus only applicable to the industries of the AutonomousCommunities that make such calls.

The information has been obtained from the different Autonomous Communities.

Aid recently awarded was for the following lines of action:

• Investments for the treatment of wastewater: valid, for the period between 1999 and 2001, in thecommunities of Catalonia and Castilla León. In Catalonia, the total amount assigned for 1999 was2,386,018.05 ¤. The total assigned in Castilla León is mentioned in the chapter dealing with sub-sidies for the introduction of certified environmental management systems.

• Investments for other systems for the end-of-pipe treatment of pollution: these are valid in thecommunities of Navarra and Castilla León for the year 2001. In Navarra, the total assigned for theyear 2001, which also includes action for the prevention of pollution, was 601,012 ¤. The totalassigned in Castilla León is mentioned in the chapter dealing with subsidies for the introductionof certified environmental management systems.

• Research and development (R+D): there is a programme on the state scale for the period span-ning 2000-2003 within the programme for the promotion of technical research (Programa delFomento de la Investigación Técnica or PROFIT). No information is available on the budget thatthe programme disposes of.

• Investment in equipment for “in situ” recycling of pollutants: this was valid in the Community ofValencia for the year 2001, with a total assigned of 1,803,036 ¤. This also includes action to mi-nimise waste products.


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• Investments in equipment aimed at reducing pollution at source: these were valid in Catalonia,Navarra, the Basque Country and the Community of Valencia for the year 2001. In Catalonia, thetotal assigned was 721,214 ¤. In Navarra, the total assigned was mentioned when referring tothe subsidies for the investment in systems for end-of-pipe pollution treatment. In the BasqueCountry, the total assigned was 3,066,359 ¤. In the Community of Valencia, the total assignedwas mentioned when referring to the subsidies for the investment in equipment for recycling ofpollution “in situ”.

• Investments targeting the introduction of certified environmental management systems: thesewere valid in Catalonia and Castilla León for the year 2001. In Catalonia, the total assigned was743,451 ¤. In Castilla León, the total assigned was 1,111,872 ¤, also including other action suchas investments in corrective and preventive measures for pollution or in instruments to measureand control pollution, or the carrying out of audits and studies.

• To obtain the European Union’s Eco-label: valid in Catalonia for the year 2001, with a total of48,081 ¤ assigned.

It should be noted that no information is available on previous calls which are now closed.

No information is available concerning aid targeted exclusively at environmental training, althoughthis may be included in some of the calls that have already been mentioned.

In addition to the previously mentioned subsidies, the companies that can accredit investment inenvironmental facilities before the Administration can deduct 10% of these investments fromtheir corporate tax dues.


Concerning the degree of establishment of environmental practices aimed at pollution prevention,an estimate has been made that was contrasted, at a later date, with the Spanish IntertextilesCouncil.

Data refer to the percentage of companies that are considered to carry out a certain practiceover the total number of companies of the sectors in this study.

• ISO 14001 and/or EMAS Certification: 2% (principally large companies and multinationals)• Reuse of wastewater in the production process: 50% (it is considered that all sorts of compa-

nies reuse water, regardless of their size or whether they are national or multinational com-panies)

• Reuse of finishing baths: 50%• Recycling of solvents at source: 10%• Systems for the prevention of the generation of out-of-date products: 70%• Laboratories for the automatic preparation of colours: 70%• Automatic dosage of auxiliary products: 50%• Reuse of leftovers of printing pastes: 30%• Optimisation of the size of containers in relation with consumption: 70% (it is considered that

all sorts of companies carry out this measure, regardless of their size or whether they are natio-nal or multinational companies)


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• Preventive maintenance of the facilities: 75%• “On-line” process control systems: 70%• Treatment at source of wastewater: 30% (it is considered that all sorts of companies reuse wa-

ter, regardless of their size or whether they are national or multinational companies).


Spain possesses environmental legislation on the state, autonomic region and local scale relatedto dumping of wastewater, disposal and management of waste, control of atmospheric emis-sions and concerning polluted soils.

3.1.13. Syria

The information contained in this document has been supplied by the Ministry of State for Envi-ronmental Affairs with the collaboration of Ms Abir Zeno.

The main sources of data concerning environmental practice in the textiles industry in Syriaare:

• The Ministry of Industry• The Textiles Industry Association• The Central Bureau of Statistics• The Chamber of Industry• The Ministry of the Environment• The Ministry of Housing



According to data supplied by the Ministry of Industry, the Syrian textiles industry is located mainlyin the following areas:

• Alleppo• Damascus• Homs• Hama

The textiles industry is located around the big cities, Alleppo being the most important, followedby Damascus and Hama. Fabrics are made fundamentally in Alleppo and Damascus. 75% of thedyeing industry is found in Alleppo.


According to the Ministry of Industry and the Association of the Textiles Industry, the dyeing, fi-nishing and printing subsectors mainly use wool, cotton and blends as raw materials, with natu-


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ral cotton being the most commonly used raw material. No information has been supplied con-cerning the use of synthetic and artificial fibres.

A survey carried out in 1999 by the “Syrian Cotton Sector”, quotes annual production for the dyeingand finishing subsectors at 120,000 t/year.


In the information supplied, according to data from the year 2000, supplied by the Ministry ofIndustry and the Association of the Textiles Industry, the total number of companies in the textilessector as a whole is quoted at 8,893 with a total of 77,886 workers. Of the total number of com-panies, 8,867 are private and 26 are public. The former give work to 49,535 workers while thelatter employ 28,351 workers. Furthermore, it is explicitly stated that there are 11,460 artisan tex-tiles centres in the public sector.

The main large companies are public, although private initiative has come onto the market also inthe form of large companies.

No separate information has been supplied concerning the dyeing, finishing and printing subsec-tors, or on the country’s overall status.


The set of all activities corresponding to the textiles sector contributes 23% to the country’s totalGDP, according to the Central Bureau of Statistics.



On the national scale, mention is made of the existence of an urban solid waste landfill andtwo publicly managed wastewater treatment plants, although there are a further four being built.No mention is made of other types of environmental infrastructures.

The information dates from the year 2000-2001, and is supplied by the Ministry of Housing andmunicipal authorities.


No data have been supplied concerning the overall consumption of the different energy sources.However, by means of audits carried out in the textiles sector in the year 1998, it has been esti-mated that the consumption of electrical energy is 0.37-4.8 kWh/kg of finished product.

The Ministry of Industry is setting up a database that shall allow the collation of statistics on energyconsumption within the next two years.


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It should be noted that this information is not available, since no statistics concerning this sec-tion are available.


It should be noted that this information is not available since no statistics or exhaustive recordsof the consumption of chemical products are available.


According to approximate data supplied by the Ministry of Industry, 30% of the industries corres-ponding to the textiles subsectors of dyeing, finishing and printing possess their own wastewatertreatment plants, while the remaining 70% do not carry out any treatment whatsoever.


According to the Ministry of Industry, waste generated by the subsectors in question is usually dis-posed of at public landfills. Nonetheless, the quantities that are generated on an annual basis areunknown for each kind of waste.


There is no indication that environmental management involves any cost for the companies ope-rating in the subsectors being studied.


According to the Ministry of the Environment, only two companies have received grants for theintroduction of good housekeeping practices.

It is stated that although at present companies do not receive economic aid from the State, a jointprogramme has been started by the Ministries of the Environment and Industry in order toachieve financial support with a view to setting up a Cleaner Production centre the aim of whichwill be to help companies to get economic aid either by means of “soft loans” or tax relief.


Concerning the degree of establishment of environmental practices aimed at pollution prevention,the information received is supplied by the Chamber of Industry and refers to the percentage ofcompanies over the total that are estimated to apply each of the practices below:

• ISO 14001 and/or EMAS Certification: 1% in dyeing and finishing, 1% in printing (it is conside-red that mainly medium-sized companies are dealt with here)


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• Reuse of wastewater in the production process: 1% in dyeing and finishing, 1% in printing

• Reuse of finishing baths: 1% in the printing subsector

• Automatic dosage of auxiliary products: 10% in dyeing and finishing

• Preventive maintenance of the facilities: 55% in dyeing and finishing, 50% in printing

• Treatment at source of wastewater: 15% in dyeing and finishing, 1% in printing

No information is available concerning the application of other good housekeeping practices giventhat the country does not have the corresponding statistics available.


According to the Ministry of the Environment, Syria possesses legislation on wastewater and at-mospheric emissions, but has none on solid waste or on soil pollution. It is indicated that Syria’slegal requirements are quite lenient and incomplete, given that there is still no framework legisla-tion on the Environment.

3.1.14. Tunisia

The information contained in this document has been supplied by the Tunis International Centrefor Environmental Technologies, with the collaboration of:

• Ms Amel Benzarti, Director• Mr Rachid Nafti, Expert on cleaner production

The main sources of data relating to environmental practice in the textiles industry in Tunisiaare:

• FENATEX: National Textiles Federation• CETTEX: Technical Centre for Textiles • ATPNE: The Tunisian Association for the Protection of Nature and the Environment

Other data have been supplied by:

• The Ministry of Economic Development• ANPE: The National Agency for the Protection of the Environment/statisdistics of FODEP: Fonds

de Dépollution Industrielle• Strategic study on textile sector garments, Gherzi Organisation, Zurich 1999.



The main geographical areas that possess a textiles industry in Tunisia are:


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• Ben Arous• Monastir• Ariana


In Tunisia, the textiles sector is classified in two categories: one is dyeing, finishing and printing,comprising a total of 41 companies, and the other is the washing of jeans, with a total of 48 com-panies.

Referring to the nature of raw materials used, it should be noted that it is most varied. More thanhalf of the industries in the dyeing, finishing and printing sector are able to use wool, cotton,synthetic fibres or even blends of these raw materials.

According to data from the year 1992, supplied by the Ministry of Economic development, the pro-duction in the dyeing, finishing and printing sector is quoted at 1,800 t/year for the companies thatuse wool and 800 t/year for those that use cotton. No data have been supplied for the other rawmaterials or for the jeans-washing sector.

On the other hand, it should be noted that Tunisia is not a producer of raw materials, which impliesthat the industries in this sector depend on imports.


According to data from the year 1999, the overall number of companies in the textiles sector is1,806, with a total of 240,000 workers.

Data from the year 1995 quote 41 as being the number of companies in the dyeing, fini-shing and printing sector and 48 performing the washing of jeans, with a total of 5,119 wor-kers.

On the other hand, according to other data supplied by the FENATEX, in 1999 there were 10,000companies in Tunisia providing employment for a total of 406,000 workers.

It is also commented that 40% of the dyeing and finishing industries perform the wet ennoble-ment of fabrics, whether they are weaved or knitted. The machinery that is used in the dyeing pro-cess is also very varied and may consist of: winches (33.9%), jiggers (25%), autoclaves (4.6%),jets (15.6%) and overflows (20.8%).


The total of the textiles sector contributes 8% to the country’s total GDP, according to data fromthe year 1995 supplied by the Ministry of Economic Development.

Explicit mention is made of the fact that information is only available for the textiles industry as awhole and not for the different sectors.


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According to data from the year 2000 supplied by the ANPE, there are a total of 60 wastewater tre-atment plants. The same source quotes as being 4 the total number of controlled landfills and 1the number of controlled landfills for hazardous waste.

No information has been supplied concerning the existence of infrastructures for the reuse and/orvalorisation of containers, solvents and leftover fabrics, and neither is there any information con-cerning the existence of treatment plants for hazardous waste.

On the other hand, it is stated that a new controlled landfill for hazardous waste is being built.

Annual water consumption in the textiles sector

The consumption of water is calculated on the basis of 300 working days a year.

Most water consumption comes from the public water supply network with a total of 3,434,100m3/year and a unit cost of 0.93 ¤/m3. Less considerable is the consumption of water from wells,which totals 105,000 m3/year.

No data or information concerning any other type of water supply is provided, although it is com-mented that the ennoblement sector consumes 11,418 m3/day while the sector dealing with thewashing of jeans consumes 10,029 m3/day.

Annual consumption of chemical products in the textiles sector

The consumption of colouring agents and pigments is 2,646 t/year while that of auxiliary chemi-cal products is 1,622 t/year. These data are supplied by the ATPNE although it is not specified towhich year they correspond.

No information is supplied concerning the consumption of inorganic salts, halogenated or non-halogenated solvents, or others.

Annual generation of wastewater and fate in the textiles sector

90% of the industries in the dyeing, finishing and printing sectors possess their own wastewatertreatment plants, treating a total of 2,250,600 m3/year while 10% have another type of water treat-ment plant though the volume of water treated by them is not mentioned. It should be pointedout that neither the date nor the source of these data have been provided.

On the other hand, information is provided on the following points:

• The treatment process for water effluents is, essentially, physical-chemical (homogenisation,regulation of the pH, coagulation, flocculation and decantation). Only 11% of the industries carryout biological treatment.


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• 50% of the industries in the finishing subsector possess industrial pre-treatment plants for wa-ter, with estimated volumes of water dumped by this subsector at 7,502 m3/day.

• 31% of industries that deal with the washing of jeans also possess industrial pre-treatment plantsfor water.

It is commented within this chapter that the concentration of chlorides in wastewater variesbetween 500 and 5,500 mg/l according to the nature of the fibre treated.

Annual generation of waste and fate in the textiles sector

An overall estimate of the waste generated is made, classified in two categories: one representedby the finishing subsector, which generates a total of waste coming from auxiliary chemical pro-ducts (solids and liquids) of some 11,175 t/year and the other, represented by the companies thatwash jeans, which generates 17,103 t/year of pumice stone waste. This information comes fromthe INS and does not include the year referred to.


According to data supplied by the ANPE (FODEP department), during the period from 1994-2000, 260 companies have received aid from FODEP and 37 were from the textile sector. Theamount granted (20% of the investment) was 9,384,976 ¤5.

It is noted that there was little investment in equipment for the reduction of waste at source or forthe introduction of good housekeeping practices (only some cases outside the textile sector).

Common environmental practices for companies in the textiles sector

Concerning the degree of establishment of environmental practices aimed at preventing pollution,the information received refers to the dyeing, finishing and printing subsector which, as we havealready seen, are grouped in the same category.

10% of companies reuse finishing baths, 5% possess automatic colour laboratories, 40% applysystems for the prevention of the generation of out-of-date products, and 50% carry out pre-ventive maintenance of their facilities.


Tunisia possesses standard (NT 106,022) for the disposal of wastewater and a law for managementof solid waste (Law 96-41, of 10th June 1996). Tunisia possesses no legislation either for emissionsinto the atmosphere or for polluted soils.


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5 1 dinar = 0,764 ¤

3.1.15. Turkey

The information contained in this document has been supplied by the Bogazici University, with thecollaboration of Dr Nilgün Kiran Ciliz from the Institute of Environmental Sciences.



The cotton sector of the textiles industry is located in the following areas:

• The south east of Anatolia• The Aegean Sea (Izmir, Manisa) • Cukurova• The Mediterranean Sea (Antalya)


The information received concerning the main subsectors of the Turkish textiles industry classifiesthem according to the raw material used.

According to data referring to the period 1999-2000, Turkey is the world’s sixth largest producer ofcotton, and the fifth largest consumer. On the other hand, its cotton crops represent 6% of worldproduction.

With regard to woollen products, Turkey is the world’s fifth largest producer.

Concerning synthetic fibres, the main ones are polyester, polyamide and acrylic-type. Turkey isamong the top 10 producers of synthetic yarns (representing 15% of the capacity of the coun-tries of Western Europe).

According to data for 1997, the weight of each of the raw materials in the textiles sector was:

• Cotton (46%) (865,000 t in 1999-2000)• Synthetic fibres: (16%)• Wool (12%)• Others (26%)


In the information supplied, according to data from the year 1998, 20% of employment, 400,000workers, is provided by 650 companies that operate in the textiles sector. This information exclu-des small family businesses.

Of Turkey’s largest textiles companies, 15 belong to the cotton subsector, 5 to the wool subsector,5 to the synthetic fibres subsector and 4 to that of garment making.


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Turkey’s largest industrial sector is that of textiles and garment making which, in the year 1998,contributed 8.4% to the country’s GDP and constituted 11.5% of industrial products.



Development and enforcement of environmental laws and regulations is the responsibility of theMinistry of Environment. On a regional basis, environmental controls are carried out through re-gional environmental authorities that are connected to the Ministry. The wastewater discharge stan-dards are given under two different categories; 1) For the industries that discharge directly intoreceiving environments, the standards to receiving environments both for woven and knitted tex-tile products and also 2) For the companies that discharge their wastewaters to infrastructures thatresult with a proper wastewater treatment facility of deep-sea disposal. In addition to these, mu-nicipalities and Water and Wastewater Administration Departments in large cities/regions have theirown standards.

In regard to the enforcement of the regulations/standards, the following conclusions can be made:

In the rural areas where environmental control is less strict, where only the pH and temperature ofwaste are monitored, it may be said that infrastructures of environmental management are mini-mal.

On the other hand, the companies located in geographical areas where enforcement of regulationsand standards is carried out successfully have their own wastewater treatment plant due to the factthat they are subject to greater control. Moreover, it should be indicated that there are an increa-sing number of companies that have set the ISO 14001 certification as their target, and so they areworking to improve waste management.


Water consumption is greatly variable in accordance with the machinery employed, the com-plexity of the process, etc. Generally, it is at between 60 and 120 l/kg of material produced forcotton processes. This value can be up to 200 l/kg for woollen processes.


Costs vary according to the company’s geographical location.

In the Marmara region (especially for Istanbul and for some other places in the region) for exam-ple, companies pay a levy for both the water consumed and the water discharged. They also payfor the treatment of the water prior to the process as well as any treatment it may receive onceused. Thus, the amount of money given over to water is high in comparison with the company’sannual turnover. The total cost of water processing would be the equivalent of 0.98 ¤/m3.


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State aid

The information received indicates the proportion between the public investment made in thetextiles industry and the total for the industrial sector.

In 1998, the government invested 14.4% of its aid to the textiles industry. This percentage decrea-sed in 1999 to 4.2%. Investment made by the government in the industrial sector as a whole was48.7% in 1998 and 44.3% in 1999.


Most companies comply with the Eko-Tex 100 standard. There are a number of companies thataspire to ISO 14001 certification, and so they must comply with the applicable environmental stan-dards and implement systems of cleaner production. For example, they are starting to cease to usechemical products that are forbidden by the EU and to implement systems of collection and sto-rage of solid waste at the plants. Nevertheless, since legislation concerning this issue is less strict,the companies do not make so much effort to reduce the amount of energy, water and chemicalproducts they consume.

The degree of knowledge and application of clean technologies can be considered as being rela-tively high. However, areas where there is significant room for improvement can be appreciated.The identification of these areas by the textiles companies can occur when the appropriate in-formation is available.

The companies, in general, have generic information that can allow them to assess their envi-ronmental behaviour, but the information that is required to be able to take a decision to integrateclean technologies is of a different nature. The companies usually know how to generate such in-formation (for example, by means of the assessment of the functioning of its production proces-ses), but rarely is this information processed and transformed so that it promotes the applicationof clean technologies.

On the other hand, most companies process fabrics for third parties and so are limited regardingtheir capacity to plan production and the products they offer. The choice of their products and pro-duction schemes are greatly determined by their clients’ demands. For its survival, the sectorconsiders its ability to use existing equipment, with the necessary modifications, as effectivelyas possible as being crucial for different objectives. Although this point of view provides the ver-satility and flexibility considered to be crucial, it has a negative effect on the levels of efficiency andsignificantly limits the potential for improvement.


The development and application of environmental legislation is the responsibility of the Ministryof the Environment. On the regional scale, environmental controls are carried out by regional en-vironmental authorities that work in contact with the Ministry of the Environment. However, themunicipalities can also apply their own norms and make sure they are complied with providing theyare not laxer than the Ministry’s.


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Turkey possesses environmental legislation related to standards on wastewater discharge cri-teria/classification of wastewater, the elimination and management of waste and the control ofatmospheric emissions and other legislation on hazardous waste and control, solid waste ma-nagement, EIA etc.

Enforcement of legislation shows variations at the regional level. In certain regions (MarmaraRegion) most of the companies meet the limits of legislation. On the other hand, it is also indi-cated that in the broader industrial areas, less compliance with the regulations is required thanin areas where industry is isolated. It should also be noted that environmental legislation andits compliance is stricter in big cities than in smaller municipalities.

3.2. COMPARISON OF THE TEXTILES SECTOR AMONG THE MAP COUNTRIES

3.2.1. Introduction and preliminary comments

• It should be noted that the information received on the different aspects investigated in this study,relating to the textiles sector and in particular with the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectorsof the different countries that make up the Mediterranean Region, was remarkably diverse, bothdue to its type and origin and its representativeness in relation to the corresponding country asa whole. Thus, for example, in some cases, all information refers to a specific area of a country,while in others, data has been received which does not offer a breakdown of the subsector ofinterest.

• For these reasons, the comparative summary presented below may suffer some bias (deri-ved from the heterocliticity of the information received or its partial or even total absence insome cases) if we aim to perform a mechanical extrapolation on the Mediterranean Regionas a whole, since herein, only data received have been gathered and grouped together if theywere considered as being more or less concomitant. Further information may be consultedin the summaries that appear in the previous section to this report and in the original ques-tionnaires and additional information supplied by the different countries that participated inthis study.

• The aspects that are commented on below refer to production, economic social and labour sig-nificance of the textiles sector, with special emphasis on the dyeing and finishing and printingsubsectors, as well as existence of infrastructures of environmental treatment, consumption (ofwater, energy and chemical products and similar materials), the fate of wastewater and waste,the degree of establishment of good housekeeping practices, the existence of environmental lawsfor the different vectors and the availability of economic aid and/or subsidies for the introductionof a variety of environmental improvements.

• It is also important to consider that the information dealt with in the different epigraphs in thischapter comes from the questionnaires completed by those responsible in each of the countriesas well as additional information received.


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3.2.2. Production of the textiles sector and the dyeing, finishing and printingsubsectors in the countries of the Mediterranean Region

As can be seen in the previous chapters, most countries have not presented information concerningthe volume of production, and so the information received cannot be compared. On the other hand,it should be borne in mind that it is precisely the production factor (in the textiles sector and/or thesubsectors of interest) that determines when establishing quantitative relationships between diffe-rent environmental aspects such as water consumption, the production of waste products, etc.

Concerning the specific data received related to the production of the studied subsectors, somecases should be highlighted, such as that of Spain (whose annual production for the dyeing andfinishing and the printing subsectors is 550,000 t/year and 58,800 t/year, respectively), France (withan annual production just for the dyeing and finishing subsector of 300,000 t/year), Syria (with annualproduction for the dyeing, finishing and printing of wool of 120,000 t/year) and, on a smaller scale,Morocco (with annual production for dyeing, finishing and printing of 24,600 t/year), Egypt (with anannual production for the dyeing and finishing of wool of 19,000 t/year), Libya (with annual pro-duction of 15,900 t/year and 884 t/year for dyeing & finishing and printing respectively) and Croatia(with annual production for dyeing and finishing of 9,861 t/year).

Other countries, such as Algeria and Bosnia-Herzegovina, have provided more generic data on theproduction of the textiles industry as a whole. Thus, for the case of Algeria, the correspondingannual production is 427,312 t/year, while that of Bosnia-Herzegovina is of 431 t/year.

3.2.3. Contribution to the GDP of the textiles sector and the dyeing, finishingand printing subsectors in the countries of the Mediterranean Region

The economic significance of the textiles industry related to the GDP should be highlighted forTunisia (8%) Libya (10%), Turkey (8.4%) and, above all, the singular piece of data correspondingto the case of Syria (23%).

In the case of Morocco, the data provided refers to contribution to the Industrial GDP of the textileand leather sector, which is 17%.

In other countries, the contribution to GDP by the production of textiles is clearly lower, such asin Albania (3.7% for the textiles industry as a whole and 2.1% for the dyeing, finishing and printingsectors), Croatia (1.3%, only for the dyeing, finishing and printing subsector), Egypt (3% for thetextiles industry as a whole), Israel (1% for the textiles industry as a whole and 0.5% for the dyeing,finishing and printing subsectors), Malta (4% for the textiles industry as a whole) and Spain (1.8%for the textiles industry as a whole).

3.2.4. Employment significance of the textiles sector and the dyeing, finishingand printing subsectors in the countries of the Mediterranean Region

From the specific information received concerning the number of companies and workers who areactive in the textiles sector and, in particular, in the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors, in or-der to illustrate its socio-economic importance, the following data should be highlighted:


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Textile sector

Egypt (with 10,444 companies and 213,103 workers), Syria (with 8,893 companies and 77,886 wor-kers), Spain (with 7,615 companies and 278,200 workers), Tunisia (with 1,806 companies and 240,000workers), Morocco (with 1,440 companies; the number of workers is not available), France (with 1,300companies and 122,000 workers) and Turkey (with 650 companies and 400,000 workers).

Dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors

Spain (with 490 companies and 17,880 workers), Albania (with 251 companies and 3,762 workers),France (with 240 companies and 14,000 workers), Morocco (with 138 companies and 11,500 wor-kers) and Israel (with 22 companies and 1,300 workers).

It should be noted that the ratio between the number of workers and the number of companies inthe textiles sector indicates that the size of such companies, in general, should be situated in theframework of SMEs, although in the previous chapter, in some cases such as that of Egypt or Libya,there are also some large companies. This same trend can be observed for the companies in thedyeing and finishing subsectors with the peculiarity of the case of Israel, where it seems thatthe aforementioned ratio for the companies in these subsectors is far higher than that for the tex-tiles sector globally speaking.

3.2.5. Environmental management infrastructures in the countries of the Mediterranean Region

With regard to this section, the information received has been rather lacking in some cases (forexample, as far as the countries of the EU are concerned), probably as they are highly fragmen-ted in origin or due to other causes.

On the other hand, apparently, for all countries that have provided specific data (with the possi-ble exceptions of the cases of Egypt, for the wastewater treatment plants, urban solid waste land-fills and waste product valorisation plants, Morocco, for the wastewater treatment plants and theplants for reuse of packaging, Tunisia for the wastewater treatment plants and Albania with regardto urban solid waste landfills), the general lack of wastewater treatment plants, urban solid wastelandfills and valorisation plants and/or waste recycling plants is quite singular, bearing in mind thatthe data provided refer to all the productive sectors on the national scale.

3.2.6. Water consumption and source in the companies of the dyeing, finishingand printing subsectors in the countries of the Mediterranean Region

Data concerning the consumption and sources of water have been provided as being significantfor different countries: Albania (with an annual consumption of 49.6 Mm3/year of water from thenetwork and 28 Mm3/year of surface water), Algeria (with an annual consumption of 4.8 Mm3/yearof water from the network and 0.8 Mm3/year of ground water), Bosnia-Herzegovina (with an annualconsumption of 4.8 Mm3/year of water from the network), Croatia (with an annual consumption of1.8 Mm3/year of water from the network, 1.3 Mm3/year of surface water and 1 Mm3/year of ground


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water), Egypt (with an annual consumption of 400 Mm3/year of water from the network and 100Mm3/year of ground water), France (with a total annual consumption of 31 Mm3/year), Israel (with anannual consumption of 7 Mm3/year of water from the network), Libya (with an annual consumptionof 18 Mm3/year of water from the network and 0.3 Mm3/year of ground water), Malta (with an annualconsumption of 8,000 m3/year of water from the network and 8,659 m3/year of reused water),Morocco (with an annual consumption of 5.68 Mm3/year of water from the network and 4.42 Mm3/yearof ground water), Spain (with a total annual consumption of 55 Mm3/year) and Tunisia (with an annualconsumption of 3.4 Mm3/year of water from the network and 1 Mm3/year of ground water).

3.2.7. Energy consumption by the companies of the dyeing, finishing andprinting subsectors in the countries of the Mediterranean Region

As far as the consumption of energy and its different forms, the following aspects may be men-tioned:

Electrical energy consumption (in MWh/year)

Noteworthy are: Albania (124,200 MWh/year), Bosnia-Herzegovina (21,627 MWh/year), Croatia (150MWh/year), Egypt (1,100,000 MWh/year), France (495,500 MWh/year), Israel (458,300 MWh/year),Morocco (30,500 MWh/year) and Spain (1,014,775 MWh/year).

Diesel oil and fuel oil consumption

The following are worthy of mention: Albania (14,400 t diesel oil/year), Croatia (7000 t diesel oil+fueloil/year), Egypt (68,538 t diesel oil+fuel oil/year), Libya (361.8 t diesel oil/year and 1,180 t/fuel oil/year),Morocco (112,000 t fuel oil/year), Spain (2,300 t diesel oil/year and 9,400 t/fuel oil/year) and Syria(310,000 t diesel oil/year).

Natural gas consumption

Worthy of mention are: Croatia (9,000 m3/year), Egypt (500,000,000 m3/year), France (89,140,645m3/year) and Spain (7,872,000 m3/year).

The case of Morocco should be pointed out, since there is no consumption of natural gas but li-quefied petroleum gases (LPG) are consumed, basically propane and butane. No data referringto this consumption has been provided.

3.2.8. Consumption of chemical products and similar materials by thecompanies of the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectorsin the countries of the Mediterranean Region

The only comprehensive information available on this field was supplied by Albania, Algeria andSpain. The difference between the relative consumption of solvents in Spain and Albania wasextraordinary. Albania, with significantly lower production than Spain consumes over ten times


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more solvents than Spain. This may be due to the difference between the types of pigments andcolouring agents that are most frequently used in either case.

3.2.9. Wastewater generation and fate in the companies of the dyeing, finishingand printing subsectors in the countries of the Mediterranean Region

Regarding the production and treatment of wastewater, from the information received, the casescorresponding to Israel and Tunisia are noteworthy where it is indicated that practically all com-panies in the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors carry out some kind of treatment of theirwastewater at source.

The percentages of the application of this measure for the case of other countries varies between10 and 65%, specifically citing the cases of Albania at 10%, Algeria at 31%, Bosnia-Herzegovinaat 25%, Egypt at 65%, France at 65%, Morocco at 40%, Spain at 30% and Syria at 30%.

3.2.10. Waste generation and fate by the companies of the dyeing, finishing andprinting subsectors in the countries of the Mediterranean Region

The information received was quite unspecific and highly heterogeneous, with the followingcases being worthy of mention:

Albania

It is indicated that solid waste is disposed of at urban solid waste landfills, while liquids are dis-charged together with wastewater. On the other hand, the estimated quantities of waste pro-ducts and their types are presented. It seems, however, that recycling and valorization practicesare not contemplated.

Algeria

Information is given concerning the fact that 632.15 t/year of liquid auxiliary chemical productswaste are discharged with wastewater, 11,700 t/year of oils and 430.5 t/year of left-over fabrics arerecovered, 208 t/year of remains of containers are valorised and part of the 68.3 t/year of packagingwaste are recycled (the rest is disposed of at landfills) as well as the 13 t/year of other products.

Bosnia-Herzegovina

Similar generic information to that concerning Albania is presented, but without quoting the esti-mated quantities of waste production. As in the case of Albania, it seems that recycling and valo-rization practices are not contemplated either.

Egypt

Generically, the fate of waste, according to its nature, is indicated, with the following options beingcontemplated: controlled landfills, recycling, joint valorization and discharge in the wastewater.


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France

It is indicated that annually some 9 t of pigment waste as well as a variety of chemical productsand solvents are generated (a quantity which could be considered singularly low). In this case,we also cite the quantities that are produced annually of packaging waste, leftover fabrics andtreatment plant sludge (75% of which goes to compost, 25% is disposed of at landfills or incine-rated) and other unspecified waste products.

Israel

It is indicated that the annual production of waste that can be attributed to mineral salts (consi-dered a critical pollutant in Israel) totals 130,000 t (of which 3,202 are treated, while the rest, it isinferred, is disposed of at unloading points that may correspond to landfills). On the other hand, noinformation is given concerning the production of packaging waste, chemical products, etc., ge-nerated by the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors.

Libya

Only the total amount of waste has been indicated, corresponding to the whole textiles sectorof some specific areas.

Malta

Only data concerning the production of leftover fabric and treatment plant sludge by one industryis indicated. They are recycled and/or valorized and disposed of at landfills accordingly.

Morocco

The data presented correspond to the quantities generated of the following waste: colouring andpigment agents, inorganic salts, empty containers, packaging waste, leftover fabrics and sludgefrom rinsing baths, as well as the most frequent methods of waste management or treatment.Uncontrolled landfill is the most usual management system for waste pigment and colouringagents, auxiliaries and salts, while valorisation and/or recycling is more frequent in waste from pac-kaging and containers, leftover fabrics and sludge.

Spain

The data presented correspond to Catalonia (the country’s main textiles area, with 65% of all com-panies), indicating data concerning the annual production and the final fate of solid and liquid pig-ment and colouring agent waste, of solvents (distinguishing between those which are halogenatedand those which are non-halogenated), of chemical product containers, packaging remains, left-over fabrics, treatment plant sludge and others.

Syria

It is indicated that waste (supposedly solid) from the dyeing and finishing subsectors end up atpublic landfills. The quantities generated annually are unknown.


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Tunisia

A classification is made of the total waste produced (consisting of a variety of chemical products)in the finishing subsector (11,175 t/year) and in the jeans stone washing sector, which generates17,103 t/year of pumice stone. No information is given concerning the fate of these waste products.

3.2.11. Application of good housekeeping practices in production by thecompanies in the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectorsin the countries of the Mediterranean Region

The information received in this epigraph is broken down according to the different practicescontained herein. It should be noted that different data presented in this chapter correspond to es-timates:

• Companies with Environmental Management Systems (ISO-14001 or EMAS): the percen-tages corresponding to Spain (2%), Egypt (2%), Morocco (1%) and Syria (1%) are given withsimilar orders of magnitude. Italy indicates the existence of 9 certified companies in the Prato re-gion. Other countries report the non-existence of companies with certified EMS.

• Reuse of water: the effective percentages corresponding to Spain (50%), Egypt (60%), Morocco(1%), Israel (30%) and Syria (1%) are given, highlighting the proportion of companies that applythis strategy in the cases of Egypt and Spain.

• Reuse of baths: the effective percentages corresponding to Spain (50%), Egypt (15%), Morocco(60%), Israel (20%), Syria (1%) and Tunisia (10%) are given with greatly diverging orders of mag-nitude, highlighting the proportion of companies that apply this strategy in the cases of Israel,Morocco and Spain.

• Reuse of solvents: the effective percentages corresponding to Spain (10%) and Egypt (25%) aregiven. In the case of Morocco, the data is not available but it is mentioned that reuse of sol-vents is a frequent practice. For the remaining countries, either recycling is not carried out orno information has been supplied regarding recycling.

• Prevention of expiry: the effective percentages corresponding to Spain (70%) and Tunisia (40%)are given. For the remaining countries, either such practice is not carried out, or no informationhas been supplied in this respect.

• Automatic colour laboratories: the effective percentages corresponding to Egypt (10%), Spain(70%), Israel (100%), Morocco (2%) and Tunisia (5%) are given, highlighting the case of Israel.

• Automatic dosage: the effective percentages corresponding to Bosnia-Herzegovina (6%), Egypt(50%), Spain (50%), Morocco (30%) and Israel (100%) are given, highlighting the case of Israel.

• Recovery of printing pastes: the effective percentages corresponding to Spain and Israel aregiven, highlighting the case of Israel with a proportion of 100%, compared with that of Spain, at30%.

• Optimisation of the size of containers: the effective percentages corresponding to Egypt (3%),Spain (70%) and Israel (100%) are given, highlighting the case of Israel.


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• Preventive maintenance: the effective percentages corresponding to Egypt (10%), Spain (75%),Israel (50%), Morocco (85%), Syria (50%) and Tunisia (50%) are given, highlighting the cases ofMorocco and Spain.

• “On-line” process control systems: the effective percentages corresponding to Egypt (10%),Spain (70%), Morocco (99%) and Israel (100%) are given, highlighting the two latter cases.

• Water treatment at source: the effective percentages corresponding to Albania (10%), Bosnia-Herzegovina (26%), Egypt (20%), Spain (30%), Israel (100%), Morocco (5%) and Syria (15%) aregiven, highlighting the case of Israel.

3.2.12. Environmental legislation in the countries of the Mediterranean Region

In most countries there is a legislative framework in existence that encompasses the different en-vironmental fields, the only exceptions being those that refer to the case of Bosnia-Herzegovinawhich, due to the country’s special circumstances, has a set of environmental laws currently beingprepared, Albania (regarding wastewater and soil pollution), Algeria (as far as atmospheric emis-sions are concerned) and Tunisia (regarding waste and the soil pollution).

3.2.13. Aid and/or subsidy programmes relating to environmental issuesfor companies in the textiles sector in the countries of theMediterranean Region

In this section, of the information received deemed worthy of special mention is, on the one hand,the existence of an important programme of aid in Egypt, Morocco and, on a smaller scale, inBosnia-Herzegovina and Spain and, on the other hand, the total non-existence of such program-mes in countries such as Albania, Israel, Syria or Libya (the non-existence of aid for the lattercase is attributable to the fact that the companies are state companies).


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4.1. TEXTILES ENNOBLING

The textiles ennobling subsector includes all those industries whose main activity is to provide tex-tiles material with the suitable characteristics for their use as an intermediate or end product.

These characteristics are:

• Colour and technical specifications of the colour (fastness)• Lustre• Texture• Dimensional stability• Tailority

Generally speaking, the material is prepared for dyeing or printing, is dyed or printed and, then, thesizing and finishing processes are applied.

These processes are determined by a series of fundamental factors, such as:

• The fibres• The textile products (types of yarn and types of weave to make the fabrics)• The dyes• The auxiliary and chemical products• The temperature• The dyeing time• The machinery used• The water (quality and quantity)

The relationship between these factors depends on the following conditions:

• Each type of fibre requires a certain family of dyes

• Each fabric requires certain, more suitable handling conditions (in rope form or open-width)

• A cycle of temperature variation with time and specific physical-chemical conditions of theaqueous dye solution (pH, redox potential, conductivity, etc.), which together must be optimisedin each case, corresponds to the system which consists of the fibre, the dye and the type of ma-chine.

• The textile machinery conditions the type of textile product and the dye cycle temperatures thatare usable.

• The water affects the rest of factors.

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4. DESCRIPTION OF THE DYEING, FINISHING ANDPRINTING PROCESSES

The dyeing process may be optimised by varying the parameters to obtain a top quality dye at thelowest possible cost.

There are numerous dyeing systems and they include everything from consignment processes (bat-ches by a defined weight and length) to semicontinuous processes (open-width or in rope form) tocontinuous processes (open-width or in rope form).

Depending on the fibres and dyes used, dyeing is carried out at between 20º and 135ºC in high-temperature systems.

Types of fibre

Depending on their origin, fibres can be classified into:

• Natural fibres: these fibres are of vegetable or animal origin such as cotton, wool and silk.

• Chemical fibres of natural polymers: they are so denominated because they are fibres that are ar-tificially obtained from a natural polymer such as cellulose. Rayon, cellulose acetate, etc. areartificial fibres. Later in this document, they shall be referred to as cellulosic fibres.

• Chemical fibres of synthetic polymers: these are obtained by the organic synthesis of petro-chemical derivatives. They have a polymeric structure and among them, polyester, polyamide,acrylic fibres, polyolefin and spandex fibres are notable.

Textiles products

The dyeing of textiles fibres can be done on intermediate products or end products.

Below the most significant products are described:

• Cable: the parallel union of a high number of filaments, generally to be converted into cut fibre

• Flock: fibres of a length of 2 to 30 cm

• Flock: fibres of a length of less than 1 mm

• Rovings and slivers: the union of fibres which come from napping, combing or from the roving frames

• Parallel multifilament / textured multifilament

• Yarn: generally from the stretching with twist of an appropriate sliver. It is presented in hank orbobbin form

• Warp beam: parallel disposition in beam form of all yarn necessary for the manufacture of fa-bric of predetermined width

• Woven fabric: laminar textile structure generally formed by the orthoganal interweaving of warpthread, with weft threads

• Knitwear: laminar textile structure formed by the interweaving of one or more threads on thebase mesh structure


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ENNOBLING: DYEING, PRINTING & FINISHING

4.2. DYEING AND FINISHING PROCESSES

Here we present the basics of the most common dyeing and finishing processes. For each pro-cess, the most frequent unitary and auxiliary operations are analysed and the commonly used rawmaterials and chemical additives are identified.

Most operations are performed “wet” and take place in a receptacle or vat filled with liquid (usuallywater), into which the raw materials and additives have been dissolved or in which they are sus-pended. The textile material is submerged in this liquid. Immediately following this, this materialis pressed in order to remove the excess liquid, which is returned to the receptacle for reuse.

Next, the washing operations are carried out in order to eliminate the remains of additives whosepermanence in the material is not desired, so as not to hinder subsequent following operations.

Many operations such as colour scaling, the cleaning and preparation of the facilities, emptying,draining and rinsing the machinery, which is usually done before the processes, are not dealt within this chapter.

The machinery used depends on the type of operation and the form of presentation of the textilematerial.

4.2.1. Preparation

Preparation includes all operations prior to dyeing, whose aim is to ensure the physical and che-mical properties of both the finished textiles, and, in some situations, of the intermediate products,favouring the later reactions that take place in dyeing.

For this reason, some of these operations may be considered similar to the finishing operationsand, in fact, they are not very different at all.

Description of the dyeing, finishing and printing processes

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DYEING

DYEING

Flock

Yarn Fabric

Knitwear

Fabric

Knitwear

DYEING

PRINTING

DYEING

PRINTING

F

I

N

I

S

H

The aim, therefore, of preparation operations is to clean the textile materials of the impurities thatare present in them or to provide them with special qualities and characteristics.

Among preparation operations, the following are noteworthy:

• Mercerising• Scouring• Degreasing• Carbonisation• Fulling• Singeing• Quenching• Heat setting• Chemical washing• Solvent washing• Chemical bleaching• Optical bleaching

4.2.2. Description of the dyeing process

Aimed at modifying the colour of a textile element, in any form, through the application of dye ma-terial, for both continuous procedures and batch dyeing. In either of the two cases, the aim is toachieve the bath exhaustion and fixation of as much dye as possible to the fabric or textile element,to limit dye losses in the later washing stages, and during its use.

The application of any dye can be described according to the following stages:

• First stage: transfer of the dye from the dye bath to the fibre surface.

• Second stage: diffusion or migration of the dye molecules from the surface of the fibre to theinterior of the material to be dyed.

• Third stage: fixing of the dye on the reactive points of the fibre’s molecular structure.

Batch or discontinuous dyeing

In the case of discontinuous dyeing, which is also called exhaustion, the procedure consists of im-mersing a weight of fabric or yarn, normally between 100 and 1,000 kg, into the dye bath, whichcontains the dye solution of the auxiliary and chemical products. Given the affinity of the dyes forfibres, the molecules present in the solution are incorporated by the fibres, in a transfer that maytake anything from a few minutes to hours.

The use of chemical auxiliary additives, as well as the control of the bath environment (physi-cal variables, basically the temperature) can accelerate this operation and optimise it. Oncethe dye is fixed in the fibre, the fibre goes through a washing process in which both the dyewhich has not become fixed and the auxiliary products used to help the fixation process areeliminated.


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The theory of bath exhaustion

The maximum exhaustion that a given dye can reach is related to the affinity of the dye with thefibre and the bath ratio worked with, leading to the following equation:

E= K

K+LWhere:

E= exhaustion K= dye affinity L= bath ratio

Dye affinity is defined as: K= Cf/Cs

Cf= concentration of the dye in the fibre Cs= concentration of the dye in the solution

Both values obtained in the equilibrium stage at constant temperature.

The value of K may vary between 50 and 1,000 for different combinations of fibre and dyes.

The practical values of L oscillate between 5 and 30 depending on the way the bath is applied andthe machinery used. (From 1 kg textile cloth/5 l bath, to 1/30).

With these values, the coefficient E for exhaustion is obtained between 0.5 and 1, that is to say,between 50% and 100%.

In accordance with this approach, if the bath ratio is increased, exhaustion is reduced and, there-fore, the waste concentration of the exhausted bath is increased.

This effect is greater in the dyes which have a low affinity. Hence the importance of knowing theaffinity value and a correct operation.

That is to say, in order to reduce the dye content in wastewater, high-affinity dyes should be se-lected or the bath ratio must be reduced if the affinity is low.

The same dye can present different affinities for one or another fibre and, consequently, the ge-neralisation of the exhaustion associated to each dye is most difficult, and requires systematictesting in the laboratories of each industry.

Machinery used

Cabinets: the textile material (yarn in hank form) is static on a support, the bath in motion is drivenby a pump and the cabinet is at atmospheric pressure.

Autoclave: as in the previous case, the textile material remains static and the dye bath is in mo-tion. It consists of a horizontal or vertical cylindrical recipient with some supports onto which the


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different textile material, spun thread, flock or fabric are placed. The bath passes through thematerial driven by a circulation pump. The receptacle is closed and work is done under pres-sure.

Continuous dyeing

In the case of continuous dyeing, the textiles materials are fed continuously into a dyeing appa-ratus, at a speed of between 50 and 250 m/min. The apparatus consists of a first stage of incor-porating the dye, followed by the addition of the chemical auxiliaries, the application of heat toaid fixation and, later, the washing of the surplus, as in the case of discontinuous dyeing, thoughin this case, in continuous washing facilities.

Fixation in continuous processes is far faster than in batch dyeing, but it requires processing at le-ast 10,000 metres. Nevertheless, today, machines may be found on the market that are capable ofdyeing, in continuous form, lengths of material of only 2,000 metres.

Machinery used

Winch: this is used for fabric dyeing in rope form. The denomination of rope form refers to thepassage of the fabric through a ring, joining the ends. The fabric is in motion whereas the bathis static. It is composed of a cylinder of trapezoidal section, a driving element which performs theshifting of the fabric, and some bars to separate the rope in order to avoid malformations and jams.Currently this machine is substituted by Jets and Overflows.

“Jigger”: this machine which is used for the “open-width” dyeing of fabric by means of rollers thatroll it up and unroll it, passing it through the bath, while the latter is static. They may be atmos-pheric in order to work at 100ºC, while those that work under pressurised conditions may reach145ºC.

“Jet”: is a rope form dyeing machine. The fabric is set in motion by the action of a nozzle (hencethe denomination jet), through which the bath passes, where both the bath and the fabric are in si-multaneous movement. The high speed produced by the injection in the bath causes turbulence,which facilitates the penetration of the dye solution towards the interior of the fabric and goodequalisation of the dye, in a shorter space of time, and with lower water consumption than in theold winches.

“Airflow”: is similar to a “jet” but with the impulse of a mixture of air and dye solution, which allowsa more delicate treatment of the fabric. Water consumption is greatly reduced since only the ne-cessary amount of dye is added, eliminating the concept of bath accumulation.

“Overflow”: the fabric and the bath are in motion. As in the case of the “jets”, the bath acts on thefabric but in this case, the fabric is dragged by a winder and not just by the action of the nozzle.It is usually used for the dyeing of many types of fabric in rope form, from the most resistant to de-licate fabrics.

“Foulard”: this universal machine is used to impregnate the textile material with any liquid. It isdescribed in this chapter in order to present the “pad-steam” process.


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“Pad-steam”: this machine applies a steaming to a dye impregnation in a “foulard” machine. Inthis way, the dye is fixed on the fibre in a short period of time. It is often used in the dyeing of ce-llulosic fibres.

The dyeing process may be applied to any stage of the state of the textile element and to anytype of material.

Below is a table of all possible combinations of dye applications.

Table 6: Combination of possible dye operations

TYPE OF TEXTILES ELABORATION FIBRE CLASS

Flock and yarn Cotton and blends

Wool and blends

Cellulosic and blends

Synthetic fibres and blends

Fabric Cotton and blends

Wool and blends



Knitwear Cotton and blends

Wool and blends



Garment Cotton and blends

Wool and blends



Bulk polymer Synthetic fibres

4.2.3. Dyes used in the dyeing process

The families of dyes used for the dyeing of yarn, fabric and knitwear are the following:

Direct dyes

The dyeing operation with a direct dye consists of bringing the fibre into contact with the dyedissolved in water and heating to boiling point. In order to aid the operation, a neutral elec-trolyte is often added, such as sodium chloride or sulphate, and surfactant-type products (wettingagents, levelling agents, etc.). The direct dyes belong to several families of chemical compounds,and are characterised by being aromatic organic compounds containing sulphonic groups that actas solubilisers.


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Chemically, direct dyes belong to the following types:

• Azo dyes

• of diphenyl amines, such as benzidine, stilbene, aryl diamines, ureics, amides

• Thiazolic dyes

Insoluble azo dyes

The basis of dyeing with insoluble azo dyes lies in the formation of coloured pigment on the fibre,which is achieved when treating the textile, generally in two baths, with the two components thatform the dye. The first component, the so-called developer, is a naphthenic derivative that containsamino and hydroxyl groups.

Nowadays, mainly hydroxylated derivatives are used as developers, and so this dyeing is alsoknown as dyeing with naphtholes.

The textile material impregnated with the developer is put into a second bath in a diaze solution,which, when it reacts with the developer produces the insoluble azo dye on the fibre. This dyeingprocedure gives extraordinary wash fastness, far higher than that offered by direct dyes them-selves, though with far higher production costs.

Sulphur dyes

The chemical make-up of these dyes is not easy to define. They are given this name because theycontain sulphur, generally forming a chain (Ar-S-S-Ar’ or Ar-S-S-S-Ar’). The sulphur may be easilyoxidised to become sulphuric acid. The traditional dyes, which are generally low in cost, containa high concentration of impurities such as salts, sulphides and polysulphides. In an alkaline me-dium and in the presence of reductive agents, they are transformed into soluble leuco derivativeswhich are easily absorbed by the fibres.

The dyeing operation using these dyes consists of the following stages:

• Dissolving the dye using a reductive agent: sodium sulphide, sodium bisulphide, ammonium sulp-hide, sodium hydrosulphite or glucose.

• Dyeing with the addition of a neutral electrolyte, such as sodium chloride and wetting a-gents.

• Oxidation of the dye absorbed in the fibre with oxidising systems based on bromates, iodates,chlorites, potassium dichromate (practically out of use), peroxides or oxygen.

• Later treatment with metallic salts, detergent, sodium acetate or with sodium dichromateand acetic acid to increase the wash fastness of the colours against light, washing, rubbing,etc.


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Soluble sulphur dyes

This type of dye is a variant of the previous ones, synthesised with thiosulphate groups. Theformation of insoluble pigment is done by a reaction with sodium polysulphide in a secondbath.

These dyes are suitable for application in continuous mode following the sequence:

• Padding of the dye• Drying of fabric• Padding with sodium polysulphide• Washing• Soaping

Vat dyes

Of different chemical constitution (that may derive from indigo or from anthraquinone), they areinsoluble in water, and are transformed by reduction in an alkaline medium into hydrosoluble leu-co derivatives with substantiveness for textile fibres, on which they develop the prime colour byulterior oxidation.

The dyeing operation with these dyes consists of the following stages:

• Reduction of the dye with sodium hydrosulphite, formaldehyde or acetaldehyde sulphoxylate,using caustic soda as an alkali.

• Dyeing with the addition of electrolyte (common salt or sodium sulphate), wetting agents andlevelling agents.

• Oxidation by washing with cold water or treatment with oxygenated water or potassium dichro-mate and sulphuric acid.

• Later washing and soaping treatments.

Reactive dyes

Reactive dyes are one of the most used families of dyes for the dyeing of cotton, rayon and linenfabrics. Due to their inherent chemical characteristics, only a part of the dye which is added tothe dye bath reacts chemically with the fibre by means of a covalent bond. The rest of the dyereacts with the water and is known as hydrolysed dye. Part of the latter remains in the dye waste-water and the rest remains inside the fibre but does not have good fastness properties and so mustbe eliminated in successive soaping and hot rinsing operations.

Reactive dyes include the families of dichlorotriazines, monochlorotriazines, trichloropyridines, di-fluorochloropyrimidines, vinylsulphonics, etc.

The dye operation using these dyes consists of the following stages:


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• Absorption, analogous to the dyeing with direct dyes.

• Reaction, in which the dye chemically combines with the fibre by means of a covalent bond.

• Later treatment to eliminate the hydrolysed dye.

The application of these dyes can be done either in continuous mode or in batches, which, in thecase of yarn is usually done by packing in an autoclave.

The use of any of these systems with reactive dyes implies the consumption of certain chemi-cals, such as salt. In some cases, in continuous mode processes, urea is used due to its hygros-copic nature.

Specifically for wool, the operations are:

• Exhaustion dyeing, which may be used for flock, combing, hank and fabric spinning.

• Dyeing through padding-cold rest, only applicable for knitwear.

Acid dyes

These dyes colour the wool and proteic fibres in an acid or basic solution. They may be classifiedinto five large groups:

• Azo dyes• Anthraquinonic dyes• Derivatives of triphenylmethane• Azinic type• Xanthene type

The last two are frequently used in obtaining certain shades.

In the dyeing process with these dyes, several auxiliary agents are used such as:

• Levelling agents, which may be anionic compounds which are similar to the fibre or cationic orpseudocationic compounds, which are similar to the dyes, such as, for example, sulphated cas-tor oils, oleic and sulphated polycastor acids or alkylaryl sulphonates.

• Acetic or formic acid to exhaust the dye onto the fibre

• Sodium sulphate

• Ammonium sulphate

Premetallised dyes

These dyes are composed of a metal atom to which one or two molecules, generally of acid dye,are added, forming a co-ordination complex with affinity for the proteic and polyamidic fibres.The metal is usually chrome, although others may be used such as copper, nickel, cobalt, etc.


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The types of premetallised dyes developed are:

• Premetallised dyes 1:1, which dye in a strongly acid bath, formed of chrome and azoic-typedyes.

• Premetallised dyes 1:2, which are in turn divided into:- Premetallised dyes 1:2, which dye in a neutral bath and do not contain ionic solubiliser groups,

and for whose application ammonic salts are used to maintain the pH.- Premetallised dyes 1:2, which contain ionic solubiliser groups and, in addition to the acetate or

ammonium sulphate buffer, require an equaliser and pH adjustment with acetic acid.

Chrome dyes

The dyes pertaining to this type, which are also called chromable acid dyes, need the aid of achrome salt to be able to fix perfectly onto the fibre, and they may be classified into the followingchemical groups:

• Azo dyes• Anthraquinonic dyes• Triphenylmethanes• Others, such as derivatives of thiazine, of the oxazines and of xanthene

The most commonly used chromium salts are: anhydrous potassium dichromate, sodium dichro-mate and potassium chromate.

The procedure depends on the dyes used and the type of material dyed. The dichromate may beapplied to the wool before dyeing (pre-chroming procedure), with the dye in the same bath(simultaneous chroming procedure) or afterdyeing (afterchroming procedure). These procedureshave fallen into disuse and are only used in some very specific cases in place of the “low chro-me” procedure.

Disperse dyes

These are non-ionic organic compounds, almost insoluble in water, which are applied in aqueousdispersion, responding to the following structures:

• Dyes with azo groups, principally mono- and some di- azoderivatives, which encompass abroad range of shades.

• Nitrodiphenylamine dyes for yellows and oranges.

• Anthraquinonic dyes for oranges, greens and blues.

The dispersing agents (surfactants) used in the preparation and application of disperse dyesare:

• Esters of sulphuric acid, such as alkylsulphates in chains of 12-13 carbon atoms, sulphated oils,sulphated esters and amides.


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• Sulphonic derivatives, in which the radical chain may be alkyl, alkylaryl, amides, esters or lignins.Among the most commonly used are the derivatives of ß-naphthelene sulphonic acid and its pro-ducts of condensation with formaldehyde.

• Oxyethylene derivatives, for example, alkylaryl oxyethylenes and alkylamine oxyethylenes.

The application methods depend on the way that the textile materials are found. Dyeing can be do-ne by exhaustion at high temperature or with a carrier at temperatures of 100ºC. (The latter case istending to fall into disuse).

Traditionally, in the case of polyester, following dyeing at 130ºC, a reductive bath is necessary,which is performed at a lower temperature.

Cationic dyes

Cationic dyes are highly numerous organic based salts with a wide variety of chemical structures,among which the following are included:

• Derivatives of di- and triphenyl methane.

• Derivatives of diphenyl-amine which includes a series of dyes of a simple structure which belongto the family of azines, oxazines, tiazines, indamines, rhodamines, gallocyanines, etc.

• Azoic or anthraquinonic-type dyes.

• Dyes with a heterocyclic structure containing quaternary nitrogen.

Table 7: Combination of the types of dye used in different applications

DYE APPLICATIONS

TYPES Cotton Wool Cellulosic Synthetic

FI FA K FI FA K FI FA K FI FA K

Direct X X X - - - - X X - - -

Insoluble azo dyes X X X - - - - - - - - -

Sulphur dyes X X X - - - X X X - - -

Sulphur dyes (soluble type) - X - - - - - - X - - -

Vat X X X - - - - X X - - -

Co Reactive (cotton) X X X X - X - - -

Wo Reactive (wool) X X X

Acids - X X X X X - X - X X X

Premetallised - X - X X X - X - - - -

Chrome - - - X X X - - - - - -

Disperse - X X - - - - - - X X X

Cationic - X X - X X - X - X X X

FI: Fibre FA: Fabric K: Knitwear


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4.2.4. Processes of colour correction

The quality requirements regarding textile products are currently highly demanding. Among themarket requirements are the exactness of colour and the uniformity of aspect. Though the in-dustrial laboratories develop processes with the aim of getting things “Right first time”, when thisaim is not reached, corrective processes must be introduced:

• Added correction• Reoperation correction

Added correction

This consists of adding dye to the bath during the dyeing operation or totally or partially emptyingthe bath to replace it with a new one.

Reoperation correction

This consists of repeating the whole dyeing operation after its total or partial chemical dismantlingwhen the necessary quality has not been achieved. Normally, before repeating the operation, a priordrying process is carried out.

4.2.5. Description of the finishing process

Following dyeing, later treatments may be performed on the fabric in order to achieve special cha-racteristics for the end textile product.

The fabric’s characteristics may be changed by performing physical or mechanical treatments (dryfinishing processes) or by applying chemicals (wet sizing processes).

In some cases, the results could be achieved in any of both ways, as is the case of lustre. Inothers, only one possible way exists, as is the case of impermeability or fire-retardant quali-ties.

All wet treatments are principally based on the coating or impregnation of the fabric with differentsubstances, which may be applied indistinctly to bleached or dyed fabrics.

Normally, the wet finishing subprocesses follow the operations below:

• Application of the finishing products, by immersion in a bath containing the chemicals, and la-ter squeezing in the foulard; application of finishes using minimal impregnation techniques; foamsystems; scraper devices, etc.

• Fixation by the effect of temperature.


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4.2.6. Types of finishing subprocesses

4.2.6.1. Mechanical finishing

The most common mechanical finishing processes are described below:

Heat setting

This is a “dry” subprocess aimed at stabilising and contributing suitable properties to synthetic fa-brics, or to those that have a high proportion of synthetic material. When the thermoplastic fibresare thermostabilised, they keep their shape and width throughout the following finishing stages, inaddition, acquiring physical properties of resistance and elasticity making the garment more sui-table for its end use.

Brushing and raising

These are used to reduce the fabric’s shine due to rubbing against a surface, changing the appea-rance of the fabric, breaking some individual fibres by means of small hooks.

Softening or calendering

Calendering through the effect of the temperature and pressure gives rise to the softening of thesurface of the fabric and lustre increases. In calendering, the fabric passes between two or morecylinders, one of which is made of steel, while the others are made of very soft material (normallythe contact surface is cotton).

The steel cylinder may also be heated using gas or steam.

Embossing

This is an effect that may be achieved in a calender that has a cylinder with motifs in relief, whichare transferred to the fabric.

Chintz effect

This is one of the effects that may be achieved by means of a calender with a microgroovedcylinder, which gives the characteristic lustre to the treated fabrics. Luminosity may be given tothe fabric by compressing both surfaces of the fabric, which may be achieved by passing thefabric between the two calender cylinders. The lustre may be improved if the cylinders havegrooves.

Shearing

Shearing levels the height of pile or fibre by passing the fabric through a shearer. When the aim isto eliminate all fibres that protrude, the operation is known as levelling.


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Sanforizing

Using the principle of compressive shrinkage, the tendency of the fabric to shrink during its enduse is reduced, following a series of successive washes.

4.2.6.2. Chemical finishes

The most common chemical sizing processes have specific functions: softening, hydrophobing,waterproofing, flame-retardant treatment, bactericide, etc.

The main finishing subprocesses are as follows:

Chemical softening

Different types of softeners may be used:

• Cationic softeners such as: quaternary ammonium salts, amino esters and amino amides

• Non-ionic glycolic polyester or polyether glycol-type softeners

• Reactive softeners such as fatty acid amides and triazine derivatives

Anti-static treatment

The aim of this process is to reduce the static charge of synthetic fibres by means of treatment withan aqueous solution of anti-static agents (magnesium chloride, polyethylene glycol and polyalky-lene oxide).

Flame-retardant treatment

The aim of this process is to increase the fire resistance of textiles materials with the application offlame-retardant products (normally organophosphates and halogenated compounds).

Shrink-resistant treatment

The aim is to avoid diminishing dimensions due to external causes, especially by washing with wa-ter. The operation consists of relaxing the fabric in an aqueous medium, or by applying chemi-cals, normally resins.

Waterproofing

This consists of the treatment of the fibres with hydrophobic agents, that is to say, water re-pellents (silicones, fluorocarbons, paraffin emulsions with aluminium salts and zirconium,resins).


105 of 248

Crease resistant treatment

The aim of this process is to prevent fabrics from creasing easily with wear. This is achievedthrough cross-linking treatment - reactive products that are exempt of free formaldehyde, whichmay be applied by drying and heat condensation, or by polymerisation after the garment hasbeen made, among others.

Coating

This consists in the application to the fibres, on one or both sides, of a plastic layer (PVC, PVA,PUR, copolymers of vinyl acetate/chloride). The coating is applied thermally, in a layer, in such away that the coat fixes to the fabric through cooling.

Other textile coating operations are:

• Powder coating (thermoadhesive resins for interfacing)• Application of paste coating• Transfer coating

Rot proofing treatment, mothproofing and fungicide treatment

This consists of treating the fabric with an aqueous solution which contains between 0.1-0.25%of mildew-proofing, moth-proofing and fungicide agents, (chlorated aromatic hydrocarbons andcopper organic compounds). The moth-proofing treatment for wool is carried out during thedyeing process.

4.3. MAIN DYEING AND FINISHING PROCESSES

4.3.1. Dyeing of fibres and yarn

4.3.1.1. Cotton and blends

The process of the dyeing of cotton fibres and yarn (see Flow chart No.1) consists of the follo-wing operations:

• Scouring• Mercerising (caustisizing)• Optical and chemical bleaching• Colouring• Drying

Scouring

The scouring or cleaning operation aims to eliminate natural impurities contained in the fibre itself,such as waxes, pectins and hemicellulose elements, sizing agents and additives incorporated inthe spinning processes.


106 of 248

This operation is performed in continuous or discontinuous systems, through the action of an al-kali, such as caustic soda, alone, or along with detergent products to solubilise and/or emulsifythe cotton impurities, sequestrants and small quantities of reductive products, such as sodiumhydrosulphite. The discontinuous process is done in one or two stages.

Mercerising (caustisizing)

The mercerising operation consists of subjecting the cotton to the action of the concentrated caus-tic soda (28-30º Be), so as to provide it with some characteristics that it does not possess or thatit possesses in insufficient amounts, such as lustre, dye affinity, better dimensional stability, and an15-20% increase in the mechanical resistance of the yarn.

This is done by subjecting the threads to tension, during or after impregnation in caustic soda of30ºBe at temperatures lower than 20ºC and, later, successive washes are performed until theconcentration of soda has fallen to values that no longer modify the cotton any more. In order tofacilitate the impregnation of the cotton, anionic wetting agents are also added which can bephenolic or non-phenolic derivatives, the latter currently being the most commonly used, which arebased on sulphur esters of average molecular weight (4 to 12 atoms of carbon).

The final stage is the neutralisation of the alkaline remains, which are still contained in the thread,if the following operation is not to be performed at alkaline pH, generally with chlorhydric acid orsulphuric acid.

A commonly employed variant in the mercerising operation in the so-called caustisizing process,which is done with a lower concentration of soda, 18ºBe, the main objective of which is to increasethe cotton’s affinity for the dyes.

Caustisizing needs not be done in the mercerising machines themselves.

Optical and chemical bleaching

The chemical bleaching operation aims to eliminate the yellowish, reddish or brownish colourthat is still present in the cotton after the previous treatments, by means of the oxidising action ofcompounds derived from chlorine or peroxides.

It consists of bringing the fabric into contact with correctly defined oxidising solution, at a va-riable temperature and time, according to the process carried out (exhaustion, pad-steam,etc.) until the materials that colour the cotton are destroyed, causing minimal degradation to thefibre.

The oxidisers that usually used are sodium hypochlorite, sodium chlorite and hydrogen peroxide,which must be used in the presence of other products in order to regulate the pH and stabilise theirdecomposition.

These products are alkalis such as sodium silicate, sodium carbonate, trisodium phosphate, caus-tic soda, etc. when using sodium hypochlorite or hydrogen peroxide. Or acid-types, such as mo-nosodium phosphate, formic, acetic or oxalic acid, in the case of sodium chlorite.


107 of 248

Usually used in the bleaching operation, in addition to the previously mentioned products, areoptical bleachers, whose application means that higher degrees of whiteness and fastness may beobtained. Their action is based on the principle of fluorescence and must have chemical structu-res with an affinity for each of the fibres to which they are to be applied.

Most optical bleaching agents used can be placed into the following families:

• Coumarins• Stilbenes• Benizimidazoles• With heterocyclic nucleus• Naphthalenesulphonic acid derivatives• Other

After the bleaching operation, a series of rinses is carried out in order to eliminate all substancesused from the fabric and to totally develop the fibre’s whiteness.

Dyeing

The families of dyes used for cotton fibres, both when alone and when accompanied by other fi-bres, are the following:

• Direct dyes• Insoluble azo dyes• Sulphur dyes• Vat dyes• Reactive dyes

The auxiliary products used according to the type of dye are found in the Flow chart tableNo. 1.

Drying

Following dyeing, the last operation is drying which is generally performed in two stages:

• The mechanical elimination of water by means of hydro-extraction • Drying by applying thermal energy

Dryers may be:

• Convectors (chamber type)• By countercurrent (perforated tape-type in a tunnel)• By high frequency radiation or microwaves


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4.3.1.2. Wool and blends

The process of dyeing wool yarn fibres (see Flow chart No. 2) consists of the following opera-tions:

• Preparation of combing or spinning of wool and blends• Anti-felt treatment of combing• Degreasing• Optical and chemical bleaching• Centrifuging• Dyeing• Drying

Preparation of combing or spinning of wool and blends

The preparation of combing or spinning of wool and blends is done, when necessary, by means ofa series of mechanical operations such as: blending and recombing.

Anti-felt treatment of combing

The special combing treatments aim to reduce the tendency of wool to felt with use and the was-hing of garments and are normally done on wool which is to be used for knitwear, socks, sweaters,underwear or blankets.

All of these treatments modify the superficial structure of the wool fibre, hardly affecting the rest ofits properties.

The processes used in the special combing treatments may be divided into the followinggroups:

• Chlorination systems, which are the oldest, among which the following are included:

- The Negafel procedure, which employs sodium hypochlorite and formic acid, with later an-tichlorine treatment.

- Gas chlorination, which consists of subjecting the dry wool (< 10% humidity) to the action ofchlorine gas in the absence of air.

• Oxidation systems, which are more recent than the previous ones, among which the following areincluded:

- The Dylan procedure, with permonosulphuric acid followed by treatment with sodium sulphite.- The W B-7 procedure, based on the treatment of wool with potassium permanganate in a

concentrated solution of sodium sulphate and a subsequent treatment with sodium bisulphitein order to eliminate the manganese dioxide deposited on the wool.

• Fibre coating systems:

- Processes based on the application of ester copolymers and methalacrylic acids.


110 of 248

- The Wurlan process, based on the interfacial polymerisation of polyamides, polyesters, polyu-rethanes, etc.

- The Lanaset and Resloom process, consisting of depositing a thermoset resin on the woolfibre, obtained by the reaction of melanin and formaldehyde in the presence of acid ca-talysts.

Degreasing

The degreasing operations of both wool slivers and yarn are based on the use of generally alkali-ne solutions of sodium carbonate and soap. In degreasing, synthetic detergents are also used suchas fatty sulphated alcohols, sodium salts and non-ionic surfactants, at concentrations in propor-tion to the concentration of oils and other hydrophobic substances on the fibre.


The chemical bleaching operation, whose aim is to eliminate the natural colour of the wool fibre,may be done by means of:

• Reductive agents such as gas sulphurous anhydride, liquid sulphurous anhydride, sulphurousacid, sulphite, bisulphite and hydrosulphite.

• Oxidising agents such as oxygenated water and persalts.

As in the case of the cotton process (see section 4.3.1.1.) in the bleaching of wool fibres andyarn, optical bleaching agents of the same type as those mentioned in said process may also beused.

Centrifuging

The aim of centrifuging is to eliminate the majority of water contained in the fibre after wet treat-ments.

Dyeing

The families of dyes used for the dyeing of wool combing and yarn are:

• Acid dyes • Premetallised dyes• Chromable acid dyes• Reactive dyes

The auxiliary products used according to the type of dye are found in the table corresponding toFlow chart No. 2.


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Drying

Following dyeing, the last operation is drying, which is generally done in two stages:

• The mechanical elimination of water (hydro-extraction)• Drying by thermal energy

The dryers may be:

• By convection (chamber type)• By countercurrent (punched tape-type in tunnel)• By high frequency radiation or microwaves


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4.3.1.3. Cellulosics and blends

Rayon fibres may be dyed:

• By mass dyeing• By spinning (with blends)

Mass dyeing is done with the polymer in gel form during the polymer coagulation stage withinthe wet spinning process, which is what fibre producers call the form of continuous filament atthe stage at which a polymer is manufactured.

If dyeing is done with the fibre cut, the operation is similar to the process for dyeing cotton fibres(see section 4.3.1.1).

The operations are as follows (see Flow chart No. 3):

• Scouring or washing• Optical and chemical bleaching • Dyeing and finishing• Drying

Scouring or washing

Rayon fibres do not contain too many impurities and, in any case, they are fatty substances thatare added in order to facilitate the mechanical spinning process, which are easily extractable.Therefore, in many cases, the pre-wash has not been done as a separate operation and, if done,consists of an aqueous wash with anionic surfactants and sodium carbonate, followed by rinsingwith water with or without the addition of acetic acid.


The bleaching operation is only performed when the final colour is white given that rayon fibreshave a high degree of whiteness and are apt for their later dyeing. This operation is done bymeans of combined optical and chemical bleaching, using hydrogen peroxide in an alkaline me-dium or sodium chloride in acid medium and the optical bleaching agent, followed by rinsingwith water.

Dyeing

The dyes used for the yarn dyeing of cellulosic fibres are habitually reactive, and are applied in over30% of cases. The next most important are sulphur, direct and vat dyes.

Drying

The drying operation is similar to those done on cotton and wool yarn (see sections 4.3.1.1 and4.3.1.2).


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4.3.1.4. Synthetics and blends

The process for synthetic fibres (see Flow chart No. 3) basically consists of the following opera-tions:

• Scouring or washing• Steaming • Bleaching (only when necessary)• Dyeing• Drying

The scouring, bleaching and drying operations are identical to those for cellulosic fibres (see sec-tion 4.3.1.3).

Steaming

The steaming operation should be applied to the synthetic fibre yarn alone or in blends with wool,cotton or cellulosics as a treatment prior to dyeing. The aim is to free the synthetic fibres of the ten-sions to which they have been subjected in the course of drawing during spinning, and taking themthrough the process of thermal relaxation of the internal tensions to a state of balance that protectsthem from later deformation.

Dyeing

The dyeing of synthetic fibres is done using specific dyes for each type of fibre:

• Disperse dyes, for polyester, polyamides and acrylics• Acid dyes, for polyamides• Cationic dyes, for acrylics

In the case of polyester or blends, following dyeing, a reductive bath is normally carried out toeliminate the disperse dye which remains on the surface of the fibres. The main components of thisbath are usually:

• Caustic soda• Sodium hydrosulphite• Dispersing agent


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4.3.2. Dyeing and finishing of fabrics


The process of dyeing and finishing for cotton fibres and its blends (see Flow chart No. 4) basicallyconsists of the following operations:

• Singeing• Quenching• Scouring• Mercerising and rinsing• Optical and chemical bleaching• Drying• Heat setting• Dyeing and rinsing• Final drying• Finishing

Singeing

The singeing operation is also known as gassing or burning depending on the procedure used.Its aim is to eliminate the fibres and fuzz that protrude from the yarn and also from the fabric.

Quenching

Quenching or desizing aims to eliminate the pastes which are added to the warp for weaving.

Desizing procedures are selected according to the type of sizing in the fabric:

• Desizing of starch pastes

This treatment consists of using amylase-type enzymes to degrade the starch, at an adequatepH and established temperature. Sodium persulphate is also used as a desizing product.

• Desizing with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), (CMA), etc.

Since they are hydrosoluble pastes, they are directly eliminated by washing with a detergent ata suitable pH, depending on the case in question.

• Desizing of special pastes, which always require direct instructions from the manufacturer. Specialpastes are used to achieve high efficiency in weaving, for example on looms that insert the weftby means of a jet of water.

Scouring

The scouring operation on cotton aims to eliminate the natural impurities contained in the fibre it-self, which consist of waxes, pectins and hemicellulose. Treatment is carried out in discontinuous


117 of 248

or continuous systems by means of the action of an alkali, such as caustic soda alone or with de-tergent products, to solubilise and/or emulsify the impurities of the cotton, sequestrants and smallquantities of reductive products, such as sodium hydrosulphite. The process is also known as cot-ton boiling, and may be done in an autoclave at a temperature of 100ºC to 130-140ºC, for 2 to 8hours in discontinuous processes. A final rinse with water is needed in order to extract all the im-purities separated from the cotton.

Mercerising and bleaching

Mercerising and bleaching operations are similar to those described for the process of dyeingcotton yarn (see section 4.3.1.1).

Drying

If the fabric has a component of synthetic fibres, drying must be carried out in order to apply theheat setting process, unless the heat setting is done as the first operation.

Heat setting

Heat setting must be applied to all fabrics that contain synthetic fibres either on their own or inblends with natural or artificial fibres, as a treatment before dyeing or printing and as a final treat-ment. Its aim is to free the synthetic fibres of the tensions to which they have been subjected in thecourse of drawing during spinning and taking them through the process of thermal relaxation ofthe internal tensions to a state of balance that protects them from later deformation.

In order that no deformations are suffered during later hot processes, the fabric must not be sub-jected to treatment at a temperature higher than that of the heat setting process. It is performed ina stenter, with the fabric open-width in order to allow its relaxation and dimensional fixing.

Dyeing

The families of dyes used for the dyeing of cotton and blend fabrics are:

• Direct dyes• Insoluble azo dyes• Sulphur dyes• Soluble-type sulphur dyes• Vat dyes• Reactive dyes• Disperse dyes• Acid dyes• Cationic dyes• Premetallised dyes

The auxiliary products used depending on the type of dye are to be found in the table of Flow chartNo. 4.


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Final drying

The final drying operation is similar to that carried out for cotton fibres (see section 4.3.1.1).

Finishing

Cotton fibre fabric and blends thereof allow any of the following finishing processes:

• Mechanical:

- Calendering- Shearing- Brushing- Wetting- Raising - Palmer machine

• Chemical:

- Crease resistant treatment- Waterproofing- Softening- Hydrophobic- Wash and wear- Stain resistant treatment- Flame-retardant treatment


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The process of dyeing and finishing for wool fabrics and blends thereof (see Flow chart No. 5)basically consists of the following operations:

• Carbonisation• Chemical or solvent washing• Fixing• Fulling• Bleaching• Heat setting• Dyeing• Drying• Finishing

Carbonisation

Carbonisation aims to chemically eliminate the remains of cellulosic matter, which accompanywool as impurities.

It is done by impregnating the wool with strong mineral acids or with salts that generate theseacids, followed by drying and later treatment at a temperature of 105-115º C.

The carbonisation process of wool in continuous mode consists of the following stages:

• Impregnation with an aqueous solution of sulphuric acid and with the addition of a stable wettingagent in acid medium.

• Drying in two chambers, the first at 60º C and the second at 80 to 90º C.

• Carbonisation in an oven at 105-110º C.

• Beating in a beating machine in order to eliminate the carbonised vegetable particles adhered tothe wool.

• Neutralisation of the acid contained in the fibre, followed by a thorough wash in order to elimi-nate any excess of alkalinity on the fibre.

Chemical or solvent washing

The washing of wool fabric is an operation that can be performed and repeated at several momentsthroughout the process. Thus, for example, they are done on the material leaving the loom, onthe material leaving the fulling machine, or on the material leaving the dyeing stage.

It is used whenever necessary in order to eliminate traces of foreign substances, which have stillnot been removed from the fibre or that have deposited on the fabric by accident; or to neutralisethe bad smell that the fabric sometimes has.


121 of 248

The first case is especially interesting in dyeing, that is, washing the material leaving the loom. Thisoperation consists of eliminating the additional substances to the wool fibre during the spinningprocess and those that are temporarily added in the sizing of the warp yarn for weaving. The pro-cess is generally performed discontinuously with the fabric in rope form.

The solutions used in chemical washing depend on the type of residue or foreign substance thatthe fabric contains and, in general, may be grouped into two types:

• Neutral, consisting of water at 80-90º C in order to eliminate pastes and dextrines and activeanion detergents. They are used in the washing of articles dyed with acid dyes, which cannot bewashed using common processes since the dye would run.

• Alkaline, formed, in general, by sodium carbonate and soap.

Solvent washing may also be performed in order to eliminate the fats that are in the fibre, both re-sidual and oils and lubricants used to facilitate the weaving process.

The degreasers employed in solvent washing are mixtures of emulsions of organohalogenatedcompound solvents (trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene).

These exhausted solvents can be regenerated by a distillation process.

Fixing

The fixing operation includes a series of procedures that aim to achieve a certain degree of di-mensional stability of the wool fibre and its manufactured derivatives, yarns and fabrics whenthese are subjected to later wet treatments. Different “degrees of fixation” exist, depending on theintensity of the treatment, which shall depend on the “degree of stability” desired for the later wettreatment and thus, the following degrees and types may be considered:

• Cohesive fixation, which is the fixing that disappears when the fabric is left to relax in coldwater.

• Temporary fixation, which is when the stable fixing to relaxation in cold water, but not in hot wa-ter as an operation prior to dyeing.

• Permanent fixation, which is the stable fixing to the relaxation in hot water, as a finishing opera-tion.

There are two most commonly used industrial processes for fixing wool articles, as required asan operation prior to washing and dyeing treatments: fixing in a crabbing machine and fixing per-formed in a “decatising” machine.

• Fixing in a crabbing machine is done by making the fabric pass completely open-width throughboiling water, beaming it under pressure in a steel cylinder which is previously submerged in wa-ter at the desired temperature (70-100º C). Once beamed, it continues to turn in the boilingwater for the necessary length of time in order to achieve the degree of fixing required. Finally,the fabric is submerged in cold water to cool it, keeping it beamed in the same way. The solu-


122 of 248

tions used may vary from water to soap or alkaline, but generally, the treatment is done withjust water.

• Fixing in the decatising machine consists of beaming the woollen fabric accompanied by acotton or polyester fabric, in a copper cylinder with holes in it, to later subject it to the action ofsteam. The intensity of fixation depends on the length of time that the steam acts, the tempera-ture of the steam and the degree of cooling carried out on the fabric before unrolling.

Fulling

The fulling operation, also called milling or felting, consists of a progressive tangling process of thewool fibres caused by its flaky surface, giving rise to a dimensional change of the piece of fabricwhich translates into an increase in thickness and a reduction in length and width. This is appliedto worsteds and woollens.

It is done in the so-called fulling machine, in which the fabric, in endless rope form, is com-pressed in order to facilitate felting, which is produced in the presence of humidity and an acidor alkaline medium. The ideal values for felting in an alkaline medium are pH 10 and 44º C, andfor acid pH 0.5 and 44º C. In alkaline felting, it is preferable to use soap rather than sodium hy-droxide or carbonate, given that it acts as a lubricant facilitating considerably the movement ofthe fibres.


The operation of bleaching wool fabrics and blends has similar characteristics to those describedin section 4.3.1.2. for the process of dyeing wool fibres and yarn.

Heat setting

Heat setting of blended wool fabric with chemical fibres aims to achieve their dimensional stabilityat the same time as the fixation of the width and weight per square metre of fabric, by means ofheating to the temperature of heat setting and later cooling inside the stenter.

Dyeing

The families of dyes used for the dyeing of wool fabrics are:

• Cationic dyes

• Acid dyes

• Premetallised dyes

• Chrome dyes

• Reactive dyes for wool

The auxiliary products used according to the type of dye are found in the table of Flow chartNo. 5.


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Drying

As in the case of other processes, the drying operation is done after the wet treatments, gene-rally in two stages:

• Mechanical elimination of water• Drying using thermal energy

Finishing

Finishing is the last operation. In wool fabrics, mechanical finishing is most commonly applied:

• Permanent fixing• Raising• Shearing• Brushing• Wetting• Pressing• Decatising• Calendering


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4.3.3. Dyeing and finishing of knitwear

The production of knitwear requires efficient lubrication of the mechanical elements of the weavingmachine and the needles, which implies that the thread which is threaded through the needles du-ring the manufacturing process drags and retains part of the lubricants that are used.

Depending on the type of fibres that make up the knitted fabric, the textile ennobling processmay start with washing operations in an aqueous medium, or with heat treatment, generally in astenter, with the aim of dimensionally stabilising the knitted fabric (heat setting).


Tricot for underwear is usually made of 100% cotton or with a high proportion of cotton and an im-portant part of them are only bleached and receive a softening finishing process.

The dyeing processes that may be done on the garment or tricot item follow the same operations(except the desizing) as in the case of dyeing cotton fabrics (see section 4.3.2.1). On the otherhand, singeing, which is quite common in fabrics, is not so common for tricot.

Some cotton knitwear textiles may later be subjected to a printing process (see section 4.4).


The process of dyeing and finishing for wool knitwear and blends (see Flow chart No. 6) includesthe following operations:

• Washing / degreasing• Solvent washing• Optical and chemical bleaching• Dyeing and rinsing • Drying• Finishing

Washing/degreasing

The washing or degreasing of wool knitwear and blends is similar to that described in the pro-cess of dyeing and finishing for wool fabrics and blends (see section 4.3.2.2).

Solvent washing

Due to the fatty characteristics of most materials that contain wool fibres, their elimination is alsodone by means of chlorinated organic solvent washing, fundamentally trichloroethylene or per-chloroethylene, in which a small amount of water is emulsified. The washing process may bedone in batches or in continuous mode at facilities that incorporate systems to recover the solventthrough distillation.


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The bleaching operation for wool fabrics and blends has similar characteristics to those describedin section 4.3.1.2 for the process of dyeing wool fibres and yarn.

Dyeing and rinsing

The families of dyes used for the dyeing of wool knitwear:

• Cationic dyes• Acid dyes• Premetallised dyes• Chrome dyes• Reactive dyes


Drying

As in the case of other processes described, the drying operation is done after the wet treatments,generally in two stages. The types of dryers used are similar to those mentioned in the previoussections on drying.

Finishing

Lastly, the finishing operations for wool knitwear and blends are of the mechanical type, thesame as those applied to wool fabrics (see section 4.3.1.2).


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4.3.3.3. Cellulosic fibres and blends

The dyeing process for cellulosic knitted fabric and blends (see Flow chart No. 7) includes the fo-llowing operations:

• Scouring• Optical and chemical bleaching• Dyeing• Drying• Heat setting• Finishing

Scouring and bleaching

Scouring and bleaching operations are similar to those described for the cotton process for thedyeing of combing and yarn, in section 4.3.1.1.

Dyeing

Among the types of dyes used in this operation, the following are included:

• Direct dyes• Sulphur dyes• Soluble sulphur dyes• Vat dyes• Reactive dyes


Drying

As in the case of other processes described, the drying operation is done following wet treat-ments, generally in two stages. The types of dryers used are similar to those mentioned in sec-tion 4.3.2.1.

Heat setting

The heat setting operation, as we have previously commented (see section 4.3.1.4) is applied toknitwear that contains a high percentage of synthetic fibres.

Finishing

The finishing operations for cellulosic knitwear and blends, are similar to those mentioned in sec-tion 4.3.2.1 for the finishing of cotton fibres and blends.


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4.4. PRINTING AND FINISHING PROCESSES

4.4.1. Description of printing processes

Printing is another type of process in which colour is given to the fabric. This colouring is notdone uniformly but rather in the form of a drawing with the use of different technologies.

Printing techniques may be classified as follows:

Direct printing

Printing pastes contain the dyes with which the different colours of printed fabric are obtained.Generally, printing is done on fabric which is bleached and prepared for printing. Direct printing in-cludes a whole set of technologies:

• Direct printing with soluble dyes (the printing paste contains the suitable dyes for each type offibre to be printed).

• Direct printing with pigments (the printing paste contains binders and cross-linking agents whichare capable of physically fixing the pigment to most types of fibres and blends).

• Direct printing by transfer (a previously printed piece of paper using the direct technique with inksof sublimatable disperse dyes, brought into contact with a polyester fabric, by means of the ac-tion of the temperature and the pressure, the dyes are transferred to the fabric by a process ofsublimation.

Printing by corrosion

The printing paste contains corrosion agents of the dyes which have been previously applied tothe fabric by different procedures. They are divided into:

• White corrosion printing: The printed patterns are the result of the white corrosion of the dyesof the background of the fabric.

• Illuminated corrosion printing: in addition to the corrosion agents, the printing paste incorpora-tes dyes which are resistant to the corrosion agents and are capable of fixing onto the fabric.

Reserve printing

A reserve agent is printed onto the bleached fabric, which either totally or partially prevents the pe-netration of the dye during the fabric dyeing process.

One complementary criterion arises concerning the printing machinery, which is as follows:

• Long table• Rotating table• Garment printing machine: oval or star shaped


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• Automatic machine: flat screens or microperforated cylinders• Machine with gravure cylinders• Machine for printing carpets• Digital printing machine

4.4.2. Dye pastes used in the printing process

The printing pastes are composed of:

• Dyes• Thickeners• Auxiliary agents

Dyes

The dyes used in printing, as in dyeing, depend on the fibre to be worked with and the fastnessand other qualities required by the item, but, in printing, the method of application also has aneffect. In the following table, there is a breakdown of the commonly dyes used in the printingof different fibres.

Table 8: Combinations of dyes and pigments in printing

TYPES OF APPLICATIONS

DYES COTTON WOOL CELLULOSIC SYNTHETIC

Direct X - X -

Vat X - X -

Reactive X X X -

Acid - X - (PA)

Disperse - - - X

Premetallised - X - (PA)

Pigments X - X X

Thickeners

The thickeners used in textile printing may be natural or synthetic, however the former are morecommonly used, although synthetic and chemically modified natural thickeners are gaining im-portance for certain special applications.

The selection of thickeners for application in specific types of dyes depends, in general, on theprinting method and the type of fabric to be printed.

These are some of the thickeners used:

• Starches, dextrines and modified starches• Tragacanth


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• Senegal gum and gum arabic• Mucilage• Synthetic thickeners

Auxiliary agents

These are some of the auxiliary agents used:

• Mordants of vegetable origin, such as tannins

• Metal mordants, such as acetates, sulphoacetates and basic acetates of aluminium and iron

• Hydrotrope agents consisting of:- Short chain aromatic sulphonates- Products that contain carbonyl groups- The so-called ureic types (urea, formamide, acetamide, acetone, acetic ester, etc.)- Carriers of OH groups, such as mono- and polyvalent alcohols

• Corrosives:- Oxidants

The oxidants used most commonly as corrosives are: potassium dichromate, potassium chro-mate, sodium dichromate and chromate, sodium and potassium chlorate, potassium ferricya-nide, alkaline and aluminium bromates, persulphates and perborates and some peroxides suchas manganese and lead peroxide.

- Reductive agentsReductive agents have several applications: to reduce dyes such as indigo in order to beable to eliminate them albeit partially; and, in the case of azoic type dyes, to produce thedestruction of this group transforming the dye into practically colourless products.

Among the most commonly used reductive agents are: zinc powder, tin chloride, sodiumhydrosulphite, sodium formaldehyde sulphoxylate, glucose, alkaline sulphite and bisul-phite.

4.4.3. Main operations in the printing process

In the different printing systems (see Flow chart No. 8) all or part of the following operations areperformed:

• Fabric preparation• The printing of the different pastes (colours) and drying• Colour fixation (steaming)• Washing• Polymerisation • Finishing


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Fabric preparation

Preparation consists of auxiliary operations of the fabric, so that it will have high, uniform hydro-phility, and a fibre-free surface, and a suitable degree of whiteness.

Printing and drying

This consists of the application of the printing paste onto the textile material.

The printing techniques are:

• Direct• By corrosion • By reserve

In the case of direct printing or printing by corrosion, the drying process following printing isdone in different types of drying apparatus after the printing process, depending on the type of fi-bre and the operation implemented.

The most commonly used system today is that of drying the printed fabric with hot air.

In reserve printing, the fabric must be subjected to dyeing, and a later process of washing andfinishing.

Colour fixation

Fixation is carried out following printing and drying, to avoid the running of the colours or staining.

The most common fixation method is steaming. Its mission is to produce, by means of steam, asolubilisation of the dye, which, together with the temperature effect, facilitates the passage of thepaste to the fabric’s interior.

The conditions of steam pressure and temperature, steaming time, as well as the use of satu-rated or reheated steam depend on the type of fibre, the dye used and the printing operationimplemented. It is performed in chambers or autoclaves depending on whether the process is con-tinuous or discontinuous.

Washing

The function of washing is to eliminate the thickening agent used and all other components of theprinting pastes that are not fixed to the fabric, and the means of performing this depends on the fo-llowing four factors:

• The printing system• The type of dye• Thickener• Type of fabric


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Polymerisation

The polymerisation operation, whose aim is to polymerise and cross-link the binders in the systemof printing with pigments, consists of subjecting the printed textile in a hot air chamber to a tem-perature of 150-170º C for periods in the order of 5-6 minutes.

Sizing

The incorporation of chemicals that improve the characteristics of the fabric. For example, softe-ning, waterproof qualities, fire-retardant qualities, etc.

4.4.4. Other printing processes

Spray printing

Spray printing is a subprocess of relatively recent application. It consists of the application of thedye or pigment onto the fabric by aspersion with compressed air (by means of a gun), using anaqueous solution or in the presence of low-viscosity organic solvents, through a stencil contai-ning the design to be printed.

Following the application of the dye pigment, the print is air dried, which induces the replace-ment of aqueous formulas with others containing organic solvents which evaporate more quickly.The composition of the dye to be applied takes into account both the solvents used to fluidify thedispersion of the pigment and the resins that are necessary to bind the dye to the surface ofthe fabric.

4.4.5. Finishes of printed fabrics

Following printing, the same finishing processes as those used in the process of fabric dyeing maybe performed.


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HE

AT S

ETT

ING

PO

LYM

ER

ISAT

ION

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ricp

rep

ared

prin

ting

Prin

ted

fab

ricP

igm

ent

Res

ins

(bin

der

s/cr

oss-

linki

ng a

gs.)

Thic

kene

rA

dd

itive

s

Dye

/P

igm

ent

Org

anic

sol

vent

Em

ulsi

fier

Wat

erD

yes

Hyd

roto

pe

agen

tsTh

icke

ning

age

nts

Hea

t

Hot

air

Cor

rosi

ves

Ste

amW

ater

Det

erge

nts

Hea

t

DR

YIN

GP

OLY

ME

RIS

ATIO

N

Hea

tH

eat

The processes described in the previous chapter generate waste flows, which appear below in or-der of importance:

• Wastewater• Waste• Emissions into the atmosphere

Wastewater in general presents problems of colour, relatively high temperatures and high con-centrations of BOD5, COD, suspended solids, toxicity and conductivity. Its characteristics maypresent large variations due to the broad spectrum of dyes, pigments, auxiliary products andthe processes used.

Both the wastewater and the other waste flows are analysed in this chapter according to theirnature, and we present them as follows:

• Specific waste flows generated by the operations of the processes themselves• Associated waste flows• Other waste flows

5.1. MAIN WASTE FLOWS GENERATED BY THE PROCESSES

5.1.1. Dyeing of fibres and yarn

5.1.1.1. Cotton and blends (see Flow chart No. 9)

Wastewater

In the scouring operation, the water from rinsing and the bath itself has a high organic matter con-tent and alkalinity, due to the detergents used in basic medium, which, in addition, include all im-purities contained in the fibre itself such as waxes, fats, sodium salts and calcium salts.

Mercerising generates highly alkaline wash water, except if the alkaline traces that remain in thefibre are neutralised, and the wash water is then acid.

If anionic wetting agents have been used, they will be present in the wash wastewater. The ex-hausted bath, with high soda concentrations, is not mixed with the wash wastewater, but is reco-vered.

Wastewater that comes from the rinsing and the bleaching bath contain organic salts, traces ofoxidising agents and optical bleaching agents. If chlorine or chlorine compounds are used forbleaching, volatile organochlorine compounds are formed in the water.

137 of 248

5. IDENTIFICATION AND DESCRIPTIONOF WASTE FLOWS

Wastewater from the rinsing of the dye and the exhausted dye bath in addition to traces of dye,contain auxiliary products used as seen in the table of Flow chart No. 1.

The mixture of all the water from baths and washes, which contains all the auxiliary materials, dyesand impurities from the fibres, means that the integrated wastewater from the cotton fibre dyeingoperations has the following pollutant characterisation:

Table 9: Characterisation of cotton fibre dyeing wastewater

The main pollutants are listed in table 25.

Waste

In dye preparation waste may be generated if excess dye has been prepared.

Emissions into the atmosphere

In scouring, alkaline vapour emissions are released into the atmosphere, which are given off in theboiling process, between 50 and 100º C.

In dyeing operations, volatile organic compound emissions are produced.

The drying operation produces the emission of water vapour and volatile organic compounds.


138 of 248

PARAMETER RANGE OF CONCENTRATION

pH 10-12

COD mg/l 800-1,200

BOD5 mg/l 200-400

Suspended solids mg/l 50-100

Colour mg Pt- Co/l 300-1,000

M.I. equitox/m3 3-10

Conductivity µS/cm 3,000-6,000

Table 10: Origin of wasteflowsCotton fibre dyeing process

OPERATION WASTEWATER WASTEEMISSIONS INTOTHE ATMOSPHERE

COD AlkalineScouring Alkalinity — vapours

Dirt from fibres

Scouring rinse COD — —Alkalinity

Mercerising Alkalinity (*) — —

Mercerising rinse COD — —Alkalinity

Oxidising agents VapoursOptical and chemical bleaching AOX — Aerosols

COD

Dye preparation — Remains of dyes —

Colour VapoursDyeing and rinsing COD — Aerosols

(+)

Drying — — Water vapourVOCs

(*) If soda is not reused(+) See table Flow chart No. 1

Identification and description of waste flows

139 of 248


140 of 248

Flo

w c

hart

No

. 9FL

OW

CH

AR

T O

F D

YE

ING

PR

OC

ES

S F

OR

CO

TT

ON

FIB

RE

& B

LEN

DS

SC

OU

RIN

GR

INS

ING

RIN

SIN

GR

INS

ING

DY

E

PR

EPA

RAT

ION

ME

RC

ER

ISIN

G(C

AU

STI

SIZ

ING

)

CH

EM

ICA

L&

OP

TIC

AL

BLE

AC

HIN

GD

YE

ING

DR

YIN

GC

otto

nya

rn

Dye

dco

tton

yarn

Alk

alin

e st

eam

Bas

ic p

hD

eter

gent

Wax

esFa

tsS

odiu

m s

alts

Cal

cium

sal

ts

Dye

res

idue

s

Ste

am /

Aer

osol

sW

ater

vap

our

VO

Cs

Ste

am /

Aer

osol

s

Bat

h to

be

reus

edN

aOH

Bas

ic p

HO

rgan

ic m

atte

r

Bas

ic /

aci

d p

HO

xid

isin

g ag

ents

Op

tical

ble

achi

ngag

ents

AO

XO

rgan

ic m

atte

r

EM

PTY

ING

See

tab

le F

lox

char

t N

o. 1

5.1.1.2. Wool and blends (see Flow chart No. 10)

Wastewater

The special treatment operation for combed yarns generates acid wastewater, with the pre-sence of oxidising agents or reductive agents and, if chlorination is used, of organochlorine com-pounds.

The degreasing operation incorporates detergents and wetting agents into the rinse water, inaddition to alkaline solutions of sodium carbonate and soap, and so the wastewater contains or-ganic matter, basicity and conductivity.

Optical and chemical bleaching generates wastewater in accordance with the use of the re-ductive or oxidising process, including traces of optical bleaching agents if they are used.

In the centrifuge operation, wastewater has the same characteristics as the rinse water from thebleaching rinse.

In dyeing operations, in addition to the dye used, the auxiliary materials are present in the rinsewastewater, which may be seen in the table attached in Flow chart No. 2.

The incorporation of all of these auxiliary materials, from the preparation and wool yarn dyeing ope-rations to contribute the following pollutant characteristics of the wastewater:

Table 11: Characterisation of wastewater from wool fibre and yarn dyeing


Waste

In combing and spinning preparation operations, remains of fibre and lint are produced.

In dye preparation, waste may be generated if excess dye has been prepared.


141 of 248


pH 10-12

COD mg/l 500-900

BOD5 mg/l 150-300






Vapours and aerosols are produced in the following operations:

• Special treatments• Degreasing• Optical and chemical bleaching• Dyeing• Drying

If gas chlorination is used in the special treatment, chlorine gas is emitted.

If the bleaching method is used by means of reductive agents, sulphur dioxide may be emitted,and the same is true of the dyeing operation if sulphur dyes are used.

Table 12: Origin of wasteflowsWool yarn dyeing process


Combing preparation — Fibres FibresLint Lint

Spinning preparation — Fibres FibresLint Lint

Special treatments Acidity — VapoursAOX(*) Aerosols

Oxidising / Chlorine(*)reductive agents

COD

Degreasing Basicity — VapoursCOD Aerosols

Conductivity

Optical and chemical bleaching Oxidising / — Vapoursreductive agents Aerosols

COD SO2(**)

Centrifuging Oxidising / — —reductive agents

COD


Dyeing and rinsing Colour — VapoursCOD Aerosols(+)


(*) Chlorination treatment(**) Bleaching using reductive agents(+) See table Flow chart No. 2


142 of 248


143 of 248

Flo

w c

hart

No

. 10

FLO

W C

HA

RT

OF

DY

EIN

G P

RO

CE

SS

FO

R W

OO

L A

ND

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ND

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ES

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D Y

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N

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IAL

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E

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ION

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AL

& O

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ING

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lin

sliv

ers

Woo

lin

floc

k

Dye

dflo

ck

Dye

dco

mb

ed

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res

Lint

Dye

was

te

Wat

er v

apou

rV

OC

s

Fib

res

Lint

Vap

ours

Aer

osol

s

Vap

ours

Aer

osol

s

Vap

ours

/ A

eros

ols

Chl

orin

e (o

ptio

nal)

Red

uctiv

e p

rod

ucts

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dis

ing

pro

duc

tsO

rgan

ic c

omp

ound

sA

OX

Aci

d p

H

Vap

ours

/ A

eros

ols

SO

2

Wet

ting

agen

tsD

eter

gent

s

Red

ucti

ve a

gs.

Red

uctiv

e p

rod

.O

ptic

al b

leac

hing

agen

ts

Oxi

dan

tsO

xid

isin

g p

rod

ucts

Op

tical

ble

achi

ngag

ents

EM

PTY

ING

See

tab

le F

low

Cha

rt N

o. 2

5.1.1.3. Cellulosics and blends (see Flow chart No. 11)

Wastewater

The scouring, washing and bleaching operations, under normal conditions, are not carried outas separate operations. In many cases, advantage is taken of the dyeing operation itself in orderto eliminate the chemical fibre impurities. This is due to the fact that the fibres do not contain im-purities given that they have already been synthesised by chemical reaction and, in any case, onlycontain fatty substances to enhance the mechanical process of spinning.

Scouring, washing or bleaching operations ought to be performed when, in the technician’s opi-nion, it is essential as a consequence of accidental staining, yellowing through storage in impro-per conditions, etc.

The water from the dye rinse, in addition to the dye, contains auxiliary materials, according to thetable of Flow chart No. 3.

The wastewater from cellulosic fibre dyeing operations has the following characteristics:

Table 13: Characterisation of wastewater cellulosic fibre dyeing

Waste

In the preparation of the dye, waste may be generated if excess dye has been prepared.


Vapours and aerosols are produced in the following operations:

• Optical and chemical bleaching• Dyeing• Drying

Emissions of volatile organic compounds may also be produced.


144 of 248


pH 10-12

COD mg/l 500-900

BOD5 mg/l 150-300





Table 14: Origin of wasteflowsCellulosic fibre dyeing process


Scouring / washing and rinsing COD — AlkalineAlkalinity vapours

Optical and chemical bleaching (*) Oxidising agents — VapoursCOD Aerosols

Dye preparation — Traces of dyes —



(*) Only done for final white colour(+) See table Flow chart No. 3

5.1.1.4. Synthetics and blends (see Flow chart No. 11)

Wastewater

Wastewater generated in the dyeing of synthetic fibres does not present any problem and pollu-tants may be assimilated by the cellulosic fibre dyeing water. Optionally, acetic acid is used withthe rinsing of the scouring operation.

Waste

In the dye preparation operation waste may be generated if excess dye has been prepared.


Emissions are the same as in the process of dyeing cellulosic fibres. Additionally, there is a signi-ficant focus in the heat setting operation.


145 of 248


146 of 248

Flo

w c

hart

No

. 11

FLO

W C

HA

RT

OF

CE

LLU

LOS

IC /

SY

NT

HE

TIC

FIB

RE

DY

EIN

G P

RO

CE

SS

SC

OU

RIN

G(W

AS

HIN

G)

RIN

SIN

GR

INS

ING

DY

E

PR

EPA

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ION

CH

EM

ICA

L&

OP

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BLE

AC

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GD

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ING

DR

YIN

GC

ellu

losi

cfib

reya

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dya

rn

Sp

inni

ngsy

nthe

ticfib

re

RIN

SIN

G

RIN

SIN

G

Alk

alin

e va

pou

rs

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HS

urfa

ctan

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rgan

ic m

atte

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Dye

was

te

SC

OU

RIN

GS

TEA

MIN

G

Bas

ic p

HS

urfa

ctan

tsO

rgan

ic m

atte

r

Alk

alin

e va

pou

rsW

ater

vap

our

VO

Cs

Vap

ours

/A

eros

ols

Wat

er v

apou

rV

OC

sVa

pou

rs /

Aer

osol

s

Aci

d o

r b

asic

pH

Oxi

dis

ing

pro

duc

tsO

ptic

al b

leac

hing

age

nts

Org

anic

mat

ter

EM

PTY

ING

See

tab

le F

low

cha

rt N

o. 3

5.1.2. Dyeing and finishing of fabrics

5.1.2.1. Cotton and blends (see Flow chart No. 12)

Wastewater

The quenching and steaming operation is one of the main sources of pollution in the later rinsewater. Starch pastes are hydrolysed and incorporated into the wastewater in the form of orga-nic matter.

The scouring operation also incorporates all of the impurities contained in the fabric into the wa-ter, consisting of waxes, fats, sodium and calcium salts, apart from the products used in the ope-ration, such as caustic soda and detergents, and so the rinse wastewater is basic and has a highorganic matter content and conductivity.

Mercerising and bleaching generate similar wastewater to that generated by these same ope-rations in the process of dyeing cotton fibres (see chapter 5.1.1.1).

The procedure used in the dyeing of cotton fabrics depends on the type of dye used. In the tableof Flow chart No. 4, there is a list of the pollutants used as auxiliaries that are incorporated into thewastewater. Although the pollutant load of the dye baths and later rinses is qualitatively equal,the concentration of the different pollutants is obviously far higher in the dye baths. In general,we may speak of high organic matter content, colour and conductivity. The pH may be basic oracid depending on the dyes used and in some cases, there may be metals.

Chemical finishing operations pass large quantities of products that are hardly biodegradableinto the wastewater. Some products used, such as mothproofing treatment products, mildew-proofing products are similar to pesticides and biocides.

The characterisation of the wastewater generated by the dyeing and finishing of cotton fabric is asfollows:

Table 15: Characterisation of cotton fabric dyeing and finishing wastewater


The dyeing and finishing of cotton fabrics generate wastewater with highest concentrations oforganic matter (BOD5 and COD) and also greatest coloration.


147 of 248


pH 10-12

COD mg/l 1,500-2,800

BOD5 mg/l 400-900


Colour mg Pt- Co/l 1,000-3,000



The desizing operation is responsible for 50%-75% of the pollutant load due to the organic matterof global effluents.

Another characteristic of wastewater is its alkalinity, with pHs of between 10-12. This is principallydue to desizing, mercerising, bleaching and dyeing with reactive, vat and sulphur dyes.

Waste

In the dye preparation operation waste may be generated if excess dye has been prepared.

In mechanical finishing processes, fibre dust may be generated which, if collected by end-of-pipe filtration/cyclone systems, becomes a waste product.


The singeing operation generates combustion gases.

The scouring and mercerising operations, as in the cotton fibre and yarn dyeing process, emitbasic and corrosive vapours into the atmosphere.

Heat setting, drying and finishing operations generate the emission of hydrocarbons, volatile or-ganic products, since these operations may reach temperatures of 200º C. Here the most signifi-cant factor is the finishing vapours.

In the case of mechanical finishing, as has been previously mentioned, fibre dust may be gene-rated.


148 of 248

Table 16: Origin of waste flowsCotton fabric dyeing and finishing process


Singeing — — Combustion gases

CODQuenching and steaming BOD — Vapours

Alkalinity

CODScouring and rinsing Alkalinity — Alkaline vapours

Dirt from fibres

Mercerising and rinsing COD — —Alkalinity

Oxidising agents VapoursOptical and chemical bleaching AOX — Aerosols

COD


Heat setting — — Water vapourVOCs


ColourDyeing and rinsing COD — Vapours

Alkalinity Aerosols(+)


High COD Fibres VOCsFinishing Low BOD5 Lint Fibre particles

(*) and dust

(+) See table Flow chart No. 4(*) Specific pollutant load according to type of finish


149 of 248


150 of 248

Flo

w c

hart

No

. 12

FLO

W C

HA

RT

OF

DY

EIN

G &

FIN

ISH

ING

PR

OC

ES

S F

OR

CO

TT

ON

FA

BR

ICS

& B

LEN

DS

SC

OU

RIN

G

ME

RC

ER

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G&

RIN

SIN

G

SIN

GE

ING

RIN

SIN

G

DY

E

PR

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L&

OP

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AC

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DY

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G &

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DR

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GH

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RA

WFA

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IC

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FAB

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alin

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pou

rs

Bas

ic p

HD

eter

gent

sO

rgan

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atte

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ond

uctiv

ity

Dye

was

te

Aci

d/b

asic

pH

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dis

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agen

tsA

OX

op

tical

ble

ache

rsO

rgan

ic m

atte

r

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ceris

ing

bat

hre

use

Rin

sing

: NaO

H, b

asic

pH

,or

gani

c m

atte

r

QU

EN

CH

ING

RIN

SIN

G

Nat

ural

pas

tes

Syn

thet

ic p

aste

sO

rgan

ic m

atte

rA

lkal

inity

Com

bus

tion

gase

s

Vap

ours

Vap

ours

/ A

eros

ols

Fib

res

/ Li

nt

AO

XS

urfa

ctan

tsFa

ts

Par

ticle

s /

VO

Cs

Wat

er v

apou

rV

OC

s

Wat

er v

apou

rV

OC

s

Wat

er v

apou

rV

OC

s

Vap

ours

/ae

roso

ls

See

tab

le F

low

cha

rt N

o. 4


Wastewater

Carbonisation generates acid water from the impregnation of the fabric and, later, basic washwater for the neutralisation of the fibres of the fabric.

The chemical washing of wool fabric and its rinsing produce wastewater, which, depending onthe type of solution used, may be neutral or alkaline. This water also incorporates waste and fo-reign substances contained in the fabric.

The solvent washing operation in the most conflictive due to the discharge of tetrachloroethyleneand trichloroethylene emulsified with water, which ends up in wastewater. These products arestrictly regulated by some public administrations.

The fulling operation is done in acid medium, at pH 0.5. The later washing process, therefore,generates acid water.

The bleaching of wool fabrics generates the same effluents described in section 5.1.1.2 for theprocess of wool fibres and yarn.

Dyeing generates the same emissions and discharge that are specific to the dyes used. The au-xiliary products that are transferred to the wastewater are listed in Flow chart No. 5. Singularly, themoth-proofing treatment finish, necessary for wool fabrics, is applied together with the dye and notat the end, as with the rest of the finishing processes. The products used are toxic and their activeingredients are similar to pesticides and biocides.

The finishing operation applied to woollen fabric includes mechanical finishing processes that aredone dry and therefore, do not generate wastewater.

All of these operations mean that the wastewater generated in these processes has the followingcharacterisation:

Table 17: Characterisation of wool fabrics dyeing and finishing wastewater



151 of 248


pH 6-7

COD mg/l 300-1,500

BOD5 mg/l 250-500





Normally, wool yarn and blends do not need sizing in order to obtain high weaving yield. Thereforethe desizing operation should in general not be carried out before dyeing or finishing. Consequently,the effluents of this process have a lower organic matter content than the cotton fabric dyeing pro-cess.

The general characteristics of the effluents of this process are:

• A lower concentration of organic matter (COD and BOD5) than in the cotton process

• Less coloration of effluents than that from the cotton process

• Effluent pH between neutral to slightly acid

• If moth-proofing finishes are given, there may be point concentrations of toxic products

Waste

The beating stage of the carbonisation operation collects the carbonised vegetable particles.

The dye preparation operation may produce surplus dye waste.

The solvent washing operation generates exhausted solvents that can be recovered by disti-lling. If these solvents are recovered at source, the distillation bottoms shall be generated aswaste products.

Mechanical finishing operations generate fibres and lint.


Carbonisation produces combustion gases with acid vapour and drying produces gases contai-ning volatile organic compounds.

As we have shown for the section on wastewater, in the solvent washing operation, organochlo-rine compounds are highly volatile and as a consequence, vaporisation into the atmosphere is pro-duced.

Mechanical finishing operations generate fibres and fibre dust.

For remaining operations, the same gas emissions are generated as in the wool fibre dyeing pro-cess, according to section 5.1.1.2.


152 of 248

Table 18: Origin of waste flowsWool fabrics dyeing and finishing process


Carbonisation Alkalinity/Acidity Carbonised vegetable Acid vapourCOD particles Combustion gases

AlkalinityChemical washing COD — —

Conductivity

Fatty emulsions Exhausted TRI, PER Solvent washing AOX (TRI, PER) Distillation pastes TRI, PER vapours

Toxicity TRI, PER


Fulling and washing Acidity — —COD

Fixing — — Water vapour

Oxidising / VapoursOptical and chemical bleaching reductive agents — Aerosols

COD SO2 (*)

Dye preparation — Traces of dyes —

Colour VapoursDyeing and rinsing COD — Aerosols

(+)


(halogenated)

Finishing — Fibres Fibre particlesLint and dust

(*) Bleaching using reductive agents(+) See table Flow chart No. 5


153 of 248


154 of 248

Flo

w c

hart

No

. 13

FLO

W C

HA

RT

OF

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EIN

G &

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ISH

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PR

OC

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S F

OR

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& B

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AT S

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AS

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te

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d/b

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pH

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erge

nts

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ting

agen

tsO

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emul

sion

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city

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d v

apou

rsC

omb

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ours

/ A

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2

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tab

lep

artic

les

TRI,

PE

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pou

rs

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er v

apou

r

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er v

apou

rV

OC

s (h

alog

enat

ed)

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dan

tsO

ptic

alb

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age

nts

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ticle

s &

dus

t fr

om fi

bre

s

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res

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ucti

ve a

gen

tsO

ptic

al b

leac

hing

age

nts

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ours

/A

eros

ols

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d p

HO

rgan

ic m

atte

rD

eter

gent

s

Exh

aust

ed T

RI,

PE

RD

istil

latio

n b

otto

ms

TRI,

PE

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Det

erge

nts

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anic

mat

ter

Wat

er v

apou

rV

OC

s

See

tab

leFl

ow c

hart

No.

5

5.1.3. Dyeing of knitwear

Depending on the type of fibres that make up the knitted fabric, the textile ennobling process canbegin with washing operations in aqueous medium, or with heat treatment, generally in a stenter,with the aim of dimensionally stabilising the knitted fabric.

In the latter case, the most volatile components of the oils used for the manufacture of knitted fabricmay give rise to fume emission. The engineer in charge of the processes is the person who shall takethe decision as to which of the two techniques should be adopted, generally following laboratory tests.

In aqueous medium, these oils should be eliminated from the fabric by emulsifying processes,which implies the use of detergents and emulsifying products in an alkaline medium, antiredepo-sition agents, working temperatures of between 80 and 100º C and the pollution of wastewater.


Wastewater

Wastewater fundamentally comes from bleaching and finishing, for white knitted goods.

If colour dyeing is done, the pollution of effluents is lower than for the process of dyeing cotton fa-brics, given that the desizing operation is not performed (knitwear does not require it).

All of these operations lead to the generation of wastewater in this process, with the following cha-racterisation:

Table 19: Characterisation of cotton knitwear dyeing and finishing wastewater

Waste

In dye preparation operations, surplus dye may be produced.


The emissions into the atmosphere caused by the processes of dyeing and finishing for cottonknitwear may be compared to those emissions caused by the dyeing and finishing process forcotton fabric (see section 5.1.2.1).


155 of 248


pH 6-11

COD mg/l 600-800

BOD5 mg/l 200-300




Conductivity µS/cm 500-9,200


Wastewater

Wastewater generated by the process of dyeing and finishing knitwear made of wool and blendsis not very different from that generated by the process of dyeing for woollen fabric (see section5.1.2.2). It may even be considered that they have lower pollutant load since, in this case, thecarbonisation operation does not exist.

The wastewater from the rinsing process following the dyeing of knitwear incorporates the auxi-liary products shown in the table of Flow chart No. 6.

Wastewater characterisation is as follows:

Table 20: Characterisation of wool knitwear dyeing and finishing wastewater


Waste

The waste products generated are similar to those generated in the process of dyeing wool fabrics(see section 5.1.2.2).

Carbonised fibre waste does not exist as carbonisation does not form part of this process.


Emissions into the atmosphere are analogous to those generated in the wool fabric dyeing pro-cess, for the washing, bleaching, dyeing, drying and finishing operations.

It should be noted that carbonisation, heat setting, fulling and fixing operations, all generators ofemissions into the atmosphere, are unnecessary.


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pH 6-11

COD mg/l 800-1,200

BOD5 mg/l 200-400






157 of 248

Flo

w c

hart

No

. 14

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PR

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& B

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ear

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gent

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tical

ble

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ng a

gent

s

See

tab

le o

f Flo

w c

hart

No.

6

5.1.3.3. Cellulosics and blends (see Flow chart No. 15)

Wastewater

The wastewater generated from the dyeing process of cellulosic knitwear fibres contains a lowerpollutant load than that of the wastewater from the process of dyeing wool and cotton knitwear.There are two reasons for this:

• The desizing operation does not exist.

• The cellulosic fibres and, in general, all fibres which are artificially obtained, have fewer impuri-ties, and so the scouring operation causes less pollution.

The scouring and bleaching operations are similar to the cotton fibre dyeing process, and so, thesame auxiliary products that remain in the wastewater are used.

The procedures implemented in the dyeing operation depend on the type of dye used. The tableof Flow chart No. 6, shows the pollutants that come from the auxiliary products used.

Wastewater which is generated by the finishing operation, as we have commented in previous sec-tions, incorporates the unused products left over from the finishing baths.

As a whole, the wastewater which is generated by these operations has the following characteri-sation:

Table 21: Characterisation of cellulosic knitted goods dyeing and finishing wastewater



They may be considered analogous to the emissions generated by the cotton fabrics and blendsdyeing and finishing processes.

In knitwear made of blends of cellulosic fibres and synthetic fibres (polyester), subjected to heatsetting, smoke is generated which is as a result of the oils used in the manufacture of knittedfabric.


158 of 248


pH 6-11

COD mg/l 800-1,200

BOD5 mg/l 200-400





Waste

In the dye preparation operation excess dye may be produced.

Mechanical finishing operations may generate remains of fibres.

Table 22: Origin of wasteflowsCellulosic knitwear and blends dyeing process


Scouring and rinsing COD — Alkaline vapoursAlkalinity

Optical and chemical bleaching Oxidising agents — Vapours AOX AerosolsCOD





Finishing High COD Fibres VOCsLow BOD5 Lint Fibre dust &

(*) particles

(*) Specific pollutant load according to type of finish(+) See table Flow chart No. 7


159 of 248


160 of 248

Flo

w c

hart

No

. 15

FLO

W C

HA

RT

OF

DY

EIN

G &

FIN

ISH

ING

PR

OC

ES

S F

OR

CE

LLU

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ICS

AN

D B

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SC

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WA

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ION

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AL

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G

DY

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WA

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DR

YIN

GH

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SE

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G

Raw

knitw

ear

mat

eria

l

Fini

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knitw

ear

mat

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NIS

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G

Alk

alin

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rs

Bas

ic p

HD

eter

gent

sFa

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was

te

Vap

ours

/ A

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s /

Vap

ours

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artic

les

and

dus

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OC

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our

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d o

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pH

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dan

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gent

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agen

tsA

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tab

le o

f Flo

w c

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No.

7

5.1.4. Printing and finishing of fabrics and knitwear

The processes of printing and finishing of fabrics and knitwear can be seen in graphic form in Flowchart No. 16 and they use the same type of operations for all types of fibre (cotton, wool, cellulo-sic and synthetic fibres).

Wastewater

Corrosion printing generates waste products that may include metals, colouring agents and or-ganic matter (according to the procedures).

In direct and pigment printing, moreover, water-oil emissions have been gradually reduced. Thepredominant process is direct printing with pigments.

Regarding the characteristics of finishing operations that may take place following printing, theyare considered analogous to those operations carried out in dyeing facilities, for the different typesof apparel and fibres.

The characterisation of the wastewater generated by the printing process is as follows:

Table 23: Characterisation of printing and finishing wastewater

(*) data not available


Waste

The most common waste products are print paste remains, which are prepared in excess or for themaking of samples.


In spray printing, highly concentrated volatile solvent emanations are produced in the dryingprocess due to the use of highly volatile solvents in order to accelerate the operation.


161 of 248


pH 6-9

COD mg/l 350-2,300

BOD5 mg/l 80-750


Colour mg Pt- Co/l (*)



In corrosion printing emissions of volatile organic compounds are produced in the drying, stea-ming and washing operations.

In pigment printing emissions into the atmosphere of volatile organic compounds are also pro-duced in the drying and polymerisation operations.

Table 24: Origin of wasteflowsKnitwear finishing and printing process


Paste preparation — Paste remains —

Spray printing — — AerosolsVOCs (solvents)

Corrosion — Paste remains VOCs

Direct — Paste remains VOCs

Pigment printing — — VOCs

Drying — — VOCs

Steaming — — VapoursVOCs

Washing COD — VapoursColour Aerosols

Metals (*) VOCsWater-oil emulsions

(**)

Polymerisation — — Water vapourVOCs

Finishing High COD Fibres VOCsLow BOD5 Lint Fibre dust

(***) particles

(*) Corrosion printing(**) Direct printing(***) Specific pollutant load according to finish


162 of 248


163 of 248

Flo

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No

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5.2. MAIN ASSOCIATED WASTE FLOWS

5.2.1. Wastewater

In the dyeing, printing and finishing processes, there are some operations exist that are not directlylinked to the production process, but that become essential for the sequential development of pro-duction.

Although attempts are usually made to perform processes in stages or grouping together the ty-pes of dyes and colour of dye in order to minimise “down times” due to stoppages for cleaning andmaintenance of the machinery, cleaning operations and the fine-tuning of the facilities cannot betotally eliminated. These operations are usually carried out using water, detergents and cleaningproducts.

This cleaning, usually employing water and detergents, is performed on:

• The fixed machinery, that is to say, large machinery, in general.

• Normally transportable accessories, such as: moulds, trays, bobbins, roll stands, etc.

The cleaning of accessories may be done in a more automatic procedure with automatic washingsystems, brushes, scrapers, etc.

Some cleaners incorporate industrial solvents and organochlorine compounds into their activeingredients in order to boost their cleaning power on remains of dyes and printing pastes.

Cleaning wastewater contains remains of dyes, pastes, fibres, lint, detergents and cleaning sol-vents.

No reliable data are available on volumes and characterisation of such wastewater.

5.2.2. Waste

The waste products not specifically generated by the processes respond to the most commonwaste flows, and may be classified as generic or repeated waste from all processes.

There is a wide range of such waste products, which we identify below:

• Obsolete (out of fashion) and out of date dyes• Wooden pallets• Paper sacks• Containers for bulk products • Metal drums• Plastic bags and drums• Cardboard boxes• Metal rings• Yarn cones (broken or discarded)


164 of 248

• Dye trays and supports (broken or discarded)• Used oils and lubricants• Exhausted cleaning solvents • Plastic and paper packaging waste• End products that do not meet specifications• Rejected textile raw materials• Spilled solid/liquid products.

There are no data on the bibliography concerning the quantities of these waste products, gene-rated, which, to a large extent, depend on the production capacity, the different processes that arecarried out and the nature of the waste products.

5.2.3. Atmospheric emissions

Cleaning with solvents

As we commented in point 5.2.1, operations exist that are not linked directly with the productionprocess, but which become essential in order to develop continuous production.

This is the case for some cleaning done with solvents, which constitute sources of diffuse originemissions.

These solvents and degreasing agents are used for cleaning printing machines, specifically in theprint injectors and other parts which are in contact with dyes, pigments and printing pastes. Alsoin some dyeing equipment.

Storage of end products

Textiles stored can, in some cases, emit volatile compounds due to their use in the operations towhich they have been subjected and the residual presence in manufactured products, especiallyauxiliary materials, with which the textile products are impregnated.

5.3. OTHER WASTE FLOWS

Although the description of processes has been exclusively limited to direct production processesof dyeing, printing and finishing, some general facilities exist at textiles factories that are necessaryfor the normal functioning of those processes.

These general facilities or support facilities generate, in turn, waste flows that must also be con-sidered.


165 of 248

5.3.1. Wastewater

Water for supply purposes, used in dyeing, printing and finishing, whether it comes from supplycompanies, surface catchment or wells, has some conditioning factors regarding its quality andtherefore, requires the appropriate treatment.

Such treatment usually includes:

• Elimination of iron and manganese• Elimination of suspended solids• Elimination of hardness• Elimination of salinity

These treatments generate the following wastewater:

• Wastewater from the washing of filters in order to eliminate suspended and precipitated so-lids.

• Water for the regeneration of the ionic exchange resin beds, or saline rejects from inverse os-mosis (if available). In both cases with high conductivity.

The cooling circuits must be purged periodically in order to eliminate concentrations of salt. Thesepurged liquids are eliminated by being incorporated into the wastewater, which increases its con-ductivity.

The water circuits of the steam boilers must be purged and cleaned, including the steam drums.Apart from the concentrations of salts, basicity and silica from the purging itself, descalers areused for the cleaning of circuits. All of this maintenance operations generate wastewater, con-taining these products.

5.3.2. Waste

The main source of waste generation from auxiliary facilities is sludge from the wastewater treat-ment plants.

Lastly, all water treatment previously indicated generates:

• Sludge and sediment from chemical precipitations and mechanical separations (sedimentation,filtration)

• Sludge Remains of containers of products used in such treatment

5.3.3. Atmospheric emissions

The main focal point of the generation of emissions into the atmosphere is the boilers that gene-rate steam.


166 of 248

Wastewater treatment plants (of the aerobic biological or activated sludge types) also generateemissions of volatile organic compounds contained in the wastewater from the dyeing and prin-ting processes.

5.4. MAIN POLLUTANTS IN WASTEWATER

A generic list of the main chemical compounds that can be found in the wastewater of any dyeing,printing and finishing operation is included.


167 of 248


168 of 248

Tab

le 2

5: S

ubst

ance

s th

at a

re p

ote

ntia

lly p

rese

nt in

was

tew

ater

SU

BS

TAN

CE

DY

EIN

G O

F C

OM

BE

D &

SP

UN

YA

RN

DY

EIN

G &

FIN

ISH

ING

OF

FAB

RIC

SD

YE

ING

& F

INIS

HIN

G O

F K

NIT

WE

AR

PR

INT

ING

Co

tto

nW

oo

lS

ynth

etic

sC

ott

on

Wo

ol

Wo

ol

Cel

lulo

sics

Soa

ps

X—

—X

XX

X—

Ani

onic

det

erge

nts

XX

XX

XX

X—

Non

-ion

ic d

eter

gent

sX

XX

XX

XX

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m c

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XX

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XX

XX

XX

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XX

XX

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nd o

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arb

oxym

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lulo

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X—

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l cel

lulo

se—

——

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——

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inyl

pol

yalc

ohol

——

—X

——

——

Pol

yacr

ylam

ides

——

—X

——

——

Pol

yest

ers

——

—X

——

——

Wet

ting

agen

tsX

——

X—

—X

—S

ofte

ners

X—

XX

——

X—

Nitr

ogen

ated

com

pou

nds

X—

—X

XX

XX

AO

XX

XX

XX

XX

—S

odiu

m h

ypoc

hlor

iteX

—X

X—

—X

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odiu

m c

hlor

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—X

X—

—X

—O

ptic

al b

leac

hing

age

nts

XX

XX

XX

X—

Sul

phi

tes

XX

XX

XX

X—

Bis

ulp

hite

sX

XX

XX

XX

—D

yes

XX

XX

XX

XX

Pig

men

ts—

——

——

——

XC

opp

erX

——

X—

—X

—C

hrom

eX

X—

XX

XX

XFo

rmal

deh

yde

X—

—X

——

X—

Ace

tic a

cid

XX

XX

XX

X—

Nap

htho

lX

——

——

——

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rom

atic

am

ines

X—

—X

——

——

Form

ic a

cid

—X

XX

XX

X—

Nic

kel

—X

——

——

——

Cob

alt

—X

——

——

——

Pho

spha

tes

——

XX

X—

X—

Phe

nole

sX

XX

XX

——

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ulp

hurs

X—

—X

——

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Tric

hlor

oeth

ylen

e—

——

—X

X—

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erch

loro

ethy

lene

——

——

XX

——

Tita

nium

dio

xid

e—

——

——

——

XIro

n—

——

——

——

XA

lum

iniu

m—

——

——

——

X

Below we present the most relevant opportunities for preventing pollution, which are classified ac-cording to the following breakdown:

OPPORTUNITIES FOR REDUCTION AT SOURCERedesigning of productsRedesigning of processes

Substitution of raw materialsNew technologiesGood housekeeping practices

OPPORTUNITIES FOR RECYCLING AT SOURCE

OPPORTUNITIES FOR WASTE RECOVERYExternal recyclingEnergy recovery

Those sections in which no clear opportunities for pollution prevention have been detected will notbe included.

It should also be highlighted that some of the opportunities described could be classified in morethan one of the previously mentioned categories. In each case, the most appropriate location hasbeen chosen.

6.1. OPPORTUNITIES FOR REDUCTION AT SOURCE

REDESIGNING OF PROCESSES

6.1.1. Substitution of raw materials

6.1.1.1. Choice of new ranges of reactive dyes

Traditional problem

Reactive dyes are one of the most frequently used families of colouring agents for the dyeing ofcotton, rayon and linen fabrics. Due to its inherent chemical characteristics, only part of the dyethat is introduced into the dye bath reacts chemically with the fibre by means of a covalent bond.The rest of the dye reacts with the water and is known as hydrolysed dye. A part of the latter re-mains in dye wastewater and another part remains inside the fibre but without good fastnessproperties and so it had to be removed in successive warm soapings and rinses.

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6. POLLUTION PREVENTION OPPORTUNITIES

This meant that a dye containing reactive dyes required the consumption of water for:

1. dye bath2. warm soaping bath3. rinsing bath4. rinsing bath

As an example, a machine for the dyeing of 100 kg of yarn holding 1,000 litres of water meant theconsumption of 4,000 l for the correct dyeing of the 100 kg of fabric.

Alternative products

In order to provide a response to the current requirements concerning:

• New standards of domestic washing fastness • Compliance with the legislation on dumping • An increase in “right first time” production efficiency• The use of low bath ratio machinery, and heat recovery systems

New ranges of reactive dyes have been designed:

1. They exhaust more onto the fibre (with this, less dye remains in the dye water).

2. Each molecule of dye contains more reactive groups and so the percentage of dye to react withthe fibre is considerably higher (thus lowering the amount of hydrolysed reactive dye, both inthe bath and within the fibre).

3. The reactive hydrolysed dye within the fibre is more easily removed (and thus the number ofwashing baths will be reduced).

4. They combine two or more chromophore groups in each dye molecule in order to obtain highoptical density using the same concentration of dyes as in the old ranges. Therefore, the dyeconcentration increases (and so transport costs are reduced). According to the dyes that arecompared, at equal concentrations of the solution, the optical density is between 15 and 65%greater. With new dyes, the same colour intensity is achieved on fabric with a lower % of dyeon the fibre weight.

5. They can be applied by reducing the concentration of the electrolyte necessary in the dye bath.This means a reduction in the wastewater pollutant load. It also reduces the cost of the che-mical products in the dye formula. For 3% owf dye intensity, with the new dyes, 60 g/l of saltare needed. This represents a 34% reduction compared to traditional formulas.

6. An increase in the adsorption of the dye in the activated sludge of the treatment works, if oneis available. Depending on the water hardness, between 150 and 200% more is absorbed intothe Wastewater Treatment Plant’s activated sludge compared to the reactive dyes of the oldranges.


170 of 248

Field of application

The new ranges of reactive dyes can be applied in the same machines as traditional reactive dyes. Thestrong points of this type of dye are the discontinuous dyeing processes or dyeing processes inbatches of cellulosic fibre yarn, fabrics made from cellulosic fibre in rope form, and also open-widthboth in the discontinuous and continuous processes.

Production benefits

The lower the number of washing baths, the greater the increase in productivity of the industrialdye facilities.

Moreover, as has already been described, the following are achieved:

• Lower dye consumption to obtain the same dying results• Lower consumption of chemical products (electrolyte)

Environmental benefits

Dye wastewater is less coloured with a lower soluble salt content, and the waste dyes are moreeasily absorbed in the Wastewater Treatment Plants’ activated sludge. This facilitates the treatmentprocess.

Economic parameters

As has already been said, a reduction in costs of the chemical products of the dye formula is achie-ved, as well as transport costs.

Bibliography

- Bradbury, Collishaw, Moorhouse (Dystar), “Desarrollos en la tecnología de colorantes reactivos”,Revista de Química Textil issue 153, pp. 75-83 (2001).

- Douthwaite, F. “Novel series of reactive dyes”, International Dyer, August 2001, pp. 41-42.

6.1.1.2. Substitution of conventional lubricants with hydrosoluble oils in the manufacturingof knitted fabric

Traditional problem

The production of knitted fabrics requires the efficient lubrication of the mechanical elements ofthe knitting machine and the needles. The yarn which passes through the needles during the pro-cess of fabric manufacturing drags and retains part of the lubricants which then “spray” againstthe needles and the beds.

Knitted fabric may contain up to between 4 and 8% of its weight in lubricating oil used in weaving.

Pollution prevention opportunities

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According to the type of fibre that make up the knitted fabric, and the type of weave, the processof textile ennobling may be begun by washing operations in an aqueous medium, or by heattreatment operations, generally in a stenter, with the aim of dimensionally stabilising the knit-ted fabric. In the latter instance, the oil’s most volatile components may give rise to smoke emis-sion. The engineer in charge of the processes is the person who should take the decision as towhich technique to use, generally after laboratory tests.

In an aqueous medium, these oils should be eliminated from the fabric through emulsion pro-cesses, which implies the use of detergents and emulsifying products in an alkaline medium,antiredeposition agents, working temperatures of between 80 and 100º C and the pollution ofwastewater.

Water consumption is approximately 10 litres per kilo of fabric, the process takes between 30and 60 min, and washing temperature must be in the region of 100º C.


The substitution of old lubricating oils which are non-biodegradable and non- self-emulsifying withnew lubricants of a self-emulsifying nature for the manufacturing of knitted fabric, means that it canbe eliminated from fabric in water at a temperature of 40º C, which means that scouring andbleaching can be done on the fabric in a single operation, (in just one bath performing the twooperations, or, depending on each case, in just one bath but first performing the scouring and thenthe bleaching) with the consequent saving of time spent in the machine, a saving in the processtime, water consumption and energy savings.

Traditional:

Proposed alternative:


This technique may be applied to the weaving mills that are already working. Sometimes it maybe necessary to substitute the oil conduits in the interior of the knitting machine. In some cases,depending on the types of paint, the machines may get damaged.

Production benefits

The production benefits are not obtained in the weaving company, but rather in the later operationsof preparation, bleaching, dyeing, etc. and the following are achieved:


172 of 248

WASH

SCOURING AND BLEACHING

SCOURING AND BLEACHING

• A reduction in washing time• A reduction in washing temperature • A reduction in the process time since in just one operation, the fabric can be washed, scoured

and bleached• An increase in productivity


• An important reduction in water consumption • An important reduction in energy consumption

Economic parameters

The cost involved in implementing this technique is no greater than that of the previous techni-que if all economic parameters to be taken into account are considered, that is, from the cost ofthe new oils, which is undoubtedly greater, to the washing costs, which are lower, and the costsof treatment which are also seen to be reduced. It may be hoped that in the future, the percen-tage of oil contained in the knitted fabric may be reduced when manufactured in state-of-the-artgeneration machinery, with which yet greater savings will be made.

6.1.1.3. Substitution of surfactants with biodegradable surfactants

Traditional problem

In the textiles industry, surfactants are consumed in practically all processes from the preparation andbleaching stage to the finishing of fabrics. After the dyeing and printing processes, habitually the fabricis subjected to one or several washes in which surfactants are used as washing agents, which often cau-se problems of pollution in wastewater due to the presence of foam and deficient biodegradability.


The aim consists in replacing conventional surfactants with others giving by 80-90% biodegrada-bility after 24 hours, that generate a lower COD, have a high dispersing power and very low foa-ming power.

The new washing formulas imply incorporating a concentration of the new product, which is si-milar to the traditional formulations, into the treatment baths. Naturally, the concentration of bio-degradable surfactant used in each case depends on the type of fabric, the type and quantity ofimpurities to be eliminated, and the system of machinery, at the temperature and time which areappropriate to the characteristics of the final product.


In the textiles industry, surfactants are consumed in practically all processes, from the preparationand bleaching stage to the finishing of the fabric. The new surfactants can be applied in all avai-lable facilities.


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Production benefits

The production parameters are kept in the same order as with the previous surfactants.


In this way, an increase in the efficiency of the wastewater treatment plants is achieved. In ad-dition, the biodegradable surfactants reduce the risk of alterations to the hormonal system offish.

Economic parameters

Despite the fact that the new biodegradable surfactants are significantly more expensive than theprevious ones, the good management of the wastewater treatment plant recommends the imple-mentation of this technique.

Some Spanish companies have already begun to work with biodegradable surfactants, and it isnoted that the higher price of these products may be compensated by the greater efficiency of thewastewater treatment plant, leading, therefore, to a favourable final balance, both from the envi-ronmental and the economic view point.

Bibliography

- Sturm test (OECD 301 B)- Technical Information provided by Bayer, Basf, Color Center S.A., Tenycol S.A.

6.1.1.4. Replacement of the afterchroming wool dyeing process with the dyeing processusing reactive dyes

Traditional problem

The dyeing of yarn or woollen fabric with chromed dyes and afterchroming allows good final fast-ness of the dye. However, this process has some serious disadvantages:

• Production is carried out in two stages

• Inevitably, the wastewater contains heavy metals (e.g. chrome)

• The final colour of the dye not only depends on the dyeing process with the acid dye but alsoon the afterchroming process


An alternative exists which is based on the application of the reactive dyes for wool, whichdo not contain heavy metals, give excellent final fastness and are applied in a single opera-tion.


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Machinery which is suitable for dyeing yarn or woollen fabric is adequate for this new dyeingprocess.

Process benefits

• A reduction in dyeing time• A reduction in the dyeing temperature• Greater safety in the final shade of the dye


The elimination of the heavy metals in wastewater.

Economic parameters

• Greater productivity of the dyeing facilities• More possibilities for the automation and robotisation of the dyeing processes

6.1.1.5. New selected sulphur dyes

Traditional problem

Sulphur dyes are widely used throughout the world for the dyeing of cellulosic fibres. The traditio-nal dyes, generally low cost dyes, contain a high concentration of impurities such as salts, sulphurand polysulphides. They are usually present in relatively low concentrations and give a low dyeingyield (that is to say that in order to achieve intense shades, large amounts of dye must be addedto the bath).

These are dyes with low exhaustion and, therefore, the wastewater which is generated remainscoloured to such an extent that the dyes are only economical when the bath is reinforced and reu-sed for successive dyeing.


The new sulphur dyes offer improvements compared to the traditional ones. The main improvementsare:

• They are practically free of sulphur and polysulphides

• An increase of between 100 and 150% of the concentration at which they may be acquired.

• The use of binary systems of reductive agents, replacing the traditional systems based on sodiumsulphide in an alkaline medium, which give very good results, both from the technical and the envi-ronmental points of view. The main binary systems of reductive agents are:


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- Glucose + hydrosulphite- Glucose + hydroxicetone- Glucose + formamidine-sulphinic acid- Glucose + hydroxymethane sulphinic acid


The new sulphur dyes are adequate both for discontinuous and continuous system dyeing and areapplicable in the same industrial facilities in which the old ones were applied.

Process benefits

With the new dyes, the productivity of the industrial facilities may increase.


The use of these new sulphur dyes allows:

• A reduction in the generation of empty dye containers which must be handled, and transportcosts

• The minimisation of SO2 emissions into the atmosphere

• A reduction in water consumption

• A reduction in the pollutant load of the effluents generated in the dyeing process and subsequentwashes, which present far lower quantities of sulphurs and polysulphides, reductive chemicalspecies that significantly contribute to the COD

Economic parameters

The use of these new sulphur dyes allows for the reduction in waste handling costs as well as thecosts of wastewater treatment.

Bibliography

- Technical information supplied by Clariant Ibérica S.A.Diresul RDT concentrado.

- Revista de Química Textil issue 113, 1993, pp. 74-86.

6.1.1.6. New oxidising system for dyes made with sulphur dyes

Traditional problem

Oxidation is an unavoidable stage in the process of dyeing with sulphur dyes. Oxidation produ-ces a change in the colour of the dye molecule and insolubilises it within the fibre.


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The use of oxidising systems based on bromates, iodates and chlorites is common, which, dueto the presence of halogens, produce AOX indices above the legal limits in the wastewater gene-rated by the process.

Though they may generally be considered as being out of use, this oxidation may also be carriedout with dichromate-based oxidising systems, which generate the presence of heavy metals inwater.


The use of peroxides instead of the previously mentioned oxidising systems means that this pro-blem can be avoided. The new oxidising agent, Diresul EF, achieves a full oxidising effect with thefollowing advantages:

• A lower contribution to the wastewater COD level• The absence of heavy metals • An AOX index within the legal limits


The new oxidising system can be applied in all companies and there are no limitations as far as itsuse is concerned, whether regarding the volume of application or any other circumstances.

Process benefits

The new oxidant acts in a similar way to those used traditionally but allows an improvement inthe quality of the product as it produces uniform oxidising effects.


• A decrease in the COD of oxidising baths • The absence of heavy metals in waste baths• The absence of halogens and, therefore, a decrease in the AOX parameter

Economic parameters

Savings can be forecasted in the costs of water treatment as well as in production costs given thatmore uniform oxidation is achieved.

Bibliography

- Technical information supplied by Clariant Ibérica S.A.- Revista de Química Textil issue 113, 1993, pp. 74-86.


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6.1.1.7. New formulas for reductive baths following polyester dyeing with disperse dyes

Traditional problem

The dyeing of yarn and polyester fabric with disperse dyes requires a later process of eliminationof the disperse dye that remains on the surface of the fibres by means of so-called reductiveclearing, the formula of which is:

• 1-2 g/l sodium hydrosulphite (reductive agent)• 1-2 g/l NaOH• 1 cm3/l dispersing agent

The reductive bath is taken to a temperature in the region of 70º C for 20 min.

The use of sodium hydrosulphite to excess, which may in addition contain free sulphide, causeshigh levels of COD in wastewater.

Alternative product

The general aim consists limiting the use of sodium hydrosulphite.

The replacement products are:

• Thiourea dioxide• Hydroxyacetone (COD = 1080 mg/l for the pure product)• Sodium borohydride

Below are several examples of the use of these replacement products:

Example 1

10 g/l of sodium hydrosulphite may be replaced by 2.5 g/l of sodium hydrosulphite + 0,75 g/l ofthiourea dioxide.

Example 2

The combination of sodium borohydride with sodium hydrosulphite may also lead to the sameresults as sodium hydrosulphite alone.

Example 3

From 1 to 3 g/l of hydroxyacetone is enough to replace sodium hydrosulphite as a reductive bathfor polyester dyeing with disperse dyes.


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These products may be applied in companies that are equipped for the dyeing of polyester fibreswith disperse dyes.

Production benefits

The rubbing and washing fastness of the fabric washed with these products are the same as withthe traditional reductive bath.


The environmental balance is positive given that a reduction in the COD found in wastewater isachieved.

Economic parameters

The economic benefits are essentially those that are derived from the environmental benefits giventhat a reduction in the cost of wastewater treatment is achieved.

6.1.2. New technologies

6.1.2.1. The Econtrol process for the dyeing of cellulosic fabric with selected reactivedyes

Traditional problem

The dyeing of cotton fabric and of other cellulosic fibres with reactive dyes is currently one of themost important. This dyeing may be performed either in discontinuous, semi-continuous or con-tinuous processes.

The continuous dyeing processes, of which there are many variants, are essentially based on thefollowing:

1. Impregnation of the fabric with the solution of reactive dye together with the auxiliary products,among which urea is incorporated due to its hygroscopic nature.

2. Drying.

3. Steaming: during the steaming stage, the presence of urea helps to maintain a degree of hu-midity on the fibre which is necessary in order to ensure the good diffusion of the reactive dyetowards the interior of the fibre and its later chemical reaction.

4. Washing the fabric to remove all dye that has not reacted with the fibre.


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Several systems exist to carry out the dyeing of fabric. The use of any of these systems with re-active dyes implies the consumption of certain chemical products that will inevitably appear in theprocess wastewater in addition to presenting some quality problems depending on the fabric to beprocessed.

One such chemical product, as we have already mentioned, is urea.

Urea contributes to increasing the degree of nitrogen in wastewater and therefore its progressivereduction is advisable.

Alternative technique

The Econtrol process provides a fixing route in one stage, which allows, in today’s industry, for theefficient dyeing of long or short batches, avoiding long beaming times. The fundamental sequenceof stages is shown in the figure below:

This innovation uses the physical laws of the evaporation of water from the cellulose to provide theoptimum temperature and humidity conditions in the hot air drying chamber (Hot Flue), which isideal for the efficient fixing of the specially selected reactive dyes. The introduction of new dyes,with a relatively high reactivity, such as Levafix CA, has given a broader application to the Econtrolprocess.

The principles of fixing by means of Econtrol are based on the temperature of the fabric reachedduring the drying process, which depends on the relative humidity inside the hot air drying cham-ber (Hot Flue).

Under these conditions, the reactive dye starts its fixation to the cellulose during the prolonged sta-ge at a bulb temperature of 68-69º C, completing fixation during the rapid rise in temperature un-til the final value of 120º C is reached.


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PADDING

WASHING

DRYING

(2-3 minutes at 120-130ºC / 20-25

Vol% relativehumidity)

Furthermore, the Econtrol process avoids the need to use urea, obtaining maximum colour yield.In the following figure the comparison is shown between the colour yield obtained in a Pad-dry6

process with reactive dyes, with and without Econtrol (with different conditions of urea concen-tration and relative humidity).

Econtrol Process: Concentration of urea / Humidity vs Heat yield

The general recipe of the padding process by means of Econtrol would be:

X g/l of reactive dyeY g/l of alkali (depending on the reactive dye)1-2 g/l of wetting agent0-10 g/l of antimigrant (depending on the fabric)


Currently, Econtrol is a well-established process with demonstrable advantages over more tra-ditional padding processes. As the technical and commercial demands in the textile industryincrease, the Econtrol process tends to contribute greatly to the provision of quick conti-nuous production of economically feasible and environmentally acceptable, high quality diedfabrics.


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6 Pad-batch: the fabric is impregnated by the bath of open-width dyeing in a foulard and, later, passes betweentwo rollers, which perform an open-width pressing. Then, the fabric is rolled on a constant tension beam and co-vered with plastic film to avoid localised evaporation. The beam is kept rotating, cold, for as many hours as arenecessary for the reaction to be produced.Pad-dry: the fabric is impregnated by the dye bath, or the open-width finishing in a foulard and, later, heat treat-ment is applied in a stenter. Drying is also performed open-width (many finishes at the end of the process are ap-plied in this way).Pad-dry heat setting: as above, but with a later stage of heat setting in a stenter.

Production benefits

Benefits of machinery:

• The infrared pre-dryer is not necessary• The steamer is not necessary• Batch/rotation stations are not required• An increase in the machinery’s service life given that chemical auxiliaries such as salt or sili-

cates are not used• The ideal process for versatile technologies• Energy efficiency by controlling optimal humidity

Process benefits:

• The continuous process is simpler and shorter• Unproductive beaming sequences are avoided• Better colour fixing yields are obtained than with the pad-batch system• The ideal option for short batches• Efficient washing in the absence of salt

Benefits for fabric:

• Ease of manipulation due to soft fixing conditions• Minimisation of migration due to rapid fixing and humidity control - specially important in fa-

brics with pile• No breakages in fabrics with pile (frequent in the pad-batch system)• Improves the rubbing fastness of fabric with pile due to better dye migration to the extremes• Improves penetration into difficult fabric (compared to pad/thermofixing) due to the presence of

humidity at high temperatures of the fabric• An improvement in the coverage of green cotton compared to the pad-batch system or dyeing

by exhaustion• Better diffusion in regenerated cellulose fabric than other pad-dry/thermofixing methods• Versatility – a great variety of fabrics can be dyed• No moiré effect


• Neither urea nor salts are consumed (chloride/sulphate), or sodium silicate, and so a reductioncan be achieved in the wastewater pollutant load.

• Energy consumption is reduced.

Economic parameters

The application of this technique requires the acquisition of the facilities described above.

The economic benefits of the Econtrol process have been amply documented. They include:


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• Lower costs of chemical auxiliary agents, since the use of sodium silicate, sodium chloride orurea is not required in the formulation of the dye bath. In many cases, the consumption ofdyes is also lower in the Econtrol process compared to other processes such as the pad-batch

• Lower steam cost

• Lower costs derived from energy consumption

• Lower cost of wastewater treatment

If we bear in mind the increased productivity due to the elimination of high beaming times, it isclear that the Econtrol process can offer significant savings over the pad-batch (Table 1). Despitethe lower cost of machinery of the pad-batch process, the Econtrol process has been confirmedas being the most effective in cost reduction in terms of the total cost of the process.

Table 26: Dye consumption / chemical products(Mercerised cotton, 300 g/m2, 75% pick-up of padding bath)

PAD-BATCHECONTROL DIFFERENCE (%)(Sodium silicate method)

Levafix Yellow CA 15,0 g/l 13,7 g/l -8,7Levafix Red CA 12,0 g/l 11,6 g/l -3,3Levafix Navy CA 10,4 g/l 10,1 g/l -2,9

Total dye 37,4 g/l 35,4 g/l -5,3

Urea 100 g/l — -100

Wetting agent 2 g/l 2 g/l 0

Sodium silicate 38º Bé 50 ml/l — -100

Caustic liquor 50% 14 ml/l 6 ml/l -57

Sodium carbonate — 10 g/l —

Total chemical products 166 g/l 18 g/l -89

Digestion 12 hours 2 minutes

6.1.2.2. Colorite

Traditional problem

Habitually, the manufacturer of finished fabric must provide his clients with samples of the fabric,in the colours requested by the client.

On other occasions, physical models of some sizes must be produced before the client decides topurchase a consignment. This involves a highly complex process of dyeing, printing and finishingof small yardages and garment-by-garment sewing, which lead to the consumption of resourcesand the generation of proportionally more effluents and waste products than those which are ge-nerated by larger consignments.


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Colorite is a computer programme by means of which it is possible to visualise the true colour ofa sample on the screen and on different textures. It is possible to send this information via e-mailto any other part of the world with full guarantees that wherever it is sent, it will be seen in exactlythe same colour (true colour). It is a new tool for colour.


Adaptable to any operational plant that works with colour communication: dry cleaners’, dress-makers, designers, etc.

Production benefits

The most significant benefits are:

• A reduction in time and cost of sending samples• Greater facility in the communication of the right colour• A reduction in defective consignments thanks to the visual control of the colour via a mo-

nitor


The need for fewer samples has the knock-on effect of eliminating waste (remains of dyes and testauxiliaries, finishing remains, print paste remains, etc.) and the wastewater generated in the pre-paration of samples.

Economic parameters

Although the application of this technology requires the initial cost of purchase, this amount isquickly payed-back thanks to the savings made on expenses for sending samples, and the ma-king of disposable samples or samples that are finally discarded.

More and more companies have introduced this new communications technique. Among them are:


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• USA: Wal-Mart, Burlington, Burke Mills, Fruit of the Loom, Guilford Mills.• Europe: Oaxley Threads, Penn Nyla, Marks & Spencer, Textured Jersey, Triumph, Courtalds.

6.1.2.3. Recovery and reuse of printing pastes

Traditional problem

The printing paste that remains in the rotary printing system after the printing process finished iseliminated during the cleaning of the different elements of the equipment: moulds, scraper sys-tems, conduits, drums, etc. This involves a great loss of dyes and printing paste, with all the che-mical products that are necessary, and the corresponding wastewater pollution.

The loss in production as a consequence of the time needed to wash the whole system shouldalso be mentioned.

If no paste recovery facilities exist, for each colour printed, it is estimated that approximately2.8 kg of printing paste are lost in a narrow machine and 3.8 kg of printing paste in a widemachine. When this amount is multiplied by the number of colours that a design may have (8-9) and by the number of printing changes that may take place in the course of a year (approx.6,000), it can be seen that on an annual basis, between 134 and 205 t of printing pastes are lostwhich, principally, end up in the wastewater or, in the best of cases, are partially segregated aswaste.


The new patented technology (the system was developed by Stork Brabant, Boxmeer, theNetherlands) is capable of cleaning and recovering the printing paste from the print system’sconduits.

With this paste recovery system, it is estimated that remains would be 1.1 kg of paste in the na-rrow machine and 1.8 kg in the wide machine.

The recovered paste (between 60 and 75%) could be reused as a component for later printing pas-tes if colourimetry equipment is available and the software suitable, or it could be managed aswaste.


This technique may be applied in most rotary printing machines by means of microperforated cy-linders and, preferably in the Stork printing machines.

Production benefits

The production benefits derive from the lower consumption of printing dyes and pastes thanks tothe recovery that is achieved.


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Paste recovery allows:

• A reduction in the wastewater pollutant load generated in the cleaning of printing equipment

• The correct management, as a waste product, of the recovered pastes that have not been reu-sed

• A reduction in the consumption of water for cleaning operations

• A reduction in the consumption of reactives and energy in the treatment of wastewater

Economic parameters

Although the installation for the recovery of pastes requires an initial investment, annual savingscould be as much as 48,000 Euro.

6.1.2.4. Reductive treatment following the dyeing of polyester with disperse dyes in thesame dye bath

Traditional problem

Traditionally, after polyester dyeing at 130ºC, the dye bath should be cooled to 70ºC and thenthrown away, and the following products are added to the new bath:

• NaOH• Sodium hydrosulphite (reductive agent)• Dispersing agent

The reductive bath is performed at 80ºC for 20 min. Then, the water is thrown away and oneor two additional baths must be used in order to eliminate the reductive agents and waste al-kalis.


A new formulation of surfactant products often allows the reductive bath to be done in the samedye bath during the cooling cycle between 130 and 70ºC.

At the end of dyeing at 130ºC, bath cooling is started. When a temperature of approximately 98ºCis reached, the following products are put in the machine:

Tenyclear PES.....................3g/l (a product that contains thiourea dioxide, alkali, dispersing agents,etc.)

During the cooling process to 70ºC for 20 min, the product performs the reductive clearing of thepolyester.


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Dyeing machinery must be prepared for the programmed addition of the products at temperaturesclose to 100ºC.

Production benefits

An increase in factory productivity due to the reduction in the overall process time.


• A reduction in water consumption• A reduction in energy consumption• A reduction in the wastewater pollutant load generated

Economic parameters

If the available machinery for dyeing does not allow the programmed addition of chemical and au-xiliary products at temperatures close to 100ºC, the cost of investing in new machinery must betaken into consideration.

On the other hand, there is a reduction in the overall cost of the dyeing process due to the lowerconsumption of resources and chemical products.

Bibliography

- Technical information supplied by Tenycol S.A

6.1.2.5. Jet-overflow dyeing machine with fabric movement by means of an air-watersystem

Traditional problem

Machines like the jet-overflow achieve greater dye bath-fabric contact by means of a coaxial flowof the dye bath and of the fabric.

Most of these machines operated with bath ratios (proportion of kg of fabric to litres of bath) of bet-ween 1:8 and 1:12, according to the type of machine and the type of fabric to be processed.


This is a machine that, with a water-air system, can guide the fabric inside the machine. This per-mits operativity at a very low bath ratio, in the order of 1:4, with faster cooling and heating cyclesthan in conventional machines.


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This machine implies the replacement of traditional machines, and they may be installed in thesame plants as the previous ones.

Production benefits

The machine is fully automatic as far as the dyeing cycles, product addition, etc. are concerned.

The new system achieves a smooth movement of the fabric and causes the folds of the fabric tovary their position with each turn of the yarn, thus avoiding permanent creases which would re-duce the quality of the product.


This machine means energy saving, as it has faster cooling and heating cycles than in the con-ventional machines and a saving in water, given that it works with a very low bath ratio.

Economic parameters

The cost of purchasing the new machine must be considered.

As far as the savings are concerned, it should be taken into account that the system implies a re-duction in the consumption of water and energy.

Bibliography

- Technical information supplied by the “Airtint” machine. Argelich and Termes.

6.1.2.6. Liposomes as auxiliaries for the dyeing of wool

Traditional problem

The dyeing of wool is, generally speaking, a long, costly process. Given that wool fibre is capa-ble of felting and may be deformed due to its hydrothermoplastic nature, the end quality of thefabric largely depends on the process time as well as the temperature and the bath pH. In addi-tion to containing the necessary dyes and chemical products, dye baths must have sufficientquantities of equalising products and electrolytes (soluble salts), and thus the COD of dye waste-water is high.


The use of liposomes as auxiliary products in the dyeing of wool with acid dyes makes it possibleto dye wool obtaining good exhaustion, at 80ºC (this temperature is lower than that used in the tra-ditional system) for 40 min, which implies:


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• Less superficial damage to the wool• Energy savings• Not using electrolyte• Lower COD in dye wastewater

The use of liposomes as auxiliary products in the dyeing of wool with acid dyes in a bath that con-tains:

• Lipopur (liposome)........0.1-0.2% owf• Formic acid ..................predetermined pH • Acid dye

In the case of wool/polyester mixtures, the temperature should go up to 100ºC, adding a lowconcentration of carriers, in such a way that the disperse dye exhausts onto the polyester.

Nevertheless, it should be borne in mind that the liposomes may lead to the diffusion of the dis-perse dye to the interior of the wool fibre and so it is necessary to carry out tests on the dispersedyes for dyeing with liposomes so as to avoid problems of dye fastness at a later date.


All plants that are equipped for the dyeing of wool can use liposomes to dye wool.

Production benefits

In addition to the increased productivity of the dyeing facilities as a consequence of the afore-mentioned data, the quality of the dyed articles improves.

The treatment of wool at lower temperatures leads to a softer fabric.


The dyeing process does not consume electrolyte and so the conductivity of the wastewater ge-nerated is reduced.

The formulation of the dye bath with liposomes presents a lower COD (a reduction of up to 50%)than traditional dye baths.

Economic parameters

The higher cost of liposomes is compensated by the energy savings (lower temperature) andbetter fabric quality and so the overall cost favours the new process.


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1. A saving in chemical products in euros for 100 kg of dyed wool

Table 27

PRODUCT NORMAL DYE COST COST OF DYEING WITH(e /100 kg) LIPOSOMES (e /100 kg)

Sulphuric acid 0.23 0.23

Anhydrous sodium sulphide 0.95 —

Esterol Pag 1.45 —

Lipopur — 0.57

Total cost 2.63 0.81

Saving 69.4%

2. Energy saving in euros for 100 kg of dyed wool

Table 28

TIPE OF DYEING KG OF STEAM COST (e /100 kg)

Normal dyeing 0.09 0.43

Dyeing with liposomes 0.08 0.36

Saving 15.6%

3. Total saving in euros for 100 kg of dyed wool

Table 29

PROCESS CHEMICAL PRODUCTS STEAM TOTAL

Normal dyeing 2.63 0.43 3.06

Dyeing with liposomes 0.81 0.36 1.16

Saving 62%

4. Saving in the effluent charge

In a specific case, dyeing with liposomes has meant a 30% reduction in the concentration of sul-phates and a reduction of the COD by 200 units. The reduction in the level of the parametersfrom which the effluent charge is calculated, has meant a reduction of 0.2 e/m3.

Bibliography

- Technical information supplied by Color Center S.A.


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6.1.2.7. Washing of knitted elastic fabric prior to the thermofixing process

Traditional problem

Knitted elastic fabrics made of chemical fibres (polyester or polyamide) with Spandex filaments,are usually subjected to a preliminary stage of fabric thermofixing, which is done in a stenter in or-der to avoid flaws in the later stages of washing and dyeing.

The Spandex filaments contain high quantities of oils that come from the weaving stage, whichmust be eliminated prior to dyeing. These oils give rise to important smoke emissions during thethermofixing process. The waste oils which are still present in the fabric after thermofixing are mo-re difficult to eliminate in the successive washes, which may compromise the final quality of thedyeing.

Traditional process:


The new process proposes the washing of the knitted elastic fabric in order to eliminate the wea-ving oils prior to thermofixing.

The application of this technology means that smoke emissions in the stenter can be minimised,water for the washing process can be saved and productivity increased.

To obtain an optimal result when applying this technique, it is useful to replace the traditional oilswith hydrosoluble oils during the production of knitted fabric, given that the hydrosoluble oils aremore easily eliminated during a preliminary stage of continuous washing.

This initial wash in continuous mode is carried out in a SHARK-2000 submerged suction (twostages) unit made by TVE-Escalé, with a later stage of hydroextraction by suction. Then, the knit-ted fabric is passed through the stenter, where the thermofixing takes place. With this, the fabriccan enter the stenter moist but not wet, and so in the first fields of the stenter, while this moistureis being eliminated, the overall structure of the knitted fabric becomes more uniform.

In the TVE-Escalé washing unit, the washing bath flow through the fabric can be regulated tobetween 100-2,000 l/min. All water used for washing is recycled. As the fabric leaves the bath, itpasses through an air spray section and pressure rollers that achieve the hydroextraction.


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Heat setting Washing Dyeing

Hydroextractionby suction Drying & heat settingUnit for washing by

continuous open-width

submerged suction

Dyeing

A system of compensators controls the fabric tension and the regularity of the feeding to thestenter.

Once the wash and the thermofixing have been done, dyeing and finishing can begin.


The application of this new technology requires incorporating the washing unit described above,which may be adapted just before the stenter machine in which the drying and thermofixing will beperformed.

Production benefits

The overall productivity of the process of washing and dyeing of knitted elastic fabrics increasesin the order of 20%.


• A reduction in smoke emissions coming from the weaving oils• A 50% saving of water from the washing processes• An improvement in the quality of the working environment

Economic parameters

The machine described above must be acquired.

As far as savings are concerned, they derive basically from the lower water consumption in thewashing processes.

Bibliography

- Technical information supplied by TVE-Escalé- International Dyer, October 2000, p. 28

6.1.2.8. Easy care finish low in formaldehyde

Traditional problem

The “easy care” finish on cellulosic fibres is a finish which is resistant to washing, which en-hances comfort and provides easy washing characteristics, implying the following for the con-sumer:

• Better dimensional stability• Better recovery from creasing• Easy ironing


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These effects are achieved by applying resins that react with the cellulosic chain of the fibre and to-gether, in the presence of an appropriate catalyst, under predetermined conditions of temperatureand reaction time. With certain chemical products and certain finishing processes, if the finished fa-bric must be washed industrially and the chemical products have generated free formaldehyde, thisproduct could appear in the wastewater that goes to the wastewater treatment plant causing se-rious difficulties. Depending on the finishing process, if the last stage is to pass through the sten-ter and if free formaldehyde has been generated, this could appear in the air from the stenter outlet.


Given that cotton and viscose garments with easy iron properties, good recovery from creasing andgood dimensional stability and form are more and in more demand by the consumers, it is neces-sary to obtain these properties with a low free formaldehyde content in the fabric so as to preservethe health of the consumer avoiding, as far as possible, this product’s emission into the atmosphere.

The main aim is to achieve a free formaldehyde content of less than 75 ppm (in accordance withlaw 112 (Japan)).

One of the most commonly used products, to substitute formaldehyde, is based on chemically mo-dified dimethyldihydroxyethylene urea (modified DMDHEU).

To carry out this process, three different procedures can be used:

1. Dry cross-linking2. Moist cross-linking3. Wet cross-linking

Due to its complexity, procedure 3 is not used. In the European industry, the most common pro-cedure is number 1, dry cross-linking, which requires a foulard for the impregnation of the resinsin open width, and a stenter with a sufficient number of temperature fields as to carry out theprocess at an industrially competitive speed. The majority of companies that perform textile en-nobling in Spain have this equipment.

The production throughflow is as follows:


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FABRIC IMPREGNATIONpadding bath with the finishing solution

(80% of impregnation of the bath on the fabric):- DMDHEU- Catalyst- Softener- Acetic acid

DRYING AND CONDENSATION IN THE STENTER(160-170ºC for 30-40 s)

WASHING

DRYING


• Woven fabric, of cotton and viscose• Knitted fabrics, of cotton and viscose

Dyeing and/or finishing companies that, naturally, have the necessary machinery available.

Production benefits

The interest in the new technique is based on the compliance with a more demanding environ-mental law, and hence, production remains unaltered.


When reducing the level of free formaldehyde, its presence is reduced, both in the wastewater andin the emissions into the atmosphere.

Economic parameters

If the machinery for cross-linking is not available, it will have to be acquired.

As consumers start to appreciate environmentally friendly garments, so the process will progres-sively start to gain importance.

6.1.2.9. The bioscouring process of cotton fabric and blends in overflow-type discontinuousprocesses

Traditional problem

Cotton material, be it flock, thread or fabric, that is to be bleached and/or dyed, must be previouslysubjected to a scouring process that is done using sodium hydroxide, detergents, sequestrantsand small quantities of reductive products. With this, and working at temperatures of 100ºC andtimes of 1 h to 1.5 h the cotton’s waxes, pectins and hemicellulose are chemically attacked, ex-tracted and pass through the bath in such a way that alkaline wastewater is generated with animportant organic matter content.

The scouring process of cotton is essential in order to guarantee the subsequent processes of blea-ching, dyeing, printing and finishing.

This process is neither selective nor specific, and leads to a loss of weight of between 3 and 6%,which corresponds to the impurities that accompany the cellulose in the fibre. The process mustalso eliminate the added hydrophobic substances, such as yarning and weaving oils in the case ofknitted fabric, etc.

The fabric must be washed with water, and depending on the needs of the following process, mustbe neutralised, which implies a second bath.


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The set of the two stages implies:

Water consumption: 20 l/kg of fabricProcess time = 90 minWastewater characteristics: BOD - high

COD - highSoluble salts (conductivity)


The idea is to substitute traditional chemical scouring with a scouring enzyme.

It is of great importance to perform a study of dyeability in each of these cases given that, de-pending on the scouring process, the affinity and exhaustion of the dyes used in the later cottondyeing process will be different.

The bioscouring process with enzymes is specific and only degrades the impurities that need tobe eliminated. The weight loss of the fabric is lower and there is practically no further chemical de-gradation of the cellulose. The COD and BOD levels of the wastewater that is generated are farlower due to the fact that the quantity of impurities extracted and/or degraded is far lower.

The treatment bath may often be reused in later treatment.

If a biodegradable detergent is used, the wastewater may be reused for the washing of the dyedfabric.


This new process is applicable in new and existing plants that already perform scouring pro-cesses.


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SCOURING

R/b: 1:10T= 100ºCt= 60 min+ NaOH+ Detergent+ Hydrosulphite+ Chelating agent

ENZYMATIC SCOURING

EnzymeDetergentT= 40-60ºCt= 30 minR/b= 1:10 (if the bath is reused, 1:5)

WASHING /NEUTRALISING

R/b: 1:10T= 40ºCt= 30 minHCOOH

Production benefits

Process times are shorter. The weight losses of scoured products are lower and the general qua-lity of the scoured material is higher than traditionally scoured material.


In a particular case, the environmental benefits may be summed up as:

COD of conventional scouring with NaOH ...........3,690 mg/lCOD of bioscouring ..............................................1,760 mg/l

In the case of the bioscouring and bleaching of cotton fabric, data concerning the consumption ofwater and chemical products and the degree of pollution of wastewater calculated on a produc-tion of 1,000 t/year are summarised in the following table:

Table 30

CHEMICAL PRODUCTS, TRADITIONAL ALKALINE THE BIOSCOURINGWATER AND WASTEWATER PROCESS PROCESS

POLLUTANT LOAD

NaOH 500 t 100 t

Organic acids 500 t 75 t

Surfactants 30 t 30 t

Chelating agents 15 t 15 t

Stabilisers 30 t 15 t

H2O2 250 t 200 t

Rinse water >100 Mill m3 <40 Mill m3

BOD >1,000 mg/l <350 mg/l

COD >1,500 mg/l <500 mg/l

Total of soluble solids >2,500 mg/l <1,000 mg/l

Therefore, the enzyme scouring process allows for energy saving, a decrease in the consumptionof chemical products, a considerable saving in water and an important reduction in the pollutantload of the wastewater generated in the process.

Economic parameters

Although the enzymes are more expensive than the conventional scouring products, the economicinterest in this new technique depends on the costs of treatment, the costs of water supply andthe cost of the chemical products used in the industrial processes, which vary with time in accor-dance with environmental legislation which is getting stricter and stricter.


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Bibliography

- J.L. López – Novo Nordisk“Biopreparación del algodón- un nuevo concepto enzimático”.Revista de Química Textil, issue 145 (1999), pp. 66-75.

6.1.2.10. Pretreatment of cotton with cationic agents

Traditional problem

In the way in which this technique is currently being used, there are no reference points referringto traditional techniques.

Description of the technique

The pretreatment of cotton fabric with cationic agents produces a fibre that can be dyed with di-rect dyes at pH 7, in the absence of electrolyte and with high dye exhaustion onto the fibre.

The cationic agents may be biopolymers like chitosan, and products which react with the cellulosesuch as:

• Epoxy quaternary ammonium compounds • Poly epichlorohydrin-dimethylamine• Mono and bi-reactive haloheterocyclic agents


Cotton fabrics and blends with chemical fibres which are to be used in aged finishing processesand certain fashion effects.

There is a growing interest among companies that dye ready-made garments in this process.

Depending on the final conditions of the fabric to be manufactured, this pretreatment may or maynot be carried out.

Production benefits

The dyeing-finishing process of ready-made garments is made considerably easier.


With this pretreatment, fewer chemical products are consumed, and less conductivity to and dyeingof wastewater is achieved.


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Economic parameters

This Pretreatment is more expensive than the usual way of carrying out dyeing but it means thatnew effects can be achieved on the dyed fabric.

Bibliography

- Y. A. Youssef, JSDC, Vol. 116, Oct. 2000, pp. 316-322.

6.1.2.11. Samples by digital printing

Traditional problem

The process, from the buying of a design, which is generally on paper, until the printed productsreach the market, is extraordinarily long and costly.

Habitually, the manufacturer of printed fabric must provide his clients with fabric samples in the co-lour combinations that have been proposed and, on occasion, even ready to wear garments. Thisinvolves a highly complicated process of printing of small yardages, garment-by-garment dress-making, etc., which cause the consumption of resources and the generation of effluents and pro-portionally higher quantities of waste than are generated with larger consignments.

Furthermore, cylinders must be engraved, which are sometimes only used for the preparation ofthe aforementioned samples with the consequent expense to the company.


Thanks to the new technique of digital stamping, samples of the designs created for printing canbe made on the fabric without the need to engrave and create cylinders, and with no need to carryout the physical process of printing, as it will be done later in the factory.

By connecting one or several CAD (computer aided design) systems to a digital printer printingon fabric, it is possible to carry out samples with different types of dyes: reactive, acid, disperseand pigment dyes. This means that it is possible to later obtain a reproducibility with the resultsthat are going to be obtained with the traditional method. The digital printer is controlled by a prin-ting server (RIP) which allows the storage of the work and the optimisation of its functioning.


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RIP Professional TextilesPrinting Server

CAD programme

Calibration system forobtaining colour and colouring Printer

Each type of combination of fibres in the fabric (knit or open weave) requires a different process forthe preparation of the fabric and a suitable set of dyes with affinity to the fabric.

In most cases, the fabric which has been dyed must be dried and then the dyes must be fixed onthe fibre in a suitable machine. Later, the fabric must be washed and finished.


The printing of cotton, polyester, silk and wool fabrics (prepared for printing).

The possibility of creating exclusive combinations of small yardages.

This technique may be applied on a small or large scale by simply increasing the number of digitalprinters. Depending on the sample volume more than one unit shall be necessary. The requiredspace for the installation will depend on the number of printers (size 210 cm wide approx.)

More and more companies are implementing this technique on a level of sample production. InItaly, there are several plants in which several in-line printers work on silk in order to do high-resolu-tion prints.

Process benefits

This technique allows the rapid response to market demands given that it permits a faster visuali-sation of the design created on different fabrics. Moreover, it makes small productions possible,without going through traditional production channels.

Nevertheless, digital printing machines produce between 100 and 200 m2 per hour, which is asignificantly lower production than that which may be obtained using the traditional system.However, certain operations are avoided compared to the traditional printing process.

The maintenance of the ink injectors is a critical parameter.


A reduction in the generation of printing paste remains, in water consumption in cleaning opera-tions of the aforementioned remains and of the wastewater pollutant load.

Economic parameters

Depending on the printer to be installed, the price range of the investment varies, and amorti-sation is fast for the user since all expenses incurred in the engraving of cylinders and mouldsare saved.

The cost of the machine may be offset by the increased availability for the production of samples.

References: Ferraz Pinto, SIVT, Zenith, STOF, Grupo Perrin


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6.1.2.12. Transfer printing technology

Traditional problem

Polyester is traditionally printed with disperse dyes. The conventional printing system involves:

1. The preparation of the printing paste2. Printing on the polyester fabric3. Drying4. Steaming5. Washing6. Finishing

This whole set of operations requires a specific machine and involves an important production timeand great difficulty in case short series of printing were required. Moreover, the paste remains mustbe cleaned from the printing machines, which implies time, water and energy consumption and thegeneration of wastewater. The washing of the printed fabric also involves the consumption of consi-derable amounts of water and energy and significantly contributes to the wastewater pollutant load.


The technology of printing by transfer implies the use of a paper printed with special dispersedye inks which is brought into contact with the polyester or polyamide fabric (knit or open weave)for 10-35 seconds. At temperatures of 160 - 200ºC, the paper’s disperse dye sublimates, con-denses on the fabric and diffuses towards the interior of the fibre.

The printed paper may be acquired from specialised companies in the field of printing on paper forprinting by transfer.

At the end of the process, the fabric contains the same design as the paper and is already calen-dered and ready to be made up.

The application of the transfer paper containing the design onto the fabric may be done either incontinuous or discontinuous mode:

• In discontinuous: it is done on a hot, flat board

• In continuous: the transfer paper and the fabric are simultaneously fed into a thermoprintingcalender

Once printed, the original feel of the fabric remains unchanged. There are no undesirable wasteproducts to be washed off and the product is washable and hardwearing.


Knitted and open weave polyester, polyamide and acrylic fabrics, each material with its own,specially selected dyes. Also applicable to garments made with these chemical fibres, using sui-table presses.


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Production benefits

• There is no limitation as to the number of printed colours

• It provides a rapid response to changing market demands

• It is suitable for printing both long and short yardages


This new technology offers several advantages:

• Water is not consumed, and so no wastewater is generated

• The paper which is used for transfer can be used later for packing

Economic parameters

Overall, it is a highly competitive technique.

A calender must be available for thermoprinting, suitable to the required widths.

Bibliography

- J. Barton, International Dyer, vol 186, issue 5, p. 15.

6.1.2.13. Systems of minimum finish application

Traditional problem

The application of finishes to bleached, dyed or printed fabrics is usually done by the full bath sys-tem, that is to say, that the fabric remains submerged for a certain time in a bath that containsthe finishing product which is to be applied.

Having finished the application, the fabric must be subjected to hydroextraction and drying, which,in addition to the generation of wastewater and the energy used for drying, generally, impliesslow production.


There are several possible alternative techniques to achieve the necessary quantity of finishingproduct, but applying a minimal bath quantity on the fabric.

The main ones are:


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1. The application of unstable foams on the fabric: the finishing products are applied in a foamingmachine which speads the foam onto the fabric. With this, the fabric is impregnated to less than30% (on 100 g of fabric, 30 g of the foamed finishing solution is distributed).

2. Minimum bath application cylinder. This is an automatic machine which is based on an induc-tor cylinder that transports the bath from a trough to the fabric, while two bolsters determinethe weight per square metre before and after the impregnation process. Impregnation in the re-gion of 30% is also achieved.


This technology may be applied to all types of open-width fabric. Generally speaking, following theapplication, the fabric can be dried in a stenter.

Production benefits

Since the fabric contains far less water, it can dry at a much higher speed in the stenter that thecompany already possesses. This means that production speed can be increased in the order of40 to 60%.


Lower water consumption in the preparation of the finishing baths and a lower generation ofwastewater.

Energy savings in the drying of the fabric.

Economic parameters

The implementation of this new technology requires purchasing the equipment and investing in thetraining of the company staff.

6.1.3. Good housekeeping practices

6.1.3.1. Substitution of traditional paraffin with synthetic paraffin in the formula for the sizingof cellulose warp threads and its blends with chemical fibres

Traditional problem

For many companies, a change in the formulation of the sizing products is a most difficult process.The yield of the weaving facilities depends to a great extent on the sizing of the warp threads.

The sizing must be eliminated in the desizing process, which is one of the first operations of thetextiles ennobling sector and, without doubt, is the operation that contributes the most to the was-tewater pollutant load as far as COD and BOD levels are concerned.


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When it is still technically not considered possible to substitute the so-called chemically modifiedstarch and starch-based semi-synthetic sizes (which are also mixed with 6 or 7 products, amongwhich are the lubricating agents such as paraffin) with the new hydrosoluble sizes, it is highly re-commended to substitute conventional paraffin with the new synthetic paraffin which, being itselfeasily emulsifiable in water, when it is incorporated into a desizing formula, will facilitate this ope-ration globally.

The synthetic paraffin incorporates fatty acids with emulsifying products to the sizing formula-tion, which gives rise to highly efficient sizing agents in the production of a fabric with a low me-tal/fibre friction-coefficient, at the same time as facilitating the later desizing process.


These products can be incorporated into many current sizing formulations.

Several Spanish companies have carried out the above-mentioned substitution for reasons of qua-lity in production.

Production benefits

The production benefits should be considered globally.

Although the weaving efficiency is not necessarily reduced, where significant benefits can be ob-tained is in the later desizing process.


The environmental benefits of this technique are obtained in two ways. On the one hand, a cer-tain decrease in the wastewater pollutant load is achieved.

Nevertheless, the principal factor is the improvement in the quality of desizing, which leads toa higher final quality of the fabric, thus reducing the number of reoperations and additions to thedye.

Economic parameters

The difference in cost between the conventional paraffins and the synthetic ones is not signifi-cant and so benefits are obtained thanks to the reduction of the number of re-operations and ad-ditions used to achieve the desired end quality.

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6.1.3.2. Demineralisation and desizing of woven cotton fabric by thepad-batch system

Traditional problem

The processes of preparation (desizing-scouring) and bleaching are the object of continuous in-novations since they affect almost the whole of textiles production.


The traditional steps for the preparation and bleaching of woven cotton fabric may be innovatedon the basis of the extraction of the cations of di- and trivalent metals that are contained in thecotton fibre, using formulations of easily biodegradable products with high complexing power ofthe di- and trivalent cations and high power to disperse the impurities.

For woven fabric, enzymatic desizing may be used to perform simultaneous demineralisation insuch a way that following rinsing, the fabric can be directly subjected to peroxide bleaching, thusreducing the number of stages in the preparation and bleaching stages:

Pad-batch enzymatic desizing

Beixol T 2090 ................ 5 ml/l (optimum pH for the enzyme: 6-6.5)

Felosan Jet ................... 5 ml/l (biodegradable detergent)

Beixion NE .................... 1-5 ml/l

Impregnation, digestion for 4h at 70ºC, and washed at 90ºC.

This process allows the preparation of cotton for later bleaching with hydrogen peroxide.

Pad-steam bleaching (padding-steaming)

Contavan GAL .............. 6 ml/l (stabiliser of the decomposition of the peroxide)

Felosan JET .................. 3 ml/l (biodegradable detergent)

NaOH 50% ................... 20 ml/l

H2O2 50% ...................... 30 ml/l

With an impregnation of 100% over the weight of the fabric, steamed at 102ºC for 20 min.


The companies that can adopt the new system are all those that have Pad-Batch facilities (pad-ding and cold rest, beaming on large beams).


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Production benefits

As for benefits for the fabric, with this system, greater fibre resistance to future treatments isobtained and, generally, the degree of whiteness of the cotton is better than after traditional de-sizing with NaOH.


There is a reduction in the levels of AOX and COD in wastewater.

Economic parameters

Given the variations between the new and the traditional processes, it is quite difficult to makedirect comparisons. The economic analysis must take into account all of the production processglobally, including the environmental costs.

Bibliography

- Technical information supplied by Cresa (CHT).

6.1.3.3. Washing and dyeing of knitted polyester fabrics in a single bath

Traditional problem

Traditionally, the dyeing of polyester fabrics has needed a washing stage prior to dyeing given thatalthough it is an essentially hydrophobic fibre, uniform hydrophility and absorbency must be achie-ved in all of the fabric to be dyed. Consequently, a polyester dyeing process requires:

1. Prefixing in stenter (heat setting)2. Washing3. Dyeing4. Reductive clearing5. Rinsing

This large number of stages implies a high consumption of water and energy and the generationof wastewater of different characteristics at each stage.


Currently, by using special surfactants, it is possible to perform the washing and dyeing simulta-neously in just one bath. Therefore, the stages of the process would be as follows:

1. Prefixing in stenter (heat setting)2. Washing-dyeing 3. Reductive clearing 4. Rinsing


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This is operated as follows: add 3-5% of Dispergal PCS during the cold filling of the machine. Oncethe pH has been adjusted to 4.5-5.5, the selected disperse dyes are introduced. At this point, thedyeing process may be started.


All factories that dye polyester fabric may apply this technique.

Production benefits

Naturally, the productivity of the dyeing facilities is increased since a washing and a dyeing ope-ration are grouped together.


By reducing the number of baths, 25% of water is saved, as well as energy.

Economic parameters

Depending on the machinery used for dyeing, greater or lesser savings will be made on the pro-cess costs.

6.1.3.4. Single stage desizing, scouring and bleaching of cotton fabric

Traditional problem

For woven cotton fabric and blends with synthetic fibres, a pretreatment routine consisting ofthree stages has for many years been the standard procedure, and includes:

1. Desizing2. Scouring3. Chemical bleaching

The fact that three stages are needed implies a high level of water and energy consumption andthe generation of wastewater of different characteristics at each stage.


New formulations of new auxiliaries, combined with automatic dosage systems and steamers ma-ke this new process possible.

The Flash Steam procedure unifies desizing, alkaline treatment (scouring) and pad-steam bleaching(padding - steaming) with hydrogen peroxide in a single stage, and so the efficiency of the processis increased.


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The operational data corresponding to this new process are as follows:

At an interval of 2 to 4 minutes, when the fabric is impregnated with the attached formula, a sui-table degree of bleaching for dyeing is achieved. This is a great advantage, especially for the pro-cessing of fabrics that are susceptible to form creases.

Bleaching with Flash Steam peroxide

15-30 ml/kg Ciba Tinoclarite FS*30-50 g/kg NaOH 100%45-90 ml/kg H2O2 35%

Steaming for 2-4 minutes (saturated steam)Hot wash


All those cotton and cotton-polyester fabrics that technically can be processed open-width and incontinuous mode, or those for which this is advisable.

Production benefits

• An important increase in production speed.

• Since the formula contains few components, it may be used in most automatic facilities for thepreparation of solutions.


This procedure allows for very important water savings and the use of a smaller amount of che-mical products and so the wastewater pollutant load is reduced.

Economic parameters

Overall, they favour the new process. There is a reduction in the number of products in stock in thecompany with all the associated consequences.

Nevertheless, machinery is needed that allows the automatic dosage of products and so, if this isnot available, it will have to be acquired, which involves investment cost.

Bibliography

- International Dyer, October (2000), p. 10.


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* Ciba Tinoclarite FS is a phosphorous free combination, with a bleaching stabiliser, a dispersing agent, a wettingagent and a detergent.

6.1.3.5. Printing with pigments

Traditional problem

The direct printing of fabrics requires, for each type of fibre, the use of the suitable dyes.

A conventional direct printing process involves:

1. The preparation of the printing paste

2. The printing onto the fabric

3. Drying

4. Steaming

5. Washing

6. Finishing

All of these operations require specific machinery and involve significant production time as wellas water and energy consumption and the generation of wastewater in the wet processes andequipment cleaning operations.

On the other hand, each type of fibre requires a specific dye for it to diffuse and fix in it. Thiscomplicates the printing formulas and processes in the frequent case of fibre mixtures.


Printing with pigments is the most important printing technology in the world. It is estimated thatover 60% of all printed fabrics are made using this technique.

The traditional dyes and printing systems may be replaced by printing with pigments given thatwith the right chemical means, pigments may be fixed onto all sorts of fibres.

The main steps are:

1. Printing (on a flat machine, with a microperforated or garment cylinder)

2. Drying

3. Polymerisation (with hot air at 160ºC for 4 min)

In many cases, the printed fabric is already ready to be made up.


The technique is applied to the printing of knitted and open weave fabrics.

The printing of fabrics is becoming increasingly important. With special binders, printing canbe done on elastic fabrics.


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Production benefits

It has the advantage of being a suitable process for knitted and woven fabrics and for ready-to-wear garments, with any type of fibres and mixtures of fibres since the pigments are to be retainedby the binder and the cross-linking agent, regardless of the type of fibre onto which they areapplied.

The modern printing thickeners have been developed on an aqueous base, and so the use ofsolvents has decreased.


This process allows considerable water and energy saving since water is not consumed for thewashing of the printed fabric and neither is energy used to dry the printed-washed fabric.

With the new product ranges, prints free from formaldehyde can be produced (in the order of 20ppm in fabric), and emissions of volatile organic compounds are in the order of some 0.7 kg ofVOC/ tonne of printing paste generated. The new pigments are below the limits of heavy metal con-tents required by the ecolabel.

Economic parameters

The greater cost of printing paste containing pigments compared to other pastes is compensa-ted by the savings it generates through lower water and energy consumption, less wastewater ge-neration and a lower emission of volatile organic compounds.

6.1.3.6. Other good housekeeping practices

In addition to the previous good housekeeping practices which are strictly related to the manu-facturing processes of the companies in the dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors, other,more generic ones exist which can also contribute to an improvement in company environ-mental management and, therefore, to the prevention of the pollution it generates. Some ofthem are mentioned below:

Control of the number of re-operations and additions

The decrease in the number of re-operations and additions and, therefore, the achievement of a highdegree of reproducibility in the dyeing process has a great impact on the reduction of water andenergy consumption, in the reduction of waste flows that are generated and in the reduction of costs.

It may be considered that the average number of re-operations in the sector is between 6 and 10%,while that of additions is between 2 and 4%.

Nevertheless, as some of the practical cases included here indicate, there is room for their re-duction.


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The following can be done to achieve the reduction of the index of re-operations and addi-tions:

• Identify the possible factors that influence the indices of re-operations and additions through theanalysis, during a certain period of time, of the registry of process parameters that are made upof parts of production or other types of registers which the company may have, and their com-parison with the data on the evolution of re-operations and additions indices.

• Control the parameters that have been identified as possible causes. Some of these maybe:

- Process water quality - Characteristics of the fabric to be processed: dyeing capacity, weight, moisture content- Errors in the weighing of dyes and chemical products- Dosage methods for the dyes and chemical products- Moisture content in dyes- Bath ratios- pH of dye bath- Time/temperature profiles in the dyeing process

• On occasion, what must be done is to request as much information as possible from clientsand suppliers concerning the characteristics of the raw materials to be processed, of dyes, au-xiliaries and chemical products, in order to adjust the recipes to be used, as far as possible, tothe weight of the fabric and its characteristics.

Preparation of the mother printing pastes

• Use reusable recipients with a minimum moist area ratio to prepare the pastes.

• Weigh the products that are needed to prepare the paste exactly and precisely.

• The dyes being sensitive to moisture and temperature, the control of the environmental condi-tions has to be carried out in the storage area of the containers that have been “started” and thepaste preparation area.

A reduction in the number of containers and their returnability

In the companies of the subsectors studied, there usually exists a great variety of dyes, chemicaland auxiliary products, which means that they must be acquired in relatively small containerswhich, once empty, become waste products which must be suitably managed.

Nevertheless, some of the products used are consumed in quantities that allow them to be boughtin larger, returnable containers, or even in bulk, in cistern lorries.

In each case, it is useful to adjust the volume of the containers to the degree of consumption ofeach product.

Nonetheless, it should be borne in mind that the plants where the availability of space is limited,


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the acquisition of containers or the installation of tanks for the reception of products from cis-terns is, necessarily, very limited.

A reduction in water consumption

• Check that the taps, stopcocks and other devices to regulate the flow of water are not openunnecessarily or broken. Establish periodical inspection protocols.

• Clean equipment and utensils immediately after use to avoid formation of hardened deposits thatrequire a greater consumption of water for cleaning.

Prevention of leaks and accidental spillage

• Store dangerous materials in areas where the probability of leakage is low.

• Store containers in such a way that the possibility of their breaking is minimal and the visual de-tection of leaks and spillage is facilitated.

• Install retention troughs to contain possible leakage from containers or tanks.

• Avoid, as far as possible, the positioning of buckets full of chemical products, finishes, prin-ting pastes, etc. on the ground, in thoroughfares, given that it is easy to trip over them by mis-take.

• Establish procedures for prevention, control and the action of the operatives in the event of anaccidental spillage or leak. These procedures should include the preference of dry-collectingthe spilled materials, whenever possible, rather than cleaning with water. Whenever possible,the collected product should be reused. Otherwise, it should be suitably treated as a wasteproduct.

• Draft reports on all leaks and their associated costs.

A reduction in emissions into the atmosphere

• Keep recipients, baths, containers and equipment that contain substances with volatile organiccompounds covered or closed, when they are not in use.

Product storage

• Use and store containers in accordance with the supplier’s recommendations.

• Use suitable containers for the products they contain: they must be stable, easy to handle, clo-sed, and it may be useful for them to have a dispenser device, etc.

• Separate from the ground all products by means of shelves or pallets and label them clearlyand visibly.


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• Visually inspect, on a regular basis, the physical state of the shelves, recipients, taps, dosageconduits, shut-offs, etc.

• Do not store liquid products above solid products.

• Separate alkaline products from acid products.

• Avoid contact between oxidising products and inflammable materials.

• Keep containers and drums tightly closed to avoid spillage and emissions into the atmos-phere.

• Install level indicators on storage tanks for liquids and check their correct functioning regu-larly.

Control of inventories

• Use computerised systems to follow up raw materials and finished products and perform the con-trol of stocks on a regular basis.

• Apply the “FIFO” philosophy (first in first out) in the use of dyes and auxiliary products in order toreduce as far as possible the generation of out-of-date products which should be treated aswaste products.

6.2. OPPORTUNITIES FOR RECYCLING AT SOURCE

6.2.1. Recycling at source

6.2.1.1. Substitution of starch-type sizing products with synthetic, hydrosoluble sizes inthe sizing of warps for manufacturing woven fabric

Traditional problem

Sizing is an essential operation in order to allow the high-speed production of woven fabric. Thetraditional sizing formulas involve the mixing of a high number of components (often starch-typecomponents) which, once applied on the warp threads, are not dissolved by the wash water andso they must be eliminated from the fabric in the enzymatic desizing process, which is a long,costly process that pollutes wastewater.


The substitution of starch-type sizing products with synthetic, hydrosoluble sizing products ofthe ethyl-vinyl-acetate or carboxymethyl-starch types, allows the substitution of enzymatic bio-technology with a simple wash to eliminate sizing products. Thus, quicker, more economical de-sizing processes are achieved. With the correct training of personnel on the quality control ofthese new sizing products, the aforementioned substitution may be carried out to allow:


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• The reuse of sizing products by extraction, filtration and concentration in the case of a weavingcompany that has sizing and desizing sections.

• Getting right to the process of scouring/bleaching in a single stage.

• Making the enzymatic scouring process unnecessary.


Conventional sizing machines are suitable for sizing with the new products.

Production benefits

The greatest benefits are obtained as long as it is the company that applies the glue that later per-forms the desizing and the processing of the desizing bath for the concentration and reuse of thesize.

The substitution of enzymatic desizing with a simple wash process means that a reduction in theconsumption of chemical products and process time can be achieved.


If the size is recycled at source, the environmental benefits are clear given that both the flow ofwastewater generated and pollutant load are reduced.

When desizing is carried out by the textiles ennobling company and not at the weaving company(which besides, is the most common), the substitution of enzymatic desizing with a simple washmeans that there is a reduction in the consumption of chemical products, the use of enzymes iseliminated and therefore, there is a reduction in the wastewater pollutant load.

Economic parameters

The new products have a higher cost than the traditional ones but, if they are reused, they endup being more economical.

6.2.1.2. Membrane technology for recycling wastewater

Traditional problem

Traditionally, wastewater is not usually recycled, not even once treated, and is dumped, either in-to public riverbeds or into the drainage network.


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The membrane filtering system means that wastewater can be recycled, that is to say, it can bereused in approximately the same processes in which it had previously been used.

The technology of the membranes used is based on microfiltering, ultrafiltering and nanofiltering.The membranes used are porous and act as filters, selecting the diameter of the particles that canbe transferred from one side of the membrane to the other upon applying pressure.

As an example, the bibliography indicates the reduction percentages of COD and of colour, de-pending on the type of membrane used:

Table 31

Any of the three technologies produces a permeate (filtered water) which is what, if there is com-pliance with the quality requirements, can be reused, and a concentrate (rejected water from the fil-tering operation that contains the material that has not been able to pass through the membrane).

Example of operational data:

Wastewater flow: 20 m3/hourMean wastewater COD: 2,200 mg/l

Mean COD after biological treatment: 180 mg/l

Mean COD after filtering with membranes: 45 mg/lSurfactant content: 0.5-1%Colour: < 50 units

The filtered water presents characteristics of pollutant load and colour that make it suitable for itsreuse in dyeing or in the washing operations after dyeing.


Companies in the textiles ennobling sector that have primary and secondary treatments for theirwastewater.

Production benefits

They have not been described.


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TECHNOLOGY COD REDUCTION (%)REDUCTION INCOLOUR (%)

Microfiltering 20 14

Ultrafiltering 85 90

Nanofiltering 95 99


The reuse of filtered water allows an important reduction in the consumption of water through itsrecycling. However, the concentrate that results from filtering must be adequately managed.

Economic parameters

This technology requires the availability of expensive facilities and machinery, but the highest costof recycled water compared to water from the grid is compensated by a reduction in water con-sumption.

In a company that has been studied, with data corresponding to the year 2001, the following re-sults were obtained:

• Mean cost of water entering the plant: 1.29 e/m3

• Mean cost of treating 330,000 m3/year: 1.33 e/m3

Despite the cost of the recycled water being slightly higher than the incoming water, the environ-mental benefits it offers in saving large amounts of water and therefore, a reduction in emissions,are strong arguments in favour of the implementation of this technique.

Bibliography:

- J. Porta “Membranas: proceso alternativo para reciclar agua residual” Revista de Química Textil issue 153, (2001), pp. 30-46.

6.3. OPPORTUNITIES FOR WASTE RECOVERY

The industries in the dyeing, printing and finishing sectors generate waste textiles (fabric or lint)which, in some cases, may be reused in other industrial sectors. However, the existing options andthe viability of each of them depend on large variety of factors such as the existing industrial struc-ture in each geographical area or the environmental legislation that is in force.

As far as the recovery of energy is concerned, some waste products, such as used lubricating oils,used solvents or printing pastes, possess high calorific power and may be incinerated in order torecover energy.

Nevertheless, this is waste that may be regenerated or recycled, either at the same facilitieswhere it has been generated or at specialised facilities. Recycling is considered as being themost environmentally correct option in waste manegement and has thus, priority over otheroptions.


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6.4. SUMMARY TABLE OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF THEPOLLUTION PREVENTION OPPORTUNITIES

As stated in the introduction, some of the opportunities for the alternatives described in order toachieve pollution prevention could be classified in different sections and, in turn, could have po-sitive repercussions on more than one environmental vector. Below is a summary table whose aimis to illustrate these synergies:


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Table 32

REDUCTION AT SOURCE

SUBSTITUTION NEW GOOD RECYCLINGOF RAW TECHNOLOGIES HOUSEKEEPING AT SOURCE

MATERIALS PRACTICES

REDUCTION IN WATER 6.1.1.2 6.1.2.1 6.1.3.1 6.2.1.1CONSUMPTION 6.1.1.5 6.1.2.2 6.1.3.2 6.2.1.2

6.1.1.7 6.1.2.3 6.1.3.3 6.1.2.36.1.2.4 6.1.3.46.1.2.5 6.1.3.56.1.2.7 6.1.3.66.1.2.9

6.1.2.116.1.2.126.1.2.13

REDUCTION IN ENERGY 6.1.1.1 6.1.2.1 6.1.3.1 6.1.2.3CONSUMPTION 6.1.1.2 6.1.2.2 6.1.3.2

6.1.2.3 6.1.3.36.1.2.4 6.1.3.46.1.2.5 6.1.3.56.1.2.6 6.1.3.66.1.2.86.1.2.96.1.2.13

REDUCTION IN THE 6.1.1.1 6.1.2.1 6.1.3.1 6.2.1.1ONSUMPTION OF RAW 6.1.1.5 6.1.2.2 6.1.3.4 6.1.2.3MATERIALS 6.2.1.1 6.1.2.3

6.1.2.66.1.2.10

REDUCTION IN WASTEWATER 6.1.1.1 6.1.2.1 6.1.3.1 6.2.1.1POLLUTANT LOAD 6.1.1.3 6.1.2.2 6.1.3.2 6.2.1.2

6.1.1.4 6.1.2.3 6.1.3.4 6.1.2.36.1.1.5 6.1.2.4 6.1.3.56.1.1.6 6.1.2.6 6.1.3.66.1.1.7 6.1.2.96.2.1.1 6.1.2.10

6.1.2.116.1.2.126.1.2.13

REDUCTION IN EMISSIONS 6.1.1.5 6.1.2.2 6.1.3.5 —INTO THE ATMOSPHERE 6.1.2.7 6.1.3.6

6.1.2.8

REDUCTION IN THE AMOUNT — 6.1.2.2 6.1.3.6 6.1.2.3OF WASTE GENERATED 6.1.2.3

6.1.2.11

IMPROVEMENTS FOR THE 6.1.1.1 6.1.2.2 — 6.1.2.3TREATMENT SYSTEM 6.1.1.3 6.1.2.3

INCREASE IN PRODUCTIVITY 6.1.1.1 6.1.2.1 6.1.3.3 —6.1.1.2 6.1.2.2 6.1.3.46.1.1.4 6.1.2.4

6.1.2.66.1.2.76.1.2.9

OTHER BENEFITS — 6.1.2.8 — —


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7.1. CASE STUDY 1

COUNTRY: SPAINCOMPANY: Fibracolor, S. A.

Improvement made:

Wastewater treatment system by neutralisation with steam generator gases

Description:

The company carries out the dyeing, finishing and printing of textiles. Most wastewater gene-rated comes from the emptying of equipment, following the dyeing and bleaching operations.This water is characterised by its high basicity and must be subjected to a process of neutra-lisation prior to being treated biologically by the company’s plant.

Before implementing the improvement described below, 96% sulphuric acid was used for theneutralisation process. This meant a risk of temporary over-acidification and the presence ofsulphates in the treated wastewater.

The new acidification system that has been implemented uses the gases generated by the twocogeneration boilers, which are used to obtain steam for the production process. The fuelsused are fuel oil and natural gas, and specifically, the acid nature of two gases that are gene-rated in the normal burning of these fuels is taken advantage of: carbon dioxide and sulphurdioxide.

As a consequence, at the same time as lower emissions of sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxidewhich come from the boiler burners is achieved, the consumption of sulphuric acid is alsodecreased, the risk of temporary over acidification is avoided and, thus, so is the risk in the bio-logical WWTP operation. The concentration of sulphates in wastewater is considerably redu-ced, which increases the possibility of its reuse in processes. Furthermore, the handling andtransport risks associated with the consumption of sulphuric acid is reduced, as well as pos-sible accidental pollution.

The economic advantages are also considerable since zero cost carbon dioxide is used andthe consumption of sulphuric acid is reduced.

Investment:210,354 ¤

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7. CASE STUDIES

Below is a table showing the main consumption and costs involved in the neutralisation operation,before and after the implementation of the aforementioned improvement:

SITUATION PRIOR TO SITUATION AFTER THE THE IMPLEMENTATION IMPLEMENTATION OFOF THE IMPROVEMENT THE IMPROVEMENT

Consumption of sulphuric acid 2,100 t/year 1,040 t/year

Consumption of used carbon dioxide 2.100 t/year 476 t/year

Presence of sulphates in wastewater 2,057 t/year 1,017 t/year

Energy consumption Not significant 1,080 kWh/d

Annual cost of energy (0.051 e/kWh) 20,138 ¤/year

Annual savings in sulphuric acid (0.062 e/kg) 68,515 ¤/year

¤/YEAR

ANNUAL SAVINGS: 48,377

YEARS

ESTIMATED PAYBACK PERIOD: 4.4


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7.2. CASE STUDY 2

COUNTRY: SPAINCOMPANY: Herederos de Salvador Segura, S. A.

Improvement made:

Development of a dyeing process with low environmental repercussions

Description:

The company carries out the dyeing of textile materials in general and, specifically, textile en-nobling (wool, polyester, viscose, etc.). Fabric dyeing is done in autoclaves. Dosage of rawmaterials was done, prior to the implementation of the improvement described hereunder, ma-nually, leading to the excessive consumption of chemical products and water, which, later, wastransformed into wastewater characterised by high concentrations of BOD and suspendedsolids, colour and temperature.

The company has installed an integrated computer system which controls all stages in thedyeing process, consisting of:

• A central computer and processor, to elaborate the exact formulation and the activities pro-gramme

• Microprocessors, which control the opening of valves, the temperature curve and bath dura-tion, quantities of water, dyes and other products

• Flowmeter to introduce the exact quantity of water• Measurers, to weigh and dose the dyeing products

The company has managed to reduce the bath ratio used in the dyeing of thread and com-bed yarn from 1:20 to 1:6, which translates into a significant saving of water and raw materials.Moreover, an estimated reduction has been achieved of 30% of the carbon monoxide and car-bon dioxide, nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide emissions as a direct consequence of thelower consumption of fuels in the boilers and the cogeneration engine.

Also noteworthy is the fact that this improvement in the quality of the wastewater has allowedthe downgrading of the parameters included in treatment taxes, in turn leading to a shorter pay-back period for the initial investment.

Investment:

327,626 ¤

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SITUATION PRIOR TO THE IMPLEMENT. IMPROVEMENT QUANTITY UNITS/YEAR

Energy consumption 1,893,375 TE/year

Water consumption 36,000 m3/year

Consumption of raw materials (dyes and chemical additives) 245 t/year

COD discharged (base 100) 100

Suspended solids (base 100) 100

Cost of energy consumption 25,035 ¤/year

Cost of water consumption 23,800 ¤/year

Cost of consumption of raw materials 57,237 ¤/year(dyes and chemical additives)

Cost of wastewater treatment 7,465 ¤/year

SITUATION AFTER THE IMPLEMENT. IMPROVEMENT QUANTITY UNITS/YEAR

Energy consumption 538,312 TE/year


Consumption of raw materials (dyes and chemical additives) 198,17 t/year

COD discharged (base 100) 20.5

Suspended solids (base 100) 18



Cost of consumption of raw materials 46,144 ¤/year(dyes and chemical additives)


¤/YEAR

ANNUAL SAVINGS: 49,348

YEARS


7.3. CASE STUDY 3

COUNTRY: SPAINCOMPANY: Acabats Barberá, S.L.

Improvement made:

Recycling at source of an enzyme desizing bath

Description:

The company belongs to the garment-ennobling sector for third parties, specifically denim.

All cotton finishing processes require prior desizing so that the processes to which the garmentis later subjected have an effect. When the size used is starch, the simplest desizing processand through which the best results may be obtained is that carried out by means of enzymes,specifically amylases and cellulases.

Enzymes are expensive organic substances, basically formed of carbon, hydrogen and oxy-gen, which lead to an increase in the COD and BOD levels of wastewater. A process that allowsits recycling at source in turn allows the significant reduction in the process cost and thewastewater pollutant load and, as a consequence, the treatment cost.

The company combined the effect of amylases and cellulases at the desizing stage in orderto improve the result. It specifically used an 800 l bath of water to which 800 ml of amylasesand 2 kg of cellulases were added. The cost of the bath was high and its COD, at the end ofthe desizing process, could reach 9,000 mg O2 / l.

The company built a system that would send the desizing bath to a storage tank once the pro-cess had finished. The desizing baths from the different operational machines are accumula-ted in this tank. Automatically, the necessary bath volume for the next machine to becomeoperative is measured and sent. When reaching the machine which starts the new desizing pro-cess, 30% of the enzymes that would have been used if the bath had been prepared again areadded, and 100% of the auxiliaries. This process may be repeated up to 20 times per day,five days per week. Once per week, all desizing baths are renewed and are poured into thecompany’s treatment system.

Investment:

57,276 ¤

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FORMER PROCESS CURRENT PROCESS

Production (kg of fabric/year) 736,000 kg/year 736,000 kg/year

Consumption in the desizing process- Cellulases (kg) 10,284 kg/year 3,285 kg/year- Amylases (l) 4,114 l/year 1,394 l/year- Water 4,113,600 l/year 600,000 l/year- Other bath components 5,142 l/year 5,142 l/year

COD effluent 37,022 kg O2/year 5,400 kg O2/year

Desizing process cost 124,463 ¤/year 42,443 ¤/year- Enzymes 116,365 ¤/year 37,596 ¤/year- Water 3,807 ¤/year 555 ¤/year- Other bath components 4,291 ¤/year 4,291 ¤/year

Treatment cost 3,708 ¤/year 541 ¤/year

TOTAL COST 128,172 ¤/year 42,984 ¤/year

SAVINGS 85,188 ¤/year

MONTHS



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7.4. CASE STUDY 4

COUNTRY: TURKEYLocation of the company: Istanbul, european side

Improvement made:

Reduction in dyeing reoperations from 5% to 1%

Description:

Crucial in dyeing operations is the achievement of the desired shade and colourfastness of thefabric being processed. Fluctuations in the quality of the fabric, as well as production vo-lumes handled require the adjustment of operational parameters (reaction time, concentrationof dye and chemical auxiliaries, etc.) in order to ensure the desired quality. If this adjustmentis not achieved, errors arise in dyeing which require the reprocessing of fabrics, consuming che-mical products and additional resources. Consequently, the percentage of fabrics that requirereprocessing is an important parameter, which influences the consumption of water, energy andchemical products used in dyeing and the later washing operations. Furthermore, the reduc-tion of this parameter is a good indicator of the potential for improvement.

Below is a summary of the results obtained with the implementation of this improvement:

• Reduction in water consumption: 1.1 %• Reduction in thermal energy consumption: 0.8%• Reduction in the consumption of chemical products: 1.7%• Reduction in overall cost: 1.0%• Total annual savings: 24,568 ¤

Investment:

Not significant.

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Energy consumption 102,742,422 MJ/year


Consumption of raw materials 3,549 t/year

Generation of wastewater 316,808 m3/year

Generation of waste 72,832 Kg/year



Cost of consumption of raw materials 1,036,646 ¤/year


Cost of waste management 3,763 ¤/year

Other costs — —









Cost of consumption of raw materials 1,023,433 ¤/year



Other costs — —

MONTHS

ESTIMATED PAYBACK PERIOD: Immediate

Referencie: Mirata, M., “Use of Environmental Performance Indicators to Promote Cleaner Production Technologiesin Small and Medium Sized Cotton Textile Wet Processing Industry”, MSc Thesis, Middle East Technical University,Department of Environmental Engineering, Sep 2000, Ankara, Turkey.

7.5. CASE STUDY 5

COUNTRY: TURKEYLocation of the company: Denizli

Improvement made:

A reduction in the bath ratio of certain machines, from 1:9 to 1:4

Description:

The “bath ratio” parameter is of great importance given that it directly influences the con-sumption of water, energy and chemicals that are used in each of the stages of the textiles pro-cess in discontinuous mode. The bath ratio value is a good indicator of the existing potentialfor improvement, from both the economic and the environmental points of view. This impro-vement may be achieved thanks to the adaptation of cleaner technologies. The “bath ratio” pa-rameter, furthermore, has a great value since it allows the monitoring of the improvementsachieved.

The reduction in the bath ratio from 1:9 to 1:7 can be achieved by changing the conditions inwhich the processes are performed. Nevertheless, to achieve a reduction from 1:7 to 1:4,new machinery must be acquired.

The company has overflow machines with a total capacity of 2,900 kg. Replacing these ma-chines by ULLR-type jets (ultra low bath ratio) (3 of 600 kg, 2 of 300 kg and 3 of 150 kg capa-city) meant an investment of 1,026,882 ¤.

The reduction in the bath ratio from 1:9 to 1:4 could imply a water savings of up to 55%. Theannual savings, in this case, are 618,220 ¤, which means 4.4% of the overall cost, which is con-sidered as being the sum of the cost of the water, energy and the chemical products consu-med in the wet processes.


• Reduction in water consumption: 55%• Reduction in thermal energy consumption: 41.25%• Reduction in the consumption of chemical products: 55%• Reduction in the overall cost: 46.8%• Total annual savings: 618,220 ¤

Investment:

1,026,882 ¤

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Cost of consumption of raw materials 364,582 ¤/year



Other costs — —




Consumption of raw materials 706 t/year








Other costs — —

MONTHS

ESTIMATED PAYBACK PERIOD: 20

Reference: Mirata, M., “Use of Environmental Performance Indicators to Promote Cleaner Production Technologiesin Small and Medium Sized Cotton Textile Wet Processing Industry”, MSc Thesis, Middle East Technical University,Department of Environmental Engineering, Sep 2000, Ankara, Turkey.


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7.6. CASE STUDY 6

COUNTRY: TURKEYLocation of the company: Denizli

Improvement made:

Installation of a heat exchanger for energy recovery

Description:

Heat recovery from the discharge of hot baths was achieved with total efficiency in the thermalenergy recovery cost of 17.57%.

The cost of a heat exchanger for a capacity of 1 t/h, was 430 ¤. This cost increases arithmeti-cally as capacity increases. The company needed a capacity of 26 t/h for the recovery of heatand so, including other additional elements for heat recovery, the cost of the equipment tota-lled 11,183 ¤.

The annual savings reached through heat recovery were 205,458 ¤, and hence the payback pe-riod was less than a month.


• Reduction in water consumption: - %• Reduction in thermal energy consumption: 29.4%• Reduction in the consumption of chemical products: -%• Reduction in overall costs: 17.8%• Total annual savings: 205,458 ¤

Investment:

11,183 ¤

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Other costs — —












Other costs — —

MONTHS

ESTIMATED PAYBACK PERIOD: 1

Reference: Mirata, M., “Use of Environmental Performance Indicators to Promote Cleaner Production Technologiesin Small and Medium Sized Cotton Textile Wet Processing Industry”, MSc Thesis, Middle East Technical University,Department of Environmental Engineering, Sep 2000, Ankara, Turkey.


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7.7. CASE STUDY 7

COUNTRY: TUNISIACOMPANY: Société Industrielle de Textile – SITEX (Production of Denim- and Indigo-type fabrics)(Taken from MEDCLEAN No. 10)

Improvement made:

Implementation of a cleaner production programme

Description:

Aware of the importance of cleaner production as a useful tool in the protection of the envi-ronment, the Centre International des Technologie de l’Environnement de Tunis (CITET),National Focal Point of the RAC/CP in Tunisia, has carried out a pilot project on the methodsof production rationalisation, optimisation of processes and minimisation of waste with theaim of reducing production costs, the impact of industrial activities on the environment and in-creasing the competitiveness of companies. This project was carried out in several differentsectors and, in the case of the textiles industry, was carried out at the company SITEX.

The main objectives that were pursued with the implementation of the cleaner productionprogramme at SITEX were:

1. To reduce water consumption in the fabric finishing process2. To reduce the impacts produced by the fabric dyeing process on the environment

Three options were identified for the prevention of pollution:

1. To reduce water consumption in the rinsing process and to eliminate the vat and rinsing bathNo. 5. A saving of 6 m3/h of clean water is achieved. This reduction was only possible afterestablishing total control of the water flow in the rinsing process.

2. To recover the cooling water from the singeing process from the Goller machine and sendit to the Frigotol refrigeration tank. A saving of 3.3 m3/h of clean water is achieved.

3. To recover the cooling water from the yarn singeing process from the Dénimrange ma-chine and send it to the Frigotol refrigeration tank. A saving of 4 m3/h of clean water isachieved.

Investment:

4,972 e

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OPTION 1 OPTION 2 OPTION 3PROJECTOVERALL

Annual reduction in water consumption 18,000 m3/year 10,000 m3/year 12,000 m3/year

Annual economic savings 28,837.6 e/year 15,910.4 e/year 18,893.6 e/year 63,641.6 e/year

Annual reduction in energy 843,000 th/yearconsumption

Annual economic savings 12,927.2 e/year 12,927.2 e/year

Annual reduction in the consumption 32.8 t/year 18 t/year 22 t/yearof chemical products

Annual economic savings 10,938.4 e/year 5,966.4 e/year 6,960.8 e/year 23,865.6 e/year

Annual reduction in the consumptionof spare parts and maintenance

Annual economic savings 8,949.6 e/year 8,949.6 e/year

Total economic-savings 61,652.8 e/year 21,876.8 e/year 25,854.4 e/year 109,384 e/year

Investment 994.4 e/year 1,988.8 e/year 1,988.8 e/year 4,972 e/year

Payback period immediate 1 month 1 month 17 days

1 $ = 0,9944 e


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7.8. CASE STUDY 8

COUNTRY: TURKEYCOMPANY: First Textile(Taken from MEDCLEAN No.13)

Improvement made:

Implementation of a cleaner production programme

Description:

The company First Textile produces knitwear fabrics, yarn, dyed fabrics (cotton, polyesterand polyester/cotton) and printed fabrics. Its production capacity is approximately 1,600t/year of knitwear fabrics, 4,500 t/year of dyed fabrics, 800 t/year of dyed yarn and fibres and940 t/year of printed fabrics. This company has been awarded the EKO-TEX-100 standard.

The company carried out an assessment of its processes and identified several opportunitiesfor minimisation. Some of the possibilities identified are summarised below:

1. Recovery of heat from the stenter frames of the looms and wastewater.2. Decrease in the bath ratio in the bleaching and dyeing processes, which was at 1:10. 3. Water savings and the elimination of the use of some raw materials from the processes of

the bleaching and dyeing of cotton fabrics.4. Water savings in the regeneration processes of the conditioning resins for the process wa-

ter, which are washed in countercurrent fashion with a sodium chloride solution.

Following the feasibility study, some of the possibilities identified were implemented. Spe-cifically they were:

1. The company incorporated air-water heat exchangers at the stenter frame output to thussupply hot water to certain parts of the dyeing process.

2. The bath ratio was reduced in the bleaching and dyeing processes to 1:8.3. The formulation used in the bleaching and dyeing processes for cotton fabrics was modified.

Some washes were eliminated as well as some of the neutralisation processes and theamount of detergent used was reduced.

4. The regeneration process for the resins that soften the input process water was optimised.

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COST OPTION ENVIRONMENTAL (investment + ANNUAL SAVINGS PAYBACK

BENEFITS operational) PERIOD

1 • Reduction in steam and 326,978.6 e 510,127.2 e 1 yearenergy consumption

• Control of emissions

2, 3 • Reduction in the 0 e 32,188.73 e - 58,013.3 e immediateconsumption of water,energy and chemicals

4 • Reduction in water 19,888 e 57,356.99 e 3 monthsconsumption and salts


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7.9. CASE STUDY 9

COUNTRY: EGYPTCOMPANY: El Nasr Spinning and Weaving Co

Dakahleya Spinning and Weaving CoAmir Tex Co

(Taken from MEDCLEAN No. 20)

Improvement made:

Prevention of pollution in the process of sulphur black dyeing

Description:

El Nasr Spinning and Weaving Co, Dakahleya Spinning and Weaving Co, and Amir Tex Coare three textiles companies where an industrial audit was carried out with the aim of deter-mining the possibilities of preventing pollution in the sulphur black dyeing process.

Sulphur black dyes are used to achieve a jet black on cotton fibres; this is done by conver-ting it into a substance that is soluble in water thanks to the addition of a reductive agent,normally sodium sulphide, and hence the fibre absorbs the dye. After dyeing, the dye returnsto its insoluble state due to the addition of an oxidising agent, often acid dichromates. Bothsubstances, the sodium sulphide and the acid dichromate, are toxic and their use mayleave harmful waste on the fabric once finished, and generate effluents that are difficult tomanage.

The audit carried out at the companies detected cleaner production opportunities by substi-tuting chemicals. Thus analyses were carried out in order to determine the feasibility, costs andthe quality of using several potential substitutes for the sodium sulphide and the acid dichro-mate; likewise, pilot tests were carried out in order to ascertain their application on an in-dustrial scale. Furthermore, opportunities for the optimisation of the process were identifiedin order to improve productivity and obtain economic savings.

The following measures were adopted:

1. Substitution of sodium sulphide and acid dichromate.Through this the treatment of effluents was improved and savings were obtained in waste-water treatment.• Substitution of sodium sulphide: it was replaced in the three factories with glucose which,

when used with sodium hydroxide, gives very dark shades, and has a lower cost thanother possible replacement substances. On the other hand, the elimination of the freesulphur avoids the previously existing problem of softening during storage.

• Substitution of dichromate: at El Nasr Spinning and Weaving Co., dichromate was substi-tuted by sodium perborate as an acceptable substitute, cheaper than others and, atDakahleya Spinning and Weaving Co. and Amir Tex Co., hydrogen peroxide was preferred,given that it is particularly suitable for knitwear (one of the main products at both compa-nies).

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2. Optimisation of the process:• At El Nasr Spinning and Weaving Co. the soaping bath temperature was reduced. The re-

sults were savings in steam (16%) and electricity (22%) and a 2- hour reduction in processtime.

• At Dakahleya Spinning and Weaving Co. the cold washes were situated between the dyeingand oxidation stages, and two baths were removed: one cold bath after oxidation, and theother hot after soaping. The results were the reduction in the cost of steam, water and elec-tricity of between 38 and 39%, and the process time was reduced from 13 to 8 hours, withthe consequent increase in production capacity.

• At Amir Tex Co. Two cold washing stages were omitted (after overflow washing), whichcut water consumption by 15% and also the temperature and duration of the oxidationbath. Likewise, savings were made in electricity (18%), steam (21%), water (15%), timeand work.

ADDITIONALCOSTS

(increase in costOPTION ENVIRONMENTAL of chemical SAVINGS PAYBACK

BENEFITS substances used (e/t of processed PERIOD—glusose—) fabric)

(e/t ofprocessed fabric)

Substitution of • Reduction in toxic • El Nasr Spinning • El Nasr Spinning Immediatesodium sulphite waste in and Weaving and Weaving and dichromate wastewater Co: 23.82 Co: 91.23

• Elimination of toxic • Dakahleya Spinning • Dakahleya Spinningmaterials from the and Weaving and Weaving working area Co: 3.57 Co: 118

• Amir Tex Co • Amir Tex Co: 61.26

Optimisation • Reduction in water and of the process steam consumption

• Savings in electricity


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7.10. CASE STUDY 10

COUNTRY: TURKEYCOMPANY: Pisa Tekstil ve Boya A. S.

(Taken from MEDCLEAN No. 21)

Improvement made:

Pollution prevention at a company in the cotton subsector

Description:

The environmental diagnosis performed at this company assessed the factory’s water con-sumption and identified opportunities for pollution prevention and reduction in water andenergy consumption that did not require large investments. These opportunities are summa-rised below:

• Heat recovery by means of steam-liquid heat exchangers• Reduction of the bath ratio in the dyeing process• Reuse of treated wastewater• Possibilities of energy recovery• Reduction in water consumption in the regeneration process of process water-conditioning

resins

Following a feasibility study which took into account technical, environmental and economicaspects, the following opportunities were chosen:

1. Reduction in the bath ratio in the dyeing process from 1:7 to 1:42. Reuse of wastewater for the pre-washing of filters3. Optimisation of the resin regeneration process by controlling water hardness. The company

carries out a regeneration process that takes 62 minutes, although after 43 minutes waterhardness is negligible. If the regeneration process is done in 43 minutes, not only is there areduction in operation time of 19 minutes, but also savings of 3 m3 of regeneration water aremade. Given that two resin regeneration processes are performed daily, the daily regenera-tion water saving is 6 m3. Economic savings are also made, since the cost of 1 m3 of waterfor the process, including the cost of the water, its prior treatment, the treatment of thewastewater and discharge costs is 0.64 ¤/m3.

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FORMER NEWSAVINGSPROCESS PROCESS

Input Energy consumption (kWh/d) 880.2 877.2 3

Consumption of chemicals (kg/d) 1,924 1,916 8Consumption of chemicals (¤/d) 149 143.3 5.7

Water consumption (m3/d) 1,800 1,794 6Water consumption (¤/d) 929.6 925.5 4.1

Output Chemicals (kg/d) 1,163 1,156 7

Chemicals (¤/d) 82.3 81.3 1

Wastewater (¤/d) 602.2 599.1 3.1

Environmental benefits • Lower energy consumption

• Lower water consumption

• Lower consumption of chemicals for wastewater treatment

• Less wastewater generated

Cost The investment and operational cost is negligible

Annual savings 2,007.5 ¤

Payback period Immediate


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7.11. CASE STUDY 11

COUNTRY: EGYPTCOMPANY: El-Nasr(Taken from MEDCLEAN No. 27)

Improvement made:

Conservation of water and energy in the textiles sector

Description:

The main activities of El-Nasr company (Mahalla El-Kobra, Egypt) are: yarn, fabric and wet pro-cessing. Annual production figures are, approximately, 8,000 tonnes of net material, of which20% corresponds to cotton yarn, 12% yarn with polyester blends and 68% raw fabric.

Within the framework of a SEAM project, an industrial audit was performed on the companyand several opportunities for pollution prevention were identified. Below is a description ofthe most important ones:

1. Incorrect storage of end dyes and fabrics reduced the expiry dates of the dyes, producingstains on the fabrics.

2. Inadequate insulation of the steam and hot water pipes meant considerable heat loss. 3. Condensation of steam from all departments was directly deposited in the drainage sys-

tem instead of being recirculated as feed water, producing an unnecessary water loss. 4. Huge quantities of thermal energy were lost in the combustible boiler gases emitted to the

atmosphere.5. Discharge into the sewerage system of considerable amounts of hot effluents in the pre-

treatment and dyeing departments caused considerable energy losses. 6. Huge quantities of end wash water from the bleaching process were directly discharged

without its being utilized.

Special attention was paid to those improvements that could be put into practice at low or nilcost, given their simple implementation and since they often involved significant savings.

It was found that the pre-treatment and dyeing stages had great potential for savings, mainlyconcentrating on water and energy savings. The following action was taken concerningthese:

1. Collection and use of condensed steam2. Improvement in the insulation of the steam and hot water networks3. Countercurrent flow of the Kyoto line4. Installation of automatic shut-off valves in the bleaching lines5. Utilization of the water from the end wash in the bleaching process6. Recovery of thermal energy and use of wash water used from the scrubbing of the yarn

and dye liquids7. Improvements in storage (dyes and fabrics)8. Optimisation of the use of chemicals by replacing some of them.

Case studies

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What was achieved:

• A 20% reduction in water consumption• A 20% reduction in wastewater generation• A 5% reduction in energy consumption• A 5% reduction in the consumption of chemicals• A 5% reduction in fuel consumption

FACTORY CAPITAL & EXPLOI- ANNUAL PAYBACKDEPARTMENT ACTION TATION COSTS SAVINGS PERIOD

(¤) (¤) (months)

Measures already implemented

All Recovery of condensed 13,203.0 39,638.3 <4steam

Improvement in the insulation of 14,083.2 39,646.0 <5steam and hot water networks

Improvement in storage 0 6,689.5 Immediatefacilities

Optimisation of the use 0 10,269.0 Immediateof chemicals

Pretreatment Countercurrent flow in 12,909.6 65,064.4 <3fabrics the Kyoto line

Subtotal 40,195.8 161,307.2 <3

Additional measures to be implemented

Pretreatment Installation of automatic 10,709.1 13,159.0 <10fabrics shut-off valves, Gaston

County line

Recycling of the end 8,802.0 41,442.8 <3wash water

Yarn dyeing Thermal recovery from 23,472.0 31,443.7 <9hot liquors

Subtotal 42,983.1 86,045.4 <6

COST / OVERALL BENEFIT RATIO 83,178.9 247,352.6 4


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The textiles sector can be considered an important input to the economy of most of the Medi-terranean countries, as may be seen in the data received on their contribution to the GDP, whichvaries between 1%, in the case of Israel, and 23%, in the case of Syria. Nevertheless, the textilessector presents differentiated structures in the Mediterranean countries. This, together with the he-terogeneity of the information received, with regard to the subsectors that are the object of thisstudy: dyeing, finishing and printing, makes comparison among countries difficult. In some coun-tries, these subsectors are not dealt with separately, and so it has not been possible to obtaindata that refer to them exclusively.

Based on the information received, it can be seen that most companies in the dyeing, finishing andprinting subsectors may be considered as being SMEs, although large companies also exist, some-times in the public sector, in countries such as Egypt and Libya.

Regarding types of raw materials, the great importance of the cotton industry in countries suchas Egypt, Turkey and Syria should be highlighted; and for wool, in countries such as Libya, Syria,Tunisia and Turkey.

The situation of the textiles sector concerning environmental management is diverse, specifically inthe dyeing, finishing and printing subsectors, given that both legal obligations and the infrastructu-res available in the different countries are also diverse. With regard to costs relating to environ-mental management, it can be concluded that the main costs concern the supply of water, the costof treating wastewater and the taxes that are applicable as well as the cost of waste management.Other costs, such as taxes on water consumption, generation of waste or emissions into the at-mosphere, or the cost of treating these emissions are of less importance or are non-existent.

As we have seen in previous chapters, the subsectors dealing with dyeing, finishing and printingpresent a series of characteristics that determine and condition their environmental effects. Thesecharacteristics are:

• Raw materials (fibres and fabrics) from other companies, even from other countries and, often,with no knowledge of the chemical products that may have been used at previous stages of theirmanufacture and may affect the later stages of ennoblement.

• A great variety of processes (one establishment often processes different types of fibre and fa-bric with the same equipment or with different equipment in order to achieve a wide variety offinishes).

• Processes that quickly change with time (one establishment often varies the fabric or fibre it usesas a raw material as well as the processes of ennoblement to which they are subject accordingto the demand of the market and the fashion at the time, and so these processes may be signi-ficantly different from one season to another. Moreover, the size of consignments to be proces-sed may also change from one season to the next).

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8. PROPOSALS AND FINAL CONCLUSIONS

• The processes can be continuous, semi-continuous or batch but they always constitute differentprocessing stages.

• The “re-operation” or “additions” of the same consignment until the desired quality is achievedis possible in bleaching and dyeing. It is not the case of some printing and sizing processes.

• Many of the stages (dyeing and finishing) are done wet and at a high temperature, which im-plies important water and energy consumption.

• Many of the wet stages need water of a certain quality and so processes are needed to adapt thewater such as electrodialysis or reverse osmosis.

• The great variety of processes that exist in any one establishment requires the handling of alarge number of colouring agents, auxiliary products and chemical products.

Given these basic characteristics, the following environmental effects are generated:

• High water and energy consumption.

• Greater or lesser consumption of colouring agents, auxiliary and chemical products dependingon the available technology.

• Large volume of wastewater with a significant pollutional load. (Although the pollutant load ofwastewater generated depends on the processes carried out, the parameters that are usuallymost significant are COD, BOD, total solids, AOX, toxicity, and sometimes nitrogen).

• Generation of colouring agents, auxiliary and out-of-date chemical products due to the great va-riety that an establishment must handle and the changes in their level of consumption from oneseason to another.

• Generation of a large number of empty containers, corresponding to colouring agents, auxiliaryand chemical products used in the process.

• Emission into the atmosphere of volatile organic compounds, if colouring agents and/or auxiliaryproducts that contain such compounds have been used in formulating them.

However, as we have explained previously in chapter 6 and indicated in the chapter that deals withcase studies, this situation allows the implementation of a large number of improvements in orderto achieve pollution prevention and savings of natural resources. Broadly speaking, bearing in mindthe diversity of the sector, and in order to maintain competitiveness among companies, the solu-tion lies in the introduction, in each particular case, of the improvement or improvements that areconsidered as being most suitable from among all those possible.

A brief list of such improvements would be:

• Insulation of all pipes and equipment that use steam or hot water, in order to minimise energyloss.

• Assessment of possibilities for heat recovery, whether by means of hot gases, steam or hotwater.


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• Identification of the possibility for reducing the number of stages carried out wet, by carrying outtwo or more stages in the same bath. In this way, usually, water and energy consumption as wellas auxiliary and chemical product consumption is reduced.

• Optimisation of processes and equipment in order to reduce the number of baths used andthus minimise water consumption.

• To implement the automatic control of the critical variables of the process in order to minimisethe indices of “re-operation” and “additions”, with which not only are water, energy colouringagents, auxiliary and chemical products saved, but also the company’s productivity can be in-creased.

• Automation of the preparation of dye baths, pastes for printing and additives, by means of au-tomatic colour laboratories and the automatic dosage of auxiliaries in order to minimise poten-tial errors which would have repercussions on a higher incidence of “re-operation” and “addi-tions”.

• Identification of the possibilities for wastewater reuse in specific processes such as, prelimi-nary rinsing

• Assessment of the possibility for recycling at source some of the baths, some additives and re-mains of printing pastes.

• Optimisation of machine and utensil cleaning operations.

• Reduction, as far as possible, of the variety of colouring agents, auxiliary and chemical productsthat are used; and correct storage and control of stocks of all of these in order to reduce thegeneration of out-of-date products or products that are in a bad state that need to be managedas waste.

• Adaptation of the volume of the containers in which colouring agents, auxiliary and chemical pro-ducts are acquired to the degree of consumption of each product. In the cases in which con-sumption is high, it would be interesting to have facilities for the bulk receipt of the product,given that in this way, the generation of empty containers would be avoided.

However, in order to carry out some of these possibilities, it is necessary to substitute certainraw materials, acquire certain facilities and/or the introduction of certain new technology (asindicated in chapter 6) which, although they may be interesting targets in themselves due tothe environmental benefits they bring, they may also be requirements for achieving more glo-bal targets.

Analysis of the economic feasibility of the different alternatives should be made in each particularcase, given that the investments that are required will depend on each company’s pre-existingtechnology.

In any case, the introduction of any of the previously mentioned cleaner production options and,especially when dealing with the substitution of raw materials or modifications in the processes,should be accompanied by information and training of the employees so that the desired envi-ronmental benefits may be obtained and maintained without affecting either the quality of the pro-duct or the company’s productivity.

Proposals and final conclusions

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- Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC). Reference document Best Available Techni-ques for the Textiles Industry. Draft February 2001.

- El sector d’acabats tèxtils: alternatives i reducció dels corrents residuals. CIPN (1999).

- Estudio sobre vertidos industriales. FUNDACIÓN COTEC (1999).

- Sector textil. Epígrafe 6.2 FUNDACIÓN ENTORNO (September 1998).

- Tratamiento de vertidos industriales y peligrosos. N. L. NEMEROW, A. DASGUPTA. Ed. Díaz Santos(1998).

- Informe medioambiental de la industria del acabado textil. FUNDACIÓN ENTORNO (June 1998).

- Establishment of ecological criteria for textile products. DWI (1997).

- Profile of the textile industry. EPA (September 1997).

- Aguas residuales en la industria de tintes y acabados textiles. R. QUERALT, E. MARTÍNEZ. RevistaTecnología del Agua. (December 1997).

- Auditoria de la indústria d’ennobliment tèxtil. GFE (1992).

- La técnica de los procesos en el acabado textil. Prof. Dr. PAUL SENNER (1977).

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

textil eng

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