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The401-409MaXiaodonggougraniticintrusion:ImplicationsforunderstandingtheDevonianTectonicsofthe...

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The 401–409 Ma Xiaodonggou granitic intrusion:implications for understanding the DevonianTectonics of the Northwest China Altai orogen

Jiahao Zheng, Fengmei Chai & Fuquan Yang

To cite this article: Jiahao Zheng, Fengmei Chai & Fuquan Yang (2015): The 401–409Ma Xiaodonggou granitic intrusion: implications for understanding the DevonianTectonics of the Northwest China Altai orogen, International Geology Review, DOI:10.1080/00206814.2015.1095131

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The 401–409 Ma Xiaodonggou granitic intrusion: implications for understandingthe Devonian Tectonics of the Northwest China Altai orogenJiahao Zhenga,b, Fengmei Chaic and Fuquan Yanga

aMLR Key Laboratory of Metallogeny and Mineral Assessment, Institute of Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences,Beijing, China; bThe Key Laboratory of Orogenic Belts and Crustal Evolution, School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing,China; cXinjiang Key Laboratory for Geodynamic Processes and Metallogenic Prognosis of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt, Collegeof Geology and Mining Engineering, Xinjiang University, Urumqi, China

ABSTRACTPalaeozoic granitoids in the Chinese Altai are important for understanding the evolution of theCentral Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB). The Xiaodonggou granitic intrusion, situated in the ChineseAltai (southern CAOB), is composed of two intrusive phases, medium-grained granite intruded byporphyritic granite. Zircon LA-ICP-MS U–Pb analyses of medium-grained granite and porphyriticgranite yield ages of 409 ± 2 Ma and 400 ± 1 Ma, respectively, indicating that these formed inEarly Devonian time. Medium-grained granite and porphyritic granite have similar geochemicalfeatures and Nd–Hf isotopic compositions. Arc-like geochemical characteristics (e.g. enrichment ofLILEs and negative anomalies of Nb, Ta, Ti, and P) show that both phases are volcanic arc granites(VAGs). Geochemical and isotopic characteristics suggest that these magmas originatedfrom melting older crust. Based on their near-zero or negative εNd(t) values (−1.4to 0) and positiveεHf(t) values (+1.4 to +7.8), together with Nd model ages of 1.15–1.26 Ga and zircon Hf model agesof 0.90–1.30 Ga, we suggest that the Xiaodonggou granites were derived from a mixture ofjuvenile and old crustal components. Some other Devonian granitic intrusions were recentlyidentified in the Chinese Altai with ages between 416 and 375 Ma. These Devonian graniteshave similar geochemical characteristics and petrogenesis as Xiaodonggou granites. The forma-tion of these Devonian granites was in response to subduction processes, suggesting that ChineseAltai was an active continental margin in Early Devonian time.

ARTICLE HISTORYReceived 30 December 2014Accepted 13 September2015

KEYWORDSGeochemistry; geochronology;petrogenesis; Xiaodonggougranites; Chinese Altai; activecontinental margin

1. Introduction

The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB; Mossakovskyet al. 1993; Jahn et al. 2000; Windley et al. 2007;Kröner et al. 2014), also known as Altaids (Sengör et al.1993; Wilhem et al. 2012), is one of the largestPhanerozoic accretionary orogens in the world. It mainlydeveloped from ca. 1000 Ma to 250 Ma by the contin-uous, long-term subduction and accretion of terranes ofdifferent origins (Coleman 1989; Zhu and Ogasawara2002; Wilhem et al. 2012; Zhu et al. 2014). Substantialamounts of juvenile material derived from the uppermantle were incorporated into the crust during thisorogeny (Jahn et al. 2004). In addition, several world-class porphyry copper, gold, and polymetallic depositsformed within the extensive subduction–accretion com-plexes of the CAOB (Zhu et al. 2006; Yang et al. 2013;Goldfarb et al. 2014; Mao et al. 2014; Zheng et al. 2015).Hence, considerable research have been dedicated inrecent years to unravelling the complex geodynamic

background and metallogenesis of the CAOB by usinggeochronological, geochemical, and isotopic methods(e.g. Mao et al. 2008, 2012; Pirajno et al. 2008; Qinet al. 2011; Yang et al. 2014).

The Chinese Altai is situated in the southwestern partof the CAOB. It contains abundant granitoids and grani-tic gneisses, which occupy about 70% of the area(Windley et al. 2002). It is also one of the importantrare-metal and Fe–Cu–Pb–Zn metallogenic belts inChina, and the mineralization was closely related tothe granitoids (Zhu et al. 2006; Chai et al. 2009).Consequently, these granitoids in the Chinese Altai pro-vide an excellent opportunity to study the tectonicevolution processes and metallogenesis in the CAOB.

Recent zircon U–Pb isotopic dating results show con-tinuous granitic magmatism from the early to the middlePalaeozoic in the Chinese Altai, and granitic magmatismreached a peak at ca. 400 Ma in the Devonian (Wang et al.2006, 2009; Yuan et al. 2007; Sun et al. 2009; Cai et al.

CONTACT Jiahao Zheng joey-zen@163.comSupplemental data for this article can be accessed at http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2015.1095131

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2011, 2012; Liu et al. 2012). Devonian granitoids aremetaluminous to peraluminous (Figure 5b) and belongto the medium- to high-K calc-alkaline series (Figure 5a),with negative Eu anomalies and light rare earth element(LREE) enrichment (Figure 8a). However, the origin, pet-rogenesis, and tectonic setting of these Devonian gran-itoids are still controversial (Xiao et al. 2004; Long et al.2007; Zhou et al. 2007).

In this paper, we present the new geochemical,zircon U–Pb and Hf as well as whole-rock Nd isotopicdata of the Xiaodonggou pluton to study its emplace-ment ages and source nature. The new results will becompared with that of the massive Devonian granitoidsfrom the Chinese Altai, and used to discuss the implica-tions for the tectonic evolution of this region.

2. Regional geology

The Altay orogenic belt is situated between the Sayanand associated blocks to the north and theKazakhstan–Junggar block to the south. It extendsabout 2500 km from Russia and eastern Kazakhstan,traverses northwest to southeast across nearly 500 kmacross Northwest China, to southwestern Mongolia(Figure 1; Yakubchuk et al. 2003; Zhu et al. 2006). TheChinese Altai is typical of this orogenic belt and isfound in northernmost Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous

Region (Figure 1). The Chinese Altai mainly consistsof volcanic rocks, high-grade metamorphic rocks, andsedimentary sequences. About 40% of the area is occu-pied by granitoid plutons, and, if the granitic gneissesare added, the proportion of granitoids reaches ~70%of the outcrop area, indicating that silicic magmatismplayed a key role in the development of the ChineseAltai (e.g. Zou et al. 1989; Wang et al. 1998).

Within Xinjiang, the Altai is divided into North,Central, and South provinces (Figure 1; Yang et al.2013). The North Altai is composed predominantly ofMiddle to Late Devonian andesite and dacite, andLate Devonian to early Carboniferous metasediments.The Devonian volcanics are believed to have formedin an island arc setting (Wang et al. 2006). The CentralAltai is the most important part of the Altai micro-continent (Xiao et al. 2010), and is composed mainlyof thick Neoproterozoic to Middle Ordovician low-grade metamorphosed flysch (Habahe Group), UpperOrdovician volcanic molasse and terrigenous clasticsequences (Dongxileke and Baihaba Formations), andMiddle to Upper Silurian meta-sandstone (KulumutiFormation). The Habahe Group, which is composedof migmatite and quartz schist, is the oldest sedimen-tary sequence in this area. Published zircon U–Pb dataof this group range from 470 Ma to 411 ± 5 Ma (Longet al. 2007, 2010). The South Altai is composed mainly

Figure 1. Geological sketch map of Chinese Altai showing the distribution of the granitoid rocks (modified from Chai et al. 2009;Yang et al. 2013).

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of volcano-sedimentary rocks of the Lower DevonianKangbutiebao Formation and the Middle–UpperDevonian Altay Formation, with subordinateCarboniferous volcano-sedimentary units as well asmiddle–upper Silurian schist, gneiss, and leptynite.No Precambrian basement is known from ChineseAltai.

Chinese Altai granitoids vary in compositions frommetaluminous diorite/granodiorite to weakly peralumi-nous granite. Previous studies have shown that themagmatism mainly occurred in the Palaeozoic withfour peaks at ca. 460 Ma, ca. 400 Ma, ca. 380 Ma, andca. 265 Ma (Windley et al. 2002; Wang et al. 2006; Yuanet al. 2007; Liu et al. 2008; Tong et al. 2014; He et al.2015). Based on geological characteristics, geochemicalcompositions, and geochronology data, these granitoidsare classified into orogenic (408–377 Ma, Zou et al.1989; 462–375 Ma, Xiao et al. 2009) and anorogenic(344–290 Ma, Zou et al. 1989; 281–256 Ma, Xiao et al.2009) subgroups.

The Chinese Altai is also one of China’s major rare-metal and Fe–Cu–Pb–Zn metallogenic belts. NumerousFe ores, volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) ore-typedeposits occur in the Devonian volcano-sedimentaryformations, including the Ashele Cu–Zn deposit, theKeketale Pb–Zn deposit, the Tiemuerte Pb–Zn deposit,and the Dadonggou Pb–Zn deposit (Chai et al. 2009;Yang et al. 2013).

3. Geology and petrography of theXiaodonggou intrusion

The Xiaodonggou intrusion is located along a regionalNE-striking fault at the south margin of the Central Altai.It intruded Silurian gneiss and older Palaeozoic grani-toids and has an outcrop area of about 30 km2

(Figure 2). The intrusion consists of medium-grainedbiotite granite intruded by porphyritic biotite granite.All rocks are light grey. The medium-grained graniteexhibits an equigranular texture (Figure 3a). In contrast,the porphyritic granite has K-feldspar and quartz phe-nocrysts (Figure 3b). The granites have generally similarmineral assemblages consisting of K-feldspar, plagio-clase, quartz, biotite, and muscovite (Figure 3c and d).Accessory minerals include ilmenite, magnetite, apatite,zircon, and sphene. Porphyritic granite phenocrysts aregenerally 5–25 mm in size and constitute 25–35 vol.% ofthe rocks. K-feldspar phenocrysts (10–15 vol.%) areeuhedral and platy columnar, and often display crosshatch or Carlsbad twinning. Quartz phenocrysts (15–20 vol.%) are mostly subhedral or xenomorphic granu-lar. The matrix of porphyritic granite usually has a micro-subhedral to xenomorphic granular texture. The matrixminerals are 0.05–0.5 mm in size and generally consti-tute 55–60 vol.% of the rocks. Argillization and sericiti-zation of some K-feldspar and plagioclase grains occurin both granites.

Figure 2. Geological sketch map of the Xiaodonggou intrusion (modified from Chai et al. 2009).

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4. Sampling and analytical techniques

4.1. Zircon U–Pb dating

Samples of medium-grained granite (XDG01; 47°58′59.7″N, 88°14′04.3″E) and porphyritic granite (XDG21;47°58′46.8″N, 88°13′03.5″E) from the Xiaodonggouintrusion were used for zircon U–Pb dating (Figure 2).

Zircon grains were separated from XDG01 andXDG21 samples using standard techniques of densityand magnetic separation at the Institute of RegionalGeology and Resource Survey, Langfang, HebeiProvince, China. Transmitted-light and reflected-lightimages were taken under an optical microscope.Cathodoluminescence (CL) images were obtained forzircons prior to analysis, using a HITACHI S3000-N scan-ning electron microscope attached with GATAN ChromaCL detector housed at the Chinese Academy ofGeological Sciences, Beijing, in order to characterizeinternal structures and choose potential target sites forU–Pb dating. Samples were analysed for U–Th–Pb geo-chronology using an LA-ICP-MS housed at Institute ofMineral Resources, Chinese Academy of GeologicalSciences, Beijing. Instrumental conditions and analyticaldetails were reported by Hou et al. (2009). Laser sam-pling was performed using a Newwave UP 213, with aspot diameter of 25 μm. A Finnigan Neptune MC-ICP-MS

instrument was used to acquire ion-signal intensities.Helium was used as a carrier gas. Zircon GJ-1(610.0 ± 1.7 Ma; Elhlou et al. 2006) and M172(U = 923 ppm, Th = 439 ppm; Th/U = 0.475; Nasdalaet al. 2008) were used as external standards for U–Pbdating and U, Th contents of zircon samples, respec-tively. Zircon Plesovice (337.13 ± 0.37 Ma; Sláma et al.2008) was used to calibrate the machine. Offline selec-tion and integration of background and analytic signals,and time-drift correction and quantitative calibration forU–Pb dating were performed by ICPMSDataCal (Liuet al. 2010). Correction for common Pb was appliedusing the method of Andersen (2002). Concordia dia-grams and weighted mean calculations were madeusing the ISOPLOT program (Ludwig 2003). LA-ICP-MSzircon U–Pb results are presented in SupplementalTable 1 (see http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2015.1095131 for supplemental tables).

4.2. Whole-rock major and trace elements

Major elements were determined by X-ray fluorescencespectrometer using fused glass disks at the NationalResearch Center of Geoanalysis, Chinese Academy ofGeological Sciences, Beijing, with analytical uncertainty<1%. Trace elements were measured using ICP-MS at

Figure 3. (a) Medium-grained biotite granite with equigranular texture; (b) porphyritic granite with K-feldspar and quartz pheno-crysts; (c) photomicrograph of medium-grained biotite granite, cross-polarized light; (d) photomicrograph of porphyritic granite,some large K-feldspar phenocrysts with argillization and plagioclase partly replaced by sericite in porphyritic granite, cross-polarizedlight. (Q, quartz; Pl, plagioclase; Kfs, K-feldspar; Bi, biotite; Mus, muscovite).

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the National Research Center of Geoanalysis, ChineseAcademy of Geological Sciences, Beijing. Analyticaluncertainties are 10% for elements with abundances<10 ppm, and around 5% for those >10 ppm.

4.3. Nd isotopes

Separation and purification of Sm and Nd were performedthrough conventional cation exchange procedures at thePeking University. Isotopic analyses were performed on aThermo-Finnigan TRITON® at Tianjin Institute of Geologyand Mineral Resources, in the negative ion detectionmode (Niu et al. 2012), equipped with an oxygen gasleak valve, nine Faraday cups, and an ion counting multi-plier. Contents of Sm and Nd were measured using theisotopic dilution method. The uncertainty in concentra-tion analyses by isotopic dilution is 0.5% for Sm and Nddepending upon concentration levels. The Nd isotopicratios were normalized against 146Nd/144Nd = 0.7219.During the period of data acquisition, Jndi Nd standardyielded 143Nd/144Nd = 0.512111 ± 0.000004 (2σ). The BCR-2 standard, prepared and analysed with the same proce-dure as the samples, yielded Sm = 6.547 ppm,Nd = 28.799 ppm, 147Sm/144Nd = 0.1376, and143Nd/144Nd = 0.512624 ± 0.000003(2σ).

4.4. Zircon Hf isotopes

Zircon Hf isotope analysis was carried out in situ using aNewwave UP213 laser–ablation microprobe, attached to aNeptune multi-collector ICP-MS at Tianjin Institute ofGeology and Mineral Resources. Instrumental conditionsand data acquisition were comprehensively described byHou et al. (2007) andWu et al. (2006). A stationary spotwasused for the analyses, with a beam diameter of 60 μmdepending on the size of the ablated domains. Heliumwas used as a carrier gas to transport the ablated samplefrom the laser–ablation cell to the ICP-MS torch via amixing chamber mixed with argon. To correct the isobaricinterferences of 176Lu and 176Yb on176Hf,176Lu/175Lu = 0.02658 and 176Yb/173Yb = 0.796218 ratioswere determined (Chu et al. 2002). For instrumental massbias correction Yb isotope ratios were normalized to172Yb/173Yb of 1.35274 (Chu et al. 2002) and Hf isotoperatios to 179Hf/177Hf of 0.7325 using an exponential law.The mass bias behaviour of Lu was assumed to follow thatof Yb;mass bias correction protocol details were describedas those in Wu et al. (2006) and Hou et al. (2007). ZirconGJ1 was used as the reference standard, with a weightedmean 176Hf/177Hf ratio of 0.282001 ± 11 (2σ, n = 11) duringour analyses. This is not distinguishable from a weightedmean 176Hf/177Hf ratio of 0.282015 ± 19 (2σ) from the insitu analysis by Elhlou et al. (2006).

5. Results

5.1. U–Pb zircon chronology

Zircon grains from XDG01 and XDG21 have a size rangeof 100–120 μm with a length/width ratio of 1:1–2:1(Figure 5a) and 100–150 μm (a few of 300 μm) with alength/width ratio of 1.5:1–3:1 (Figure 5b), respectively.In CL images, most zircon grains have homogeneousplanar or oscillatory zoning, which is typical for mag-matic zircon. All zircon grains from XDG01 and XDG21exhibit a high Th/U ratio (0.35–0.61 and 0.46–1.61,respectively; Supplemental Table 1), suggesting mag-matic origins (Belousova et al. 2002). Twenty spot ana-lyses of the XDG01 yielded 206Pb/238U ages rangingfrom 403 Ma to 416 Ma, with a weighted mean206Pb/238U age of 409 ± 2 Ma (MSWD = 0.61)(Figure 6a), taken as the emplacement age of themedium-grained granite. Nineteen spot analyses ofXDG21 yielded 206Pb/238U ages ranging from 397 Mato 405 Ma, with a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of400 ± 1 Ma (MSWD = 2.1) (Figure 6b), which is also takenas the crystallization age of the porphyritic granite.

5.2. Whole-rock major and trace elements

The analytical results of major and trace elementsare presented in Supplemental Table 2. Based onthe visual estimation of modes, all samples plot inthe field of granite in the quartz-alkali feldspar-pla-gioclase (QAP) classification diagram (Figure 4).Medium-grained granite samples show SiO2 abun-dances in the range 76.47–78.62 wt.%, 11.29–12.80 wt.% for Al2O3, and 0.16–0.24 wt.% for MgO;CaO, Na2O, and K2O contents are 0.57–0.92 wt.%,2.68–3.50 wt.%, and 4.55–5.15 wt.%, respectively. Incontrast, the SiO2 contents of the porphyritic granitedisplay a lower range of 73.34–76.57 wt.% coupledwith higher Al2O3 (12.26–14.06 wt.%), MgO (0.46–0.64 wt.%), CaO (1.65–2.00 wt.%), and Na2O (2.96–3.62 wt.%) as well as lower K2O contents (3.41–4.22 wt.%), yielding lower (Na2O+K2O) contents of6.37–7.78 wt.% and K2O/Na2O ratios of 0.99–1.26, indi-cating their relative alkali-poor compositions. Thesetwo granite types exhibit high (Na2O+K2O) contentsof 6.37–8.51 wt.% and K2O/Na2O ratios of 0.99–1.72,showing they belong to the medium- to high-K calc-alkaline series (Figure 5a). They both have high A/CNKvalues (1.02 ~ 1.06), which are the characteristics ofperaluminous granites (Figure 5b), as indicated by thepresence of a small amount of primary muscovite.

The two Xiaodonggou intrusion granite types showsimilar normal mid-ocean ridge basalt (N-MORB)-normalized rare earth element (REE) patterns

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(Figure 8a), characterized by the enrichment of LREEsrelative to heavy rare earth elements (HREEs), with (La/Yb)N ratios of 2.38–6.43 and negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.11–0.45) (Supplemental Table 2). N-MORB-nor-malized incompatible element patterns of these gran-ites are similar in overall shape (Figure 8b),characterized by the enrichment of large-ion lithophileelements (LILEs: Rb, Ba, K, Sr, U, and Pb) relative to high-field strength elements (HFSEs: Nb, Ta, Zr, Ce, and Ti).

The crystallization temperature of granitic magmascan be constrained by zircon saturation thermometry(Watson and Harrison 1983; Miller et al. 2003). Themedium-grained granite and porphyritic granite pro-vide temperature estimates of 730–800°C (averagevalue = 762°C) and 757–783°C (average value =774°C), respectively. Therefore, our results indicatethat these peraluminous granites crystallized at ca.730–800°C.

Figure 4. QAP plot showing the relative proportions of quartz (Q), alkali feldspar (A), and plagioclase (P) for Xiaodonggou graniticrocks, after Gill (2010). The QAP plot is based on the visual estimation of modes.

Figure 5. (a) SiO2 versus K2O diagram (after Le Maitre et al. 1989); (b) plot of A/CNK (Al2O3/CaO+Na2O+K2O) molar versus A/NK(Al2O3/Na2O+K2O) molar (after Maniar and Piccoli 1989) for Xiaodonggou and other Devonian granitoids of Chinese Altai. OtherDevonian granitoids data are from Yuan et al. (2007) and Cai et al. (2011).

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5.3. Whole-rock Nd and zircon Hf isotopes

Measured and age-corrected initial Nd isotopic ratios arepresented in Table 1. The medium-grained granite sampleshave εNd(t) values range from −0.6 to 0, the single-stage Ndmodel ages (TDM) and the two-stage Nd model ages (TDM2)are 1321–1421 Ma and 1150–1200 Ma, respectively. Theporphyritic granites have lower εNd(t) values, ranging from−1.4 to −0.6, with TDM and TDM2 values of 1476–1595 Maand 1192–1255 Ma, respectively (Table 1; Figure 9a and b).

Twenty spots from sample XDG01 and 19 spots fromsample XDG21 were analysed for Lu–Hf isotopic com-positions. The results are presented in SupplementalTable 3. The spot locations are the same as those forzircon U–Pb analyses (Figure 6a and b). The zircongrains with ca. 409 Ma crystallization age have variableHf isotopic compositions, with εHf(t) values of +2.23to +7.83. The single-stage Hf model ages (TDM) andtwo-stage Hf model ages (TDM2) for the zircons are718–1000 Ma and 896–1256 Ma, respectively. The zircon

Figure 6. Cathodoluminescence images of zircons from (a) medium-grained granites and (b) porphyritic granites in the Xiaodonggouintrusion. Analysed spots are circled. Numbers are 206Pb/238U age.

Table 1. Sm–Nd isotopic data of representative Xiaodonggou granites.Sample Age Sm Nd 147Sm/144Nd 143Nd/144Nd 2σ fSm/Nd

143Nd/144Nd(t) εNd(t) TDM(Ma) TDM2(Ma)

Medium-grained granitesXDG-4 409 9.980 45.600 0.14 0.512451 12 −0.29 0.512080 −0.6 1421 1200XDG-10 409 8.300 39.500 0.13 0.512447 9 −0.32 0.512090 −0.4 1331 1183XDG-11 409 7.670 35.800 0.14 0.512475 22 −0.31 0.512111 0.0 1321 1150Porphyritic granitesXDG-25 400 6.090 26.600 0.15 0.512432 4 −0.26 0.512052 −1.4 1595 1255XDG-27 400 8.150 36.100 0.14 0.512467 6 −0.27 0.512092 −0.6 1476 1192XDG-30 400 7.220 31.900 0.14 0.512468 9 −0.27 0.512091 −0.6 1481 1192XDG-31 400 6.790 29.900 0.14 0.512455 10 −0.27 0.512078 −0.9 1519 1214

Measured 143Nd/144Nd are fractionation corrected to 146Nd/144Nd = 0.7219.

εNd(t) = [{(143Nd/144Nd)s/(143Nd/144Nd)CHUR}−1] × 104, fSm/Nd =147Sm/144Nd)s/(147Sm/144Nd)CHUR−1, using (143Nd/144Nd)CHUR = 0.512638, (147Sm/144Nd)CHUR = 0.1967.

TDM = 1/λSm × ln{1+[(143Nd/144Nd)s−(143Nd/144Nd)DM]/[(147Sm/144Nd)s−(147Sm/144Nd)DM]}, TDM2 = 1/λSm × ln{1+[(143Nd/144Nd)s−(143Nd/144Nd)DM−[(

147Sm/144Nd)s

−(147Sm/144Nd) c)(eλt −1)]/[(147Sm/144Nd)c −(147Sm/144Nd)DM]}, using λSm = 6.54 × 10−12, (143Nd/144Nd)DM = 0.513151, (147Sm/144Nd)DM = 0.2137, (147Sm/144Nd)

c = 0.118. (147Sm/144Nd)s and(143Nd/144Nd)s are the measured values of the samples.

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grains with ca. 400 Ma exhibit εHf(t) values from +1.41 to+6.72, TDM values of 759–973 Ma, and TDM2 values of963–1304 Ma (Figure 9c and d).

6. Discussion

6.1. Timing of magmatism

Our age data for the medium-grained granite andporphyritic granite of the Xiaodonggou intrusionreveal that they were emplaced at 409 ± 2 Ma and400 ± 1 Ma (Figure 7), respectively. The results of thisstudy and previously published zircon U–Pb data inthe Chinese Altai (Tong et al. 2005, 2007; Yuan et al.2007; Wang et al. 2009; Cai et al. 2011) demonstratethat a major episode of granitoid magmatismoccurred in Devonian time between 416 and375 Ma, reaching a peak at ca. 400 Ma. In contrast,magmatism after Devonian time in the region wasweak with limited distribution. There is an obviousage gap between 375 and 318 Ma, and the ca.318 Ma Ashile granodiorite represents the waningperiod of magmatic activity (Yuan et al. 2007).Subsequently, small post-accretionary A-type graniticplutons were emplaced at ca. 294–267 Ma (Wanget al. 2009; Tong et al. 2014).

6.2. Petrogenesis of Xiaodonggou granites

As presented earlier, similar trace element and isotopicfeatures suggest that two pulses of granitic rocks in theXiaodonggou intrusion originated from broadly similarsource materials. Medium-grained and porphyritic gran-ites show strong enrichment in LILEs and LREEs relativeto HFSEs coupled with negative anomalies in Nb, Ta,

and Ti, which are common for the continental crust thatis usually accepted to originate from an arc-like magmasource (Rollinson 1993). In the Zr and Nb versus10,000 Ga/Al discrimination diagram of Whalen et al.(1987), most Xiaodonggou granite samples fall into theI- and S-type granite fields (Figure 10a and b). Theircompositions, together with the relatively low zirconsaturation temperatures (730–800°C), indicate that theyare not A-type granites. This is also supported by the Nbversus Y and Rb versus (Y + Nb) diagrams (Figure 10cand d; Pearce et al. 1984), where most data for theDevonian granites are confined to the volcanic arc gran-ite (VAG) field, suggesting they formed in a subduction-related environment.

Samples from the medium-grained granite andporphyritic granite have low MgO contents as (0.16–0.24 wt.%) and (0.46–0.64 wt.%), respectively.Experimental data show that partial melts of basalticrocks are characterized by low Mg# (<0.4) regardlessof melting degrees, whereas those with Mg# > 0.4 canonly be obtained with a mantle component (Rapp andWatson 1995). The Xiaodonggou granites haveMg# = 0.22–0.31, implying no involvement of mantlecomponents. In the granitic evolution system, Nb/Taratios resist alteration. Generally speaking, magmaticrocks of continental crustal origin generally have lowerNb/Ta ratios (ca. 11, Taylor and McLennan 1985; Green1995) than those of mantle origins (15.5, Wade andWood 2001). Samples from medium-grained and por-phyritic granite both show low Nb/Ta ratios, in therange of 7.80–9.34 (average value = 8.91) and 7.99–12.10 (average value = 9.89), respectively, further indi-cating their crustal source origin.

Both medium-grained granite and porphyritic granitebelong to peraluminous granite. Previous studies suggest

Figure 7. LA-ICP-MS zircon U–Pb concordia diagrams of (a) medium-grained granite and (b) porphyritic granite from theXiaodonggou intrusion, respectively.

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that peraluminous, silica-rich rocks could be produced bythe partial melting of Al-rich sediments such as pelite andmetagreywacke (White et al. 1986; White and Chappell1988; Sylvester 1998; Patiño Douce 1999; Healy et al.2004) or partial melting of mafic rocks under water-satu-rated conditions (Ellis and Thompson 1986; Beard andLofgren 1991). Because partial melting of the crust takesplace predominantly under fluid-absent conditions(Clemens and Vielzeuf 1987), dehydration melting ofhydrous minerals in sedimentary rocks commonly playsan important role in the granitic magma generation (e.g.Gardien et al. 1995; Patiño Douce 1999). The medium-grained granite and porphyritic granite have high K2O,Rb, and Cs contents, high K2O/Na2O (mostly >1.0) andRb/Sr (>2.0) ratios as well as low Al2O3/TiO2 (<100) ratios.These features suggest an origin via micaceous dehydra-tion melting (Miller 1985; Castro et al. 1999), distinct fromthe dehydration melting of amphibolitic rocks, whichmainly produce metaluminous trondhjemite with lowerK, Rb, and Cs contents and lower K2O/Na2O (mostly <1.0)and Rb/Sr ratios (Rapp and Watson 1995; Gerdes et al.2002; Cai et al. 2011).

Granites derived from re-melting continental rocksare likely to have Sm/Nd ratios not significantly frac-tionated from their protoliths. Thus, whole-rock Ndmodel ages obtained from crust-derived granitescould be interpreted as reflecting the crustal resi-dence ages of the source rock, and the input ofjuvenile material derived from a depleted mantlereservoir during magma genesis would raise the epsi-lon Nd values (Chen and Jahn 2002). The Hf isotopiccomposition of zircon remains essentially constantafter its formation, and the Hf isotopic compositionof zircon from granites can faithfully record the crus-tal evolutionary processes attending silicic magma-tism (Kemp et al. 2007; Sun et al. 2009). Themedium-grained biotite granite and porphyritic

biotite granite show similar Nd–Hf isotopic character-istics, with the former having slightly higher εNd(t) andεHf(t) values and younger Nd and Hf model ages(Figure 9). The near-zero or negative εNd(t) values(−1.4 to 0) of the Xiaodonggou granites are higherthan expected for early to middle Palaeozoic metase-dimentary rocks and middle Proterozoic crust (εNd(t) = −3.4 to −5.0, Chen and Jahn 2002) in this region,indicating the significant input of juvenile compo-nents (e.g. arc material). This is also supported bytheir positive εHf(t) values (+1.41 to +7.83), whichrepresent juvenile material.

Previous studies have shown that the Sm–Nd andLu–Hf systems in the igneous rocks are robust andcan provide a useful constraint to genetic processesof granites (Patchett et al. 1981; DePaolo et al. 1991;Jahn et al. 2000). The choice of one- or two-stagemodel age is difficult as each model has its ownuncertainty and inconvenience (DePaolo et al. 1991).For the single-stage model age there are uncertaintiesfor Sm/Nd fractionation and mixing of melts orsources in petrogenetic processes (Arndt andGoldstein 1987; Jahn et al. 2000), whereas the two-stage model assumes all sources for granites have thesame isotopic evolution as the average continentalcrust (Jahn et al. 2000). Both the mineralogy andgeochemical features of the Xiaodonggou graniticintrusion show characteristics of peraluminous gran-ites derived from crustal rocks (Chappell and White1974), and hence the two-stage model is adopted inthis study. Calculated two-stage Nd model ages forthe granites vary from 1.15 to 1.26 Ga. The presenceof Precambrian basement in the Chinese Altai is indi-cated by Sinian (Late Neoproterozoic) fossils and zir-con xenocryst ages (Windley et al. 2002). Previouslypublished Nd isotopic data for both the granites andsediments suggest a significant proportion of middle

Figure 8. N-MORB-normalized REE distribution (a) and N-MORB-normalized trace element patterns (b) of Xiaodonggou and otherDevonian granitoids of Chinese Altai. Normalized values are from Sun and McDonough (1989). Other Devonian granitoids data arefrom Yuan et al. (2007) and Cai et al. (2011).

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Proterozoic crust beneath the Chinese Altai (Chen andJahn 2002). Taken together, we suggest that modelages for the Xiaodonggou granitic intrusion mayresult from mixing Palaeozoic arc material with mid-dle Proterozoic continental crust. This suggestion isfurther supported by their two-stage Hf model agesof 0.90–1.30 Ga.

6.3. Geodynamic setting of Chinese Altai

The tectonic evolutionary history of the Chinese Altai iscontroversial because it is complicated. Its tectonic set-ting has been proposed as an island arc related tosubduction (Windley et al. 2002; Xiao et al. 2004), anactive continental margin (Wang et al. 2006; Long et al.2007; Liu et al. 2008; Yang et al. 2008), and a continentalmargin rift (Han and He 1991; Chen et al. 1996; Wanget al. 1998; Zhou et al. 2007).

Chinese Altai granitoids reflect four major mag-matic events (ca. 460 Ma, ca. 410 Ma, ca. 380 Ma,and ca. 265 Ma) with the most intense episode atca. 400 Ma (Chai et al. 2009; Cai et al. 2011). Itsuggests that the Chinese Altai mainly developed inthe Devonian. To discuss the tectonic setting of theChinese Altai, we compare the available U–Pb ages,

geochemical, and Nd–Hf isotope data of Devoniangranitoids from the Chinese Altai. These granitoidsare metaluminous to peraluminous in compositionand belong to medium-K to high-K calc-alkaline series(Figure 5). Geochemical characteristics show they allexhibit arc-like magma source signatures (Figures 8and 9), and most are confined to the VAG field in thetectonic discrimination diagram (Figure 10), furthersuggesting that Devonian granitoids of Chinese Altaiformed in a convergent margin setting. In addition,the metabasic rocks and ophiolites at Alegedayi,Kuerti, and Areletuobie of Altai with zircon U–Pbages ranging from Early Palaeozoic to Mid-Devonian(Xu et al. 2003; Zhang et al. 2003; Zhou et al. 2005;Niu et al. 2006; Cai et al. 2010; Wong et al. 2010), andthe synchronous meta-silicic pyroclastic rocks domi-nating the Kangbutiebao formation (412–394 Ma, Chaiet al. 2009; Shan et al. 2011, 2012) in the Kelang basinoutcrop in the southern Altai also support a subduc-tion setting. Moreover, the geochemistry of theHabahe sediments in the northwestern Chinese Altaireveals an active continental margin setting (Longet al. 2008). Taken together, we suggest that theChinese Altai during Devonian time was an activecontinental margin.

Figure 9. Temporal variations of and εNd(t) (a), Nd model ages (TDM2) (b), zircon εHf(t) (c), and Hf model ages (TDM2) (d) ofXiaodonggou and other Devonian granitoids intrusions in Chinese Altai. Other εNd(t) and Nd model age data are from Wanget al. (2009; and references therein). Other zircon εHf(t) and Hf model age data are from Cai et al. (2011).

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Therefore, based on the available geochronology,geochemistry, and isotopic data, the tectonic ofChinese Altai is interpreted as follows. Before theLate Ordovician (ca. 460 Ma), the Palaeo-Asian Oceansubducted beneath the Altai micro-continent of theSiberian Plate, resulting in the formation of continen-tal arc along the southern margin of Altai (Windleyet al. 2002). During ca. 460–416 Ma (Figure 11a), a fewgranite plutons associated with subduction (e.g.Abagong–Tiemierte plutons ca. 462–458 Ma, Liuet al. 2008; Wang et al. 2009, Chai et al. 2010;Qiemuerqiek pluton ca. 460 Ma) and sedimentaryrocks (e.g. Habahe Group, Long et al. 2007, 2010)formed. Subduction continued during 416–375 Ma(Figure 11b) forming large-scale granitic bodiesincluding the Xiaodonggou intrusion with arc-relatedgeochemical signatures and synchronous felsic

volcanism (412–394 Ma, Chai et al. 2009; Long et al.2010; Shan et al. 2011, 2012).

Previous studies indicate that iron deposits in theChinese Altai mainly formed from 410 to 377 Ma(Yang et al. 2013). These ages are consistent with thetime of formation of 416–375 Ma granitoids in theChinese Altai. These iron deposits are thus an importantproduct of the Devonian magmatism, which formed inan active continental margin.

7. Conclusions

(1) LA-ICP-MS zircon U–Pb dating indicates thatXiaodonggou medium-grained and porphyriticgranites were emplaced at 409 ± 2 Ma and400 ± 1 Ma, respectively.

Figure 10. (a and b) Genetic-type discrimination diagram of Devonian granitoids in Chinese Altai (after Whalen et al. (1987)); (c andd) tectonic discrimination diagram of Devonian granitoids in Chinese Altai. Fields for Syn-COLG (syncollisional), VAG (volcanic arc),WPG (within-plate), and ORG (ocean-ridge) granites are from Pearce et al. (1984). Other Devonian granitoids data are from Yuan et al.(2007) and Cai et al. (2011).

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(2) The two granite phases have similar geochemicalfeatures and Nd–Hf isotopic compositions. Thegeochemical characteristics suggest that theseintrusive phases originated by melting crustalrocks whereas Nd–Hf isotopic data and modelages suggest that the Xiaodonggou graniteswere derived from a mixture source of juvenileand Proterozoic crustal components. Such oldcrust is not documented from the region.

(3) The Chinese Altai was an active continental mar-gin in early to middle Palaeozoic time. TheXiaodonggou granites are excellent examples oflarge-scale granitic intrusions with synchronousfelsic volcanism representing a peak in conver-gent margin activity during an episode of sub-duction that lasted at least from 460 to 375 Ma.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Professor Robert J. Stern for providingvaluable comments and suggestions, which considerablyimproved this manuscript. We thank two anonymousreviewers for their constructive comments.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding

This research was jointly supported by the Ministry of Landand Resources Public Welfare Industry Special Funds forScientific Research Project [grant number 201211073]; theNational Basic Research Programme of China [No.2012CB416803]; NSFC [No. 41372062].

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