the abc's of english immersion a teachers' guide

THE ABC’SOF ENGLISH IMMERSION A TEACHERS’ GUIDE

CENTER FOR EQUAL OPPORTUNITY

Center for Equal Opportunity815 15th Street, N.W.Suite 928Washington, DC 20005Phone (202) 639-0803Fax (202) 639-0827www.ceousa.org

THE ABC’SOF ENGLISH IMMERSION A TEACHERS’ GUIDE

Linda ChavezPresident

Center for Equal Opportunity

© Copyright 2000 Center for Equal OpportunityThe Center for Equal Opportunity was started in 1995 as a non-profit, tax-exempt, 501(c)(3) organization.CEO is a non-partisan research institution studying the issues of race, ethnicity, and assimilation.

CENTER FOR EQUAL OPPORTUNITY3

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 4By Linda Chavez

WHY ENGLISH IMMERSION? 5Is One Year Enough? / Page 6Can English Learners Attain Proficiency in One-Year Immersion Programs?By Christine H. Rossell

What Works? What the Research Says / Page 9By Russell Gersten

NUTS AND BOLTS 11English Immersion for All Grades / Page 12The Bethlehem, Pa., English Acquisition ProgramBy Ann Goldberg

Teaching Juan and Maria To Read / Page 16Reading Instruction Techniques for English Learners in Primary GradesBy Janet Siano

Teaching English to High School Students / Page 20By Richard K. Munro

The Design and Implementation of an English Immersion Program / Page 24By Kevin Clark

Bibliography of Successful Reading Texts / Page 31Recommended Materials for Scripted English ImmersionBy Douglas Lasken

THE LAW 35It Works,But Is It Legal? / Page 36What You Should Know about English Immersion Programs and the LawBy Jim Littlejohn

State Requirements for Educating English-Learners / Page 41By Anita Garcia and Cynthia Morgan

AUTHORS 44

INTRODUCTION

By Linda Chavez

The education of English-learners has beena concern of mine since my days as the edi-tor of American Educator magazine at theAmerican Federation of Teachers, a con-cern I shared with the late AFT President,

Al Shanker. Although there has always been a variety ofprograms designed to help English-learners enter themainstream, bilingual education has been the “pre-ferred” method.

Despite this, as early as the late 1970s concernsbegan to emerge over the lack of solid results for thisapproach. My concerns were only intensified when myown son was nearly placed in one of these programssimply because of his Spanish name. The teacherswrongly assumed that he needed help with his English,when in fact he speaks virtually no Spanish or any lan-guage other than English.

Indeed, parents’ complaints against bilingual pro-grams grew stronger as time went on: A poll conductedby the U.S. Department of Education in the1980sshowed little support for the program among immi-grant parents. It was little wonder, considering thatchildren in many of these programs spend 80 percent oftheir school day listening to their teachers speak lan-guages other than English. Parents were right to ask,“How are students supposed to learn English if theyhardly ever hear it spoken, much less speak it?”

It is unfortunate that bilingual education now bearslittle resemblance to the program begun 30 years ago,which was supposed to help Hispanic children learn tospeak, read, and write in English as quickly and effec-tively as possible. Today, bilingual education deliberate-ly delays children from learning English on the mistak-en assumption that kids need to receive five to seven

years of formal classroom instruction in their native lan-guage before they can learn English. The research doesnot support these claims.

The on going debate over how best to educa t eEnglish-learners finally came to a head in 1998 whenCalifornia voters approved Proposition 227.This initia-tive replaced more than 20 years of state-mandatedbilingual education with what was considered a newapproach—structured English immersion. Many edu-cators in California complained bitterly that thisapproach was a new, evil creation of the initiative’ssponsor: a return to the bad old days of “sink-or-swim,”where students had to learn English on their own andwere allowed to fail if they didn’t.

What the critics ignored is that an English immer-sion program specifically designed to meet the needs ofEnglish-learners is really not new. In fact, immersion ishow the vast majority of non-Spanish-speaking LEPstudents are educated, with great success. It is onlyHispanic students who have been forced to participatein bilingual programs, generally to their detriment. Itwas this fact which led voters to replace the program inCalifornia.

In the two years since this change was made inCalifornia schools, the test scores for English-learnershave increased dramatically. And the districts thataggressively implemented the English immersion pro-gram have consistently shown higher rates of improve-ment than the districts that maintained large numbersof their students in bilingual programs through theparental waiver provision.

This success, which has received a great deal ofnational media attention, has led to a clear call forre f o rm . S chool distri c t s — f rom New Yo rk City toHouston to Chicago and elsewhere—are reevaluatingtheir programs for English-learners and focusing onteaching more English sooner. Educators across thecountry, eager to replicate the success in California, areseeking information on structured English immersion.

The Center for Equal Opportunity is proud to offerThe ABC’s of English Immersion: A Teachers’ Guide. In it,we attempt to answer the most frequently asked ques-tions about teaching, designing, and evaluating anEnglish immersion classroom and the research under-pinnings in favor of English immersion. With the helpof this guide, teachers,administrators,and policymakerswill reach a better understanding of what structuredEnglish immersion is all about, and the special difficul-ties that affect English-learners at different grade levels,especially older students.

THE ABC’S OF ENGLISH IMMERSION: A TEACHERS’ GUIDE4

WHY ENGLISHIMMERSION?

Is One Ye a rE n o u g h ?Can English Learners AttainProficiency in One-YearImmersion Programs?

By Christine H. Rossell, Ph.D.

How long should limited-English-profi-cient (LEP) students be in a shelteredEnglish immersion classroom, or forthat matter any language acquisitionprogram? This is the most common

question asked by teachers, policymakers and the pub-l i c . U n f o rt u n a t e ly the answer provided by som eresearchers is to another question entirely: How longdoes it take the average LEP student to attain the aver-age English language achievement of fluent Englishspeakers or a test publisher’s criterion for English profi-ciency?

Proponents of this second question, however, aresimply wrong in believing that knowing how long ittakes an LEP child to achieve parity with nativeEnglish speakers, or to be classified “proficient” on anEnglish proficiency test, tells us how long they needspecial education services or how long they should be ina sheltered immersion classroom.

Some researchers jump to the conclusion that thenumber of years it takes LEP students to reach the aver-age for native English speakers or the publisher’s crite-rion for English proficiency is the number of years thesechildren need special education services. There are tworeasons why this conclusion is unwarranted. First, theresearchers who have reached this conclusion (Hakuta,Butler, and Witt, 2000) have not used a research designthat could determine this. Second, parity with English

speakers on English proficiency tests or standardizedachievement tests is a badly flawed standard for deter-mining fluency in English. Half of all native Englishspeakers cannot achieve the average standardized testscore for native English speakers, and almost as large apercentage cannot achieve the publisher’s criterion forEnglish proficiency.

Children can be fluent in English, indeed they canknow no language other than English, and yet fail toachieve the publisher’s criterion for English proficiency.All language proficiency tests, whether they are admin-istered only to LEP students (and called English profi-ciency tests) or to English-speaking students (andcalled achievement tests), are norm-referenced on flu-ent English speakers and are tests of the ability to speakand understand a language and tests of academic abilityin that language. The publishers select a score on theEnglish pro f i c i e n cy tests that they claim denoteswhether a student is a fluent English speaker, but in factthere are English monolingual students who will scorebelow whatever score is selected unless it is zero.Typically the publishers select a score that can only beachieved by about 60 percent to 70 percent of theEnglish monolingual students.

The test scores only tell us who knows more and whoknows fewer answers to the items on the test. Theseitems are deliberately selected to produce a normalcurve among English-speaking students, and the testscores are highly correlated with socioeconomic status.

LEP students who score low in English often scorelow in their native tongue because the tests also meas-ure academic ability, not just fluency. Illustrative of thisphenomenon is a study of relative language proficiencyamong Hispanic students in California by Duncan andDe Avila (1979). A majority (54) of the 101 studentsclassified by the Language Assessment Scales (LAS) aslimited or non-proficient in English were also classifiedas limited or non-proficient in Spanish. Of the 96 stu-dents found to be limited or non-proficient in English,fewer than half (42) were considered proficient Spanishspeakers according to their Spanish test score.

H OW LONG DO LEP ST U D E N T SNEED EXTRA HELP?Some researchers (Hakuta,Butler, and Witt,2000) mis-takenly assume that students are always helped by spe-cial education services.It really depends on whether theproblem has been accurately diagnosed and what thetreatment is. If, for example, English-proficient stu-


dents are incorrectly classified as LEP simply becausethey score below average on an English proficiency test,they will undoubtedly be helped if the treatment isafter-school instruction or tutoring in English andother subjects that is tailored to their needs.

However, the typical treatment for a student who hasbeen diagnosed LEP occurs during the school day sothe student receives no additional instruction. Thetreatments are: (1) a bilingual education program withnative tongue instruction if students are believed to befrom a Spanish-speaking family and there are enough ofthem to fill a classroom;(2) an ESL pullout program; or(3) a structured immersion program, that is, a self-con-tained classroom of LEP students taught in English ata slower pace than in the mainstream classroom.

A bilingual education program in Spanish cannothelp, and probably harms, a child who does not speakSpanish. Further, such inappropriate treatments do infact occur as a result of erroneous classifications pro-duced by English proficiency tests. For example, from1975 to 1996 in New York City, all Hispanic studentswere forced to take the Language Assessment Battery(LAB) regardless of their home language. If Hispanicstudents scored below the 40th percentile and therewere enough students to fill a classroom, they wereplaced in Spanish bilingual education classrooms.

In 1996, the NYC school board began to require thatnewly enrolled Hispanic students be from a homewhere a language other than English was spoken beforethey could take the LAB. The number of students clas-sified as LEP declined by 20,000 in New York Citywhen this policy change was implemented. Thus, at aminimum, 20,000 Hispanic students were incorrectlyclassified as LEP solely because they scored below the40th percentile; and some unknown percentage wereassigned to a Spanish bilingual education program,although they did not speak Spanish.It is hard to imag-ine how this “special service” could help the Englishproficiency of these children.

IS A YEAR IN ST R U C T U R E DENGLISH IMMERSION ENOUGH?What little research there is suggests that although itcould take a decade for a student to reach the highestlevel of English language achievement they are capableof—with students who come to the U.S. at earliergrades reaching it sooner than students who enter in thelater grades (Rossell , 2 0 0 0 ) — v i rt u a lly all studentsunderstand enough English sometime during the first

year to be able to comprehend English instruction.According to Glenn and De Jong (1996), the com-

mon European program for immigrant children is tointegrate kindergarten children immediately into themainstream classroom but also to provide a “reception”class for one year for those who arrive after the usual agefor beginning school. In the reception classes, the focusis on laying the foundation for enrollment in the main-stream classroom. The Europeans have no illusion thatthe language barrier will be overcome in a year, but theydo believe that a year will provide a solid foundation forolder students,and that the language barrier will only beovercome when the immigrant children are enrolled ina classroom where they can interact with native speak-ers of the target language.

These one-year programs are also found in the U.S.under a variety of labels. McDonnell and Hill (1993)found “newcomer” schools for immigrant children ineve ry school district they studied, i n cluding thre eCalifornia school districts: San Francisco, Los Angeles,and Visalia.The length of time for students in the new-comer school was six months to a maximum of one year.McDonnell and Hill describe them as follows:

The newcomer schools in our sample are impressive places:Intheir clear sense of mission, innovative curricula, professionalteaching staff, and links to the larger community, they repre-sent the kinds of schools to which all children,immigrant andnative born, should have access….The newcomer schools inour sample are all self-contained programs that studentsattend full-time for one or two semesters [emphasis added],and all but the Los Angeles high school operate in physicallyseparate locations. However, there are a variety of other new-comer models, including ones that students attend for halfthe day and then spend the remainder of the day in main-stream classes. In contrast to the schools in our sample, inwhich students from across a district are transported to a sin-gle site, some districts, such as Long Beach, operate new-comer classrooms on as many as a dozen different campuses.(For a description of these other program models see Chang,1990; McDonnell and Hill,1993,pp. 97-98.)

In addition to newcomer schools, there are one-yearimmersion programs for kindergarten students all overCalifornia and other states. In Chelsea, Mass., there areon e - year kindergarten immersion pro g rams forCambodian and Vietnamese students. In New YorkCity, there are a number of one-year kindergartenimmersion programs (all of them called bilingual) fornon-Hispanic LEP students, as well as entire schoolsfor newc om e r s . One in particular is the on e - ye a rkindergarten immersion program for Chinese studentsat the Sampson School (P.S. 160) in Brooklyn.

In Boston, there is a one-year kindergarten immer-


sion (called bilingual) program for Cape Verdean stu-dents at the Mason School. Although parents of Masonstudents have the option of sending their children to aCape Verdean “bilingual” program at another school forfirst grade, very few do that. The conclusion of theteachers and the parents of LEP students at this schoolis that one year is enough. Within one year, studentscomprehend enough English to be active participants inthe mainstream classroom, although they have a longway to go before they reach their full capacity inEnglish.

In Californ i a , Pro p o s i t i on 227 was delibera t e lyworded by its sponsors in an attempt to limit the timeperiod in a separate below-grade level classroom to oneyear. It was worded this way not because anyone thinksn on-English speaking ch i l d ren will have mastere dEnglish in one year but because evidence suggests thatsometime during their first year, immigrant childrenwill understand enough English so that they will bebetter off in a grade-level mainstream classroom than ina remedial classroom. Further, because of the biases inthe reclassification tests, if the legislation did not spec-

ify a time limit, more than half of these children wouldnever be mainstreamed,no matter how fluent they werein English.

R E F E R E N C E S:Duncan, Sharon E. and Edward A. De Avila. 1979. “Relative

Language Proficiency and Field Dependence/Independence.”Paper presented at the annual meeting of TESOL,Boston.

Glenn, Charles L. and Ester J. de Jong, 1996. Educating ImmigrantChildren:Schools and Language Minorities in Twelve Nations, NewYork: Garland Publishing.

Hakuta, Butler, and Witt. 2000. “How Long Does It Take EnglishLearners to Attain Proficiency?” The University of CaliforniaLinguistic Minority Research Institute.

McDonnell, Lorraine M. and Hill, Paul T. 1993. Newcomers inAmerican Schools: Meeting the Educational Needs of ImmigrantYouth. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.

Rossell, Christine. 2000. “Teaching Language Minorities; Theoryand Reality,” in City Schools: Lessons from New York, DianeRavitch and Joseph Viteritti,eds.,Baltimore:The Johns HopkinsUniversity Press.


What Wo rks? What the Research Says

By Russell Gersten*

The effe c t i ve instru c t i onal practices dis-cussed here are based on a research studyfunded by the U.S. Department of Educa-tion.1 The three-year study looked at ele-mentary and secondary programs in nine

exemplary schools that used English immersion ratherthan bilingual education for teaching English learners.There is often confusion about what exactly Englishimmersion means. English immersion is not a “sink orswim” approach in which non-English speakers arethrown into regular classes without special assistance.Such an approach is not only a harsh one, but is illegalunder current federal law. Instead, English immersionrequires teachers to use English as the primary languageof instruction, with vocabulary, syntax,and content suit-ed to the child ’s grade level and comprehension.

¿NO HABLO ESPAN O L ?Teachers do not need to speak or understand any lan-guage other than English in order to teach non-English-speaking children successfully. By the sametoken, although English immersion teachers generallyuse English in the classroom at least 70 percent—and asmuch as 100 percent—of the time, teachers and stu-

dents both may use a child’s native language for somepurposes. A teacher might use Spanish, for example, incomforting a child or explaining a difficult concept orclarifying terms. A student may use his or her nativelanguage to ask or answer a question when his or herEnglish is not sufficient.However, the research suggeststhat extensive native language use is neither requirednor necessarily an important aspect of successful pro-grams.

Teachers may use aides or other children who under-stand the native language being used, and from theseinteractions, begin to develop understanding of con-cepts in English. Students should be encouraged, butnever forced, to express their thoughts in English.

Students also may be paired with other children fromthe same language backgrounds to collaborate on tasksd u ring instru c t i on and activities. The more fluentEnglish-speaking students can assist the less fluent stu-dents with understanding the teacher’s instructions andclassroom assignments. Another useful strategy is toencourage students to use bilingual dictionaries.

P R O MOTING UNDERSTA N D I N GTeachers must monitor student progress in completingtasks and should adjust their use of English to makecontent easier to understand. Many successful teachersalso provide immediate academic feedback individuallyto students.

It is also important to spend most of the instruction-al period on academics and subject matter instruction tomake sure students can keep up and understand the les-son. Teachers should ensure that instruction continuesat a steady pace and have high expectations for studentachievement.

In the example below, one exemplary teacher namedDonna adapted these effective teaching principles toensure comprehension with her language-minority stu-dents. Donna’s third-grade class contained studentswho spoke at least seven different languages, includingSpanish, Vietnamese, and Cambodian. Donna spokeonly English.

Donna began by reading the story, Bringing the Rain toKapiti Plain, by Verna Aardema. She spoke to the studentsin a clear and slow voice. She also intentionally avoidedsynonyms and used a consistent vocabulary. Both of thesestrategies really increased student involvement and compre-hension in the lesson (as judged by eye contact maintained).

After reading two or three pages of the story, Donna paused


This article is based upon the paper, “Toward an Under-standing of Effective Instructional Practices for LanguageMinority Students: Findings From a Naturalistic ResearchStudy,” by russell Gersten, Thomas J. Keating, and SusanUnok Brengelman, READ Perspectives, Spring 1995 Vol.II, 1.1 A Descriptive Study of Significant Features of Exemplary Special Al-

ternative Instructional Programs, by Tikunoff, Ward, van Broek-huizen, Romeor, Castaneda, Lucas, and Katz (1991).

to check on their understanding:

DONNA: What does the bow do?

STUDENT: Shoots arrow…

[The question is intended to assess whether the studentunderstood a vocabulary word, “bow.”Because the boy in thestory is portrayed as a hero who causes rain to fall by shoot-ing a feather from his bow into a cloud, it made sense thatsome children might benefit from hearing an explanation ofthis key word.]

DONNA: What does he hope will happen when he shoots thearrow?

STUDENT: The rain. [He motioned rain falling.]

DONNA: Right, the rain will fall down.

[This student understood both the point of the story and thequestion his teacher asked but was unable (or was afraid to)fully express his thoughts in English. Donna expanded thestudent’s answer with the dual effect of affirming the stu-dent’s response and providing a more complete English sen-tence for the others.]

As Donna read the story, she seized opportunities to teachvocabulary and engage the children in relevant ways.

DONNA: How many of you girls have earrings with holes inyour ears? What are they called? Pierced. Piercedmeans you have a hole in it. If I take a piece ofpaper and cut it with scissors, it’s pierced.

Donna cut a little hole in a piece of paper. She asked, “What’sthat word? Pierce.”

She came back to this word later during this activity andrepeated it. She also helped students relate what they knewto new situations and concepts. For example, she stressed thenew word, “drought,” by drawing students’ attention to thethen current weather pattern afflicting the Southwest.

P R ACTICE MAKES PERFEC TIn good programs, teachers provide as many opportuni-ties as possible for students to use English in the class-room, either with peers or with the teacher. Teachersshould structure classroom activities in a way that pro-motes continuous, active use of English.

In addition to providing ample opportunities for stu-dents to use English, students also need sufficient timeto respond to questions in English.This additional timeallows students to formulate their responses.

Teachers should facilitate student interactions byplacing students in proximity to one another and settingup activities that require them to interact linguisticallyto complete tasks. Another way to create opportunitiesfor students to express their own ideas in English is toprovide engaging content to create a desire to commu-nicate ideas. The following is an observation of afourth-grade class of Latino students.

Students are sitting on the floor and the teacher begins toread a brief book,an Australian story about Wilfred GordonMcDonald Partridge, a woman losing her memory.

Ms. Tapia asks students to predict what the story will beabout and prompts those who seem to need help with ques-tions such as, “With a title like this and this picture on thecover, Fernando, what do you think this story will beabout?”

At the conclusion of this brief story, Tapia asks, “What didyou think about it?” One student answers, “It was kind ofsad.” Tapia responds, “How do you know?”

Miguel says, “Because old people.” Since the idea is on theright track, even though it is incomplete, the response isevaluated for content rather than the extent that it con-formed to correct language use.

Responses are never labeled right or wrong, but sometimesstudents are asked to explain the rationale for their answersor opinions. Jorge, for example, explains that he “liked itbecause it was sad and it was happy,” and proceeds to pro-vide several examples of sad and happy instances.

CO N C LU S I O NTeaching students for whom English is a second lan-guage is a serious issue because such students are oftenfaced with the “double demands” required of needing toacquire a new language while mastering academic con-tent material in English.

The two most important aspects of effective instruc-tion for limited-English-proficient students are:

■ Integration of instruction with English languagedevelopment in subject areas.

■ Promotion of active English use.Teachers must recognize that language minority stu-

dents face unique learning challenges that demandinnovative practices.These practices are well within thegrasp of committed teachers—whether monolingual orbilingual—who are provided with relevant knowledge,support, and professional development.


NUTS AND BOLTS

E n g l i s hI m m e r s i on for All Gra d e sThe Bethlehem, Pa., EnglishAcquisition Program

By Ann Goldberg

In 1993, the Bethlehem School District inBethlehem, Pa., decided that our bilingual edu-cation program was not producing the results wewanted. Students were taking too long to transi-tion into mainstream English classes and spent

much of their school day segregated from their English-speaking peers. Our district instituted a new Englishacquisition program focused on integrating limited-English-proficient (LEP) and non-LEP students andhelping English learners make a smooth and rapid tran-sition to English proficiency.

In the years since, we have conducted several parentand teacher satisfaction surveys and found a high levelof support for the new program. Many English immer-sion programs like ours provide services to Englishlearners through English as a Second Language (ESL)or English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL)pullout programs rather than all day self-contained pro-grams like Structured English Immersion. A key ele-ment in using the ESL model is the collaborationbetween regular classroom teachers and ESL or ESOLteachers. In order for ESOL teachers to give studentsthe background knowledge necessary for understandingcontent lessons and for actively engaging in classroomlearning activities, they need to be constantly aware of

both the difficulties common to students learning a sec-ond language and the specific problems of individualstudents.These difficulties are most easily obser ved andidentified by the classroom teacher; however, the ESOLteachers need to know of problem areas in order to pro-vide support for content area learning.

The specific criteria found in good ESL or immer-sion programs discussed here apply to mainstreamclassroom teachers with a mixture of LEP and non-LEP students, as well as ESL and ESOL teachers.

■ English instruction should not focus on the teach-ing of “English lessons” or isolated English vocabularyor grammar, but should stress the learning of curriculumcontent, vocabulary, and grammar simultaneously.

■ Teachers should also engage in ongoing curricu-lum adaptation , and con t i n u a lly monitor studentprogress to ensure the greatest opportunity for LEP stu-dents to use prior knowledge to master the curriculum.

■ Instruction should be hands-on and rich in realobjects and illustrations, rather than lecture. For begin-ner and intermediate level students, teachers shouldmodify the assignments, requiring fewer spelling words(selecting those with the highest frequency), or requir-ing mastery of only three to five of the major conceptsin social studies texts, rather than the entire set of chap-ter objectives.

■ Teachers should modify their evaluation proce-dures, when necessary, by giving a test orally or requir-ing the mastery of content rather than form.The goal isto evaluate what students know and to build on studentstrengths.

G R E AT PROGRAMS FO RE L E M E N TA RY ST U D E N T STeachers should focus on using literature-based readingprograms that limit the use of traditional “high, middle,and low” reading groups, instead of placing LEP stu-dents in one reading group. Reading textbooks shouldc ontain authentic ch i l d re n’s litera t u re selection s ,grouped by themes. Books that are rich in vivid charac-ters and content provide many opportunities for writingand energetic discussion . Thus English languageinstruction is organized around children’s literature,content area subjects, and thematically integrated unitsof learning, avoiding instruction of isolated skills.

ESOL teachers should introduce new materi a lthrough a variety of strategies prior to its introductionin the regular classroom.These language-rich, content-rich ESOL lessons prepare the students to participate in


This article is excerpted from “The Bethlehem, Pa., SchoolDistrict's English Acquisition Program: A Blueprint forChange,” by Ann Goldberg, Mark Connelly, and JudithSimons Turner, READ Perspectives, Fall 1995, Vol. II.2.

regular classroom activities with their English-speakingclassmates once they have learned the appropriate back-ground information and skills. ESOL teachers also fol-low up with a variety of other activities designed to clar-ify and reinforce the concepts presented in the readingseries.

■ Students should be taught English languageskills—listening comprehension, speaking, reading, andwriting—with an integrated approach.

■ The content of ESOL classes should relate to thesubject matter taught in the regular classroom, provid-ing students with the benefit of comprehensible input.

ENSURING SUCC E SS FO RMIDDLE SCHOOL ST U D E N T SAt the middle school level, the ESOL teachers shouldfocus more on vocabulary and spend time discussing themeaning and historical events related to the readingmaterials. Students should be expected to write sen-tences, paragraphs, and stories. Discussions, debates,oral reports, drama, and choral reading should beencouraged. Students should also write in a personaljournal for five minutes each day, with the ESOLteacher responding personally to each student in writ-ing. These activities provide meaningful integration ofcontent, life experiences, and second language develop-ment for the students.

ENGLISH ACQUISITION AT THE HIGH SCHOOL LEVELAdvanced level LEP students should be enrolled in reg-ular mainstream classes such as English, math, science,and social studies as much as possible. These studentsshould also receive one or two extra periods for ESOLsupport and reading in the content areas.

Regular assessment of LEP student progress is alsoan important element in successful programs. Teachersshould gather information in student portfolios forreview by the staff. This allows teachers to judge andcompare student readiness to enroll in more mainstreamclasses. Teachers should meet to define expectations andto decide which students will take group tests andwhich students will continue to need individual moni-t o ri n g. Language pro f i c i e n cy level determines thecourses scheduled for a student and the amount of timeprofitably spent in regular classes.

THE STAGES OF ENGLISHL A N G UAGE ACQUISITION These stages are not exact points but describe a range inthe English acquisition process for students.This guidewill help teachers assess the progress of their LEP stu-dents.

Listening and Speaking,Stages of English DevelopmentStage 1:■ Understands little or no English.■ Uses no English except for a word or two.■ Names objects.

Stage 2:■ Understands only slow, simple speech; requires repeti-

tions.■ Speech is slow except for short patterns.■ Is able to use functional words and phrases.■ Is unable to use English for significant communica-

tion.■ Vocabulary is limited to basic personal and survival

areas.

Stage 3:■ Understands simplified speech with repetitions and

rephrasing.■ Speech is hesitant and uneven; some sentences left

incomplete.■ Uses simple speech and gestures with predominantly

present-tense verbs.■ Demonstrates errors of omission; leaves words out;

leaves endings off.■ Vocabulary is limited, preventing continuous conversa-

tion.■ Uses some strategies when he/she meets with difficul-

ties: asks peers or teacher for help, asks for restating ofdirections, asks meaning of unknown words, takes risksto speak in class.

Stage 4:■ Understands adult speech but requires repetition and

rephrasing.■ Speech may be hesitant because of rephrasing and

groping for words.■ Uses some complex structures.■ Overgeneralizes rules of grammar.■ Has difficulty with choice of verb tense, verb tense

consistency, and subject/verb agreement.■ Vocabulary is adequate to carry on basic conversation;

some word usage difficulties.


■ Uses most of these strategies when he/she meets withdifficulties: seeks help from peers, teacher. Asks mean-ing of unknown words, takes risks to speak in class.

Stage 5:■ Understands most adult speech except some advanced

structures.■ Responds in detail, often with hesitations or digres-

sions that do not impede narrative.■ Errors made are not uncommon among proficient

speakers of standard American English and do not dis-tract from story line.

■ Uses most basic grammatical structures with occasion-al error in syntax. Some errors in a young learner maybe seen as developmental.

■ Vocabulary is sufficiently varied to express ideas clear-ly.

■ Uses strategies as needed when he/she meets with dif-ficulties: seeks out help from peers, teacher. Asksmeaning of unknown words, takes risks to speak inclass.

■ Is moving toward meeting the speaking, listening, andviewing standards at his or her grade level.

■ Is able to deliver an individual presentation in whichthe student:shapes information to a particular purpose;uses notes or other memory aids to structure the pres-entation; engages the audience with appropriate verbalcues and eye contact.

Stage 6:■ Able to express himself or herself adequately to succeed

in a regular education program with no ESOL support.■ Has met some of the speaking, listening, and viewing

standards at his or her grade level.

Reading Stages in EnglishStage 1:(One of these criteria may serve as descriptor for thestage)■ Attends to pictures and objects, but not print.■ Beginning to understand conventions of print such as

reading from left to right and the concept of letters andwords.

■ Participates in choral reading activities and/or canidentify some sound/symbol relationships along withsome high-frequency words.

Stage 2:■ Decodes simple sentences without assistance but may

not associate meaning.■ Uses some of these strategies when he/she meets with

difficulty: rereading, self-correcting, asking himself/herself if the text makes sense, transfers any first-lan-guage literacy skills.

Stage 3:■ Reads some simple passages (not necessarily on grade

level) without assistance and is able to retell the mean-ing of a simple passage and respond to comprehensionquestions appropriately.

■ Uses most of these strategies when he/she meets withdifficulty: rereading, self-correcting, asking himself/herself if the text makes sense, transfers any first-lan-guage literacy skills to derive meaning.

Stage 4:■ Understands main ideas/details appropriate to the stu-

dent’s grade level/academic program, but may needESOL support to understand more advanced conceptsand the academic language of texts.

Stage 5:■ Demonstrates reading ability appropriate to succeed in

a regular education program with ESOL support orsupport from the reading specialist.

■ Reads and comprehends informational material.■ Makes responsible assertions about texts.■ Supports assertions with convincing evidence.■ Compares and contrasts themes, characters, and ideas.

Stage 6:■ Demonstrates reading ability appropriate to succeed in

a regular education program without ESOL support.■ Is moving toward meeting the standard for his/her

grade level.■ Makes responsible assertions about texts.■ Supports assertions with elaborate and convincing evi-

dence.■ Draws texts together and compares and contrasts

themes, characters, and ideas.■ Restates and summarizes information.■ Relates new information to prior knowledge and expe-

rience.

Writing Stages in EnglishStage 1:■ Draws a picture.■ Has no knowledge of the written word.■ Writes name only.■ Writes isolated letters or words only.

Stage 2:■ Writes in phrases and simple patterned sentences only.■ Uses limited voca b u l a ry, and mostly pre s e n t - t e n s e

verbs.


■ Many spellings are unreadable, making the writinghard to understand.

Stage 3:■ Writes sentences centered around one idea, but not

necessarily in sequential order, with errors, but com-mensurate with student’s oral ability.

■ Has some knowledge of rules of punctuation and cap-italization, and some basic grammatical structures, butmay not use them consistently.

■ Uses spellings that are readable.■ At low stage 3 uses mostly present-tense verbs.■ High stage 3 shows evidence of using past tense in

common verbs.■ Uses some strategies when he/she meets with difficul-

ty (checks word list, rereads writing, asks peer orteacher for help, compares writing with rubric, circlesdifficult words, takes risks to use new words).

Stage 4:■ Has story line and/or central idea present.■ Able to write a summary of a story in correct sequence.■ Shows sequential relationship between sentences.■ Uses some compound and complex sentences.■ Demonstrates general control of most basic grammat-

ical structures (e.g., subject/verb agreement, standardword order, consistent verb tense), but still containserrors.

■ Uses punctuation and capitalization correctly most ofthe time.

■ Uses some conventional spellings.■ Consistently uses past tense in common verbs (when

appropriate).■ Uses most of these strategies when he/she meets with

difficulty (rereads writing, asks peer or teacher for help,compares writing with rubric, self-corrects errors, takesrisks to use new words, checks words on word lists, dic-tionary, thesaurus, or word list).

Stage 5:■ Is moving toward meeting the standard for his or her

grade level.■ Engages the reader with a good beginning.■ Has effective organization.■ Includes sufficient content and relevant details.■ Provides a sense of closure and a conclusion.■ I n cludes conve n t i onal spell i n g, p u n c t u a t i on , a n d

mechanics.■ Writes in a variety of genres appropriate to the writing

standard rubric.

Stage 6:■ Demonstrates writing ability appropriate to succeed in

a regular education program without ESOL support.

P R O G RAM OF STUDIES FO RHIGH SCHOOL LEP ST U D E N T SThe English Acquisition Program (EAP) and the Tran-sitional English Program (TEP) are two strands of thehigh school program for limited-English students:TEPis the program for college bound students; EAP is ori-ented toward students pursuing the vocational andcommercial tracks.EAP 1—Grades 9-11—Composition/reading development—Oral language development—Computer literacy—Basic math (introduction to algebra or as appropriate)—Integrated science/social studies

EAP 2—Grades 9-11 (High Beginners)—English language development—Reading —Basic math (introduction to algebra or as appropriate)—Integrated science/social studies—U.S. history—Physical education/electives

EAP 3—Grades 9-12—English language development—School to work program (grades 11 and 12)

All other courses integrated into the mainstream cur-riculum.

TEP 1—Grades 9-11—Composition/reading development—Oral language development—Computer literacy—Mathematics (EAP 1 math or intro d u c t i on to algebra )

1 period—physical education/elective

TEP 2—Grades 9-12—English language development—Reading —Science concepts—U.S. history

All other classes are in the mainstream.

TEP 3—Grades 9-12—Transitional English—English in self-contained program (regular curricu-

lum)—Reading across the curriculum

All other classes are in the mainstream.


Te a ching Juanand Maria To ReadTechniques for Second-Language Reading Instructionfor English-Learners in Primary Grades

By Janet Siano

Agood reading program for second-lan-guage learners should combine languagelearning with reading instruction. Thisapproach employs four important skillssimultaneously: speaking, reading, writ-

ing, and listening comprehension. The very concept ofEnglish immersion—a principle proven widely over thepast 25 years—is that second-language learning is bestdeveloped through subject matter learning, and literacy.

L A N G UAGE LEARNINGThe following variables are necessary for rapid andeffective language learning to take place:■ Exposure■ Motivation■ Opportunities for use■ Type and quality of instructional programs

The degree and manner in which these variables arepresent largely determines the rate at which childrenlearn and the quality of their speech.

Primary grade children (K-2) learn language quiteeasily when they are exposed to it in a natural classrooms e t t i n g. English immersion pro g rams provide thatexposure to the language, the motivation to learn quick-ly, and the opportunities to use what has been learned.

Speaking a new language occurs at different rates fordifferent children; and many variables determine theonset,the quantity, and the quality of speech.For exam-ple, outgoing students who are willing to take the risksinvolved in using a new language generally make moreand faster progress. Once language is used and becomesfunctional, it is owned. Students with English-speakingparents or siblings at home have more exposure to thelanguage. For children lacking that advantage, it is theresponsibility of the schools to provide the most effec-tive means to develop language skills and literacy in theclassroom.

T E ACHING A SECO N DL A N G UAG E■ The initial encounter with your students must be apositive experience for them.Because language learningis a social activity, provide students a warm, friendly,safe environment where they are not afraid to take risksin expressing themselves.

■ The classroom or workspace should be appealing andcomfortable. Children love to see a well-decorated,orderly environment. Try not to clutter up your work-space with too many stimuli. Students need to focustheir full attention on the learning task at hand.This isvitally important, especially in the beginning stages.

■ Speak slowly, clearly, and with good diction. Yourspeech becomes the student’s initial programming forthe sounds of the language.Be mindful that you providethe model from which your students build their diction,expressions, and grammar.

■ Do not rush the process. Give enough time inbetween words for the students to repeat slowly andclearly. If they mispronounce a word, do not move on.Ask them to repeat the word again after you. Ask themto listen first and watch the formation of your mouth asyou speak.

■ Pronunciation practice, as a group, is a non-threaten-ing exercise for young children. It provides the opportu-


Information in this article is based on Ms. Siano’s classroomteaching experience in U.S. public schools and in China(1997-99), and on the soon to be published Away withWords: A Reading Program for Students of English,Copyright © 2000.

nity for them to move past the silent period very quick-ly and meet with early success.

■ Be sure to praise your students for accurate pronun-ciation. This encouragement will help them recognizethe importance of this skill.

■ No two students learn at exactly the same rate. It isimportant not to lose your slower students in the begin-ning stages. Any extra help you are able to provide inthe initial stages will benefit these children greatly.

■ Watch your students very carefully. Those who arelooking to others to do the speaking for them needopportunities to speak for themselves. Draw these stu-dents out and praise any attempt at communication.

■ Be very gentle with your students as they attempt tospeak. It helps to get them started by asking questionsabout things they can see in pictures,things they can seein their environment, things that have meaning tothem, and things that hold their interest. If a studentdoes not respond to a question, gently ask again.If thereis still no response, then simply move on to another stu-dent.

■ Important: Keep your expectations high, and yourstudents will strive to meet them.

T E ACHING READINGI n s t ru c t i onal reading pro g rams for English-learn e r sshould follow the same natural progression of languagedevelopment as those used for native English speakers.Strategies and techniques should support linguisticprinciples of the teaching of reading.

Articulation awareness and practice are key to com-prehensible speech and reading development in the ini-tial stages of learning a language. Teaching proper artic-ulation and pronunciation well from the beginningeliminates the establishment of sound approximationsthat become difficult to correct at a later time. Whenleft unchecked, these approximations delay readingreadiness and lead not only to unintelligible speech, butalso to faulty word recognition and lack of comprehen-sion.

Sounds and symbols—like the alphabet—taught inc on j u n c t i on with word associations—like picturewords—develop word-attack skills and the ability toread for meaning. In addition, a sound reading programfor second-language learners provides memory wordsdesigned to expose the learner to structural analysis and

the syntax of the language. In essence, these wordsbecome the skeleton from which grammatical patternscan emerge. For example, using pictures to demonstratethe meaning of words beginning with the sound of “b”(bag, big, bug) in combination with a few memorywords (the, a, is, in) can create the following statementsand sentence:

Second-language learners meet with success moreeasily when their first reading materials contain mainlymonosyllabic words having a short vowel sound and let-ters with only one phonetic value. For example, “hat,”“red,” “sit,” “pot,” “sun.” Because most English words arephonetic, the goal of this approach to speech and read-ing instruction is to familiarize children with the con-sistencies of the language as a basis for generalizationsto new words. Repetition, pattern recognition, positivereinforcement, and successful experiences in the earlystages of learning help students to develop the confi-dence and competence needed to master the inconsis-tencies of the language.

C H A R AC T E R I STICS OF ASTRONG READING PROGRAMFOR SECO N D- L A N G UAG EL E A R N E R SA good program:

■ Provides learning materials that are appropriate forthe needs of the learners and for the nature of what isbeing taught.

■ Is systematically organized and structured in teachingthe fundamentals so that the language confronting thelearner is logical, consistent, predictable, and attainable.Giving children every opportunity to succeed in theearly stages fosters the confidence needed for harderand more complex tasks.

■ Contains memory words and vocabulary that are sys-tematically introduced and controlled so the learner canattach meaning behind the print while gaining syntac-tical and grammatical awareness.


the buga bag

in a bagThe bug is in a bag.

■ Incorporates activities designed to provide the prac-tice and reinforcement needed for students to masterreading skills while learning to speak the language.

■ Uses a variety of methods and techniques to accom-modate different learning styles—visual, aural, kines-thetic.This can be accomplished through the use of art,music, dance, physical education, and drama.

C H A R AC T E R I STICS OF QUALITY INST R U C T I O NA skilled teacher of limited-English students in the pri-mary grades:

■ Models good pronunciation and encourages theaccurate production of individual letter sounds andwords, gives names to these sounds (letters), and mod-els these letters properly to help students use the correctformations from the start.

■ Gives students immediate positive reinforcementwhen sounds are reproduced accurately, as the teacherguides students closer to mastery.

■ Identifies sounds with picture words (vocabulary).Vocabulary words are reinforced, reviewed, and used incontext. Picture words compiled by letter sounds on aseries of pocket charts can be used to expose students tocommon words found in children’s literature whileintroducing them to the sounds of the language.

■ Uses a variety of techniques to help students gain theability to discriminate among the sounds, essential forspeaking intelligibly and for developing the readingskills to decode and encode (spell) accurately.

■ Is familiar with the kinds of difficulties students arelikely to face and the errors common to second-lan-guage learners, and plans accordingly. Varies questionsand asks for responses that will enable each child to feelsome degree of success daily.

■ Knows how to assess progress and build on student’sprior knowledge in order to make new informationmeaningful.

■ Has a knowledge of subject matter content andteaching methods. Knows what to teach as well as howto teach.

MORE TIPS FOR TEAC H E R SThe ability to discriminate between sounds is crucial for

decoding the language.Children must be encouraged tolisten attentively so they can hear the subtle differencesamong many of the sounds.

Correct children gently and praise their efforts,knowing that only through trial and error can masterybe achieved. Tactful correction from the start providesthe necessary guidance for establishing good workhabits.

If a child has difficulty with letter or sound recogni-tion, limit his or her choices to two or three.It is impor-tant for each child to meet with success in the earlystages of reading development.This gives the children asense of accomplishment and the desire and confidenceto move forward.

Techniques that help students transfer sounds intowritten symbols in the early stages of reading develop-ment build the foundation for good spelling skills.Using slate boards and chalk is an effective techniquethat provides the opportunity for young children toexperiment with encoding (spelling) without the con-straints of lines, paper, and pencils. Use known wordsbeginning with familiar sounds. Enunciate clearly andask the children to write the letter for the first soundthey hear. This technique can be expanded to includethe final letter and then to the word as a whole.

Word walls keep a running record of words that can-not be decoded, are found in everyday speech, and needto be put to memory. Word walls can be used as a toolfor reinforcement and review. In time, they can serve asa resource for correct spelling when the children beginto write words and sentences on their own.

When children realize that letters make sounds andsounds make words, they can then learn to decode thelanguage.

Through usage, practice, vocabulary development,and experiences, children learn to read for meaning.This ph e n om e n on happens in the same way forEnglish-language learners and native speakers.

It is sometimes difficult for second-language learnersto comprehend all the elements of a story. Chooseb o oks whose pictures can help to tell the story.Illustrations can become an effective tool for generatinginterest, expanding vocabulary, and providing opportu-nities for simple discussion.

Songs and games provide opportunities for childrento hear and reproduce the language naturally. Teacher-led songs without the use of a cassette make it easier forstudents to understand the words.

Art activities give students a medium in which toexpress their feelings and experiences in a way that is


pleasurable and non-threatening. Their drawings canthen provide a tool for experiential writing and oral dis-cussion.

Every lesson should extend students’ efforts a littlebeyond their capabilities, but should be tempered withrealistic expectations. On the other hand, moving les-sons ahead too slowly results in boredom.The seasonedteacher gives all students the opportunity to participatein classroom activities at a reasonable place.

Children love to see that their accomplishments havebeen noticed and are appreciated. Current and regular-ly updated displays of student work should be main-tained in the classroom, in a corridor, or even in thefront lobby of your school if possible.

All students are different. Assessment of studentprogress should be ongoing. If the majority of your stu-dents do well, you can be assured that the rate in whichyou are pacing your lessons is appropriate for this group.If many students are falling behind in certain areas,revisit those areas and provide more reinforcement andreview for a longer period of time.If only a few studentsare falling behind, then begin remediation immediately.Providing some extra attention at the end of each stageof reading development will eliminate the gaps that cre-ate confusion for children as they move to the next levelof learning.

Encourage your students to take books home topractice reading with a parent or older sibling. This willgive them pride in their accomplishments and involvethe family in the learning process.

CO N C LU S I O NThere are many accepted approaches to the teaching ofreading, such as phonetics,language experience, linguis-tics, and whole language. There are various strategies,t e ch n i q u e s , and styles of teaching and learn i n g.Experienced teachers generally agree that the bestapproach is eclectic—using a combination of methods.Teaching children to read in English, when it is nottheir first language or the language in which they havethe greatest fluency, requires the development of all lan-guage skills—listening comprehension, speaking, read-ing, and writing. Reading is the crucial key to most aca-demic learning, for limited-English students and nativespeakers alike. Reading programs that combine meth-ods, simplify strategies and procedures for teachers, andcorrelate all learning experiences for the students arevaluable. Such programs—in conjunction with a goodteacher’s instincts, expertise, and creativity—can makeEnglish come alive for students and make reading afully realized accomplishment.


Te a ching Englishto High Sch o o lSt u d e n t s

By Richard K. Munro

Teaching older immigrant and limited ornon-English-speaking students is fraughtwith difficulties. Unlike younger stu-dents—children in kindergarten throughgrade 6,who have the luxury of time—sec-

ondary-level students face an urgency about which theyand their parents often have only the vaguest notion.The best help we can give these immigrant and LEPstudents is to immerse them in English with specialinstruction by teachers trained in the education of lan-guage-minority students. The goals of English immer-sion teaching at the secondary school level are the rapidmastery of English language skills and the efficientacquisition of vocabulary for subject matter learning inE n g l i s h — a ch i evable go a l s , p rovided sufficient andappropriate help is given.

ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEVEL“ZERO” ST U D E N T SStudents with no knowledge of the Roman alphabet orno English-language skills should not be placed in“native language social studies” or other non-English“native language” core classes.These students should bescheduled for at least three blocks of instruction inEnglish Language Development/English as a SecondLanguage (ELD/ESL), focusing on listening compre-hension, speaking, reading, writing, and the essentialvocabulary of core courses like math, science, and socialstudies. These students will not be ready to participatein regular high school level courses taught in English

for the first semester or the first year, but they can takeother courses such as physical education,art,or music tofill out their schedules.

Depending on a student’s educational background inhis or her native land,language-learning ability, motiva-tion, and other factors, some will be ready to enroll in aregular math class after one semester in a U.S. school;for others, it will take longer. Middle schools and highschools with large enrollments of LEP students mayprovide “sheltered English” content courses—that is, amath, science, or social studies course that covers thesecondary-level material but at a slightly slower pace,while focusing on English-language development at thesame time.

Entry-level students should be expected to master aglossary of basic English terms as part of their course-work. Students will need to copy out and learn Englishspellings by heart. Teachers should point out commonspelling changes such as -y to -ies in words like “jury.”It is helpful if a basic glossary is prepared for each sub-ject area, including both general classroom terms andterms having to do with that specific subject area.Ideally each student will have a bilingual dictionary ofhis or her own to keep, but that is not always possiblefor languages other than Spanish. Good bilingual dic-tionaries for classroom use include the Concise AmericanHeri ta ge Spanish-English Dictionary and the O x f o rdSpanish-English Dictionary. Both are available in paper-back and have thesaurus-like features.

Clearly, older LEP students who arrive in U.S.schools at grade 10 or above with no knowledge ofEnglish will not be able to complete their academic cur-riculum in a normal four-year program.These studentswill have to go on to adult education in a local commu-nity college or in adult secondary-school programs( s u ch as those awarding the General Educa t i onDiploma or GED).

LEP STUDENTS AT THEI N T E R M E D I ATE OR A DVANCED LEVELStudents who have acquired an intermediate oradvanced English-language proficiency will be able toenroll in some regular courses, but they should contin-ue to receive one or two blocks of English LanguageDevelopment (ELD). These special English classesshould, if possible, provide special emphasis and extratutoring on reading and writing skills and vocabulary


development. One highly successful strategy for estab-lishing good discipline and good reading habits is toi n c o rp o rate 20 minutes a day of Sustained Si l e n tReading (SSR) during the English class.This approachrequires both teacher and students to read quietly for aset period of time. Students may read what they choose(in any language) during free SSR but it must be appro-priate reading matter (not catalogs or picture books).

E N T RY AND EXIT CRITERIAEntry-level assessments are generally done with homelanguage surveys, transcripts,and language tests such asthe LAS (Language Assessment Sca l e s ) . But on eshould not accept such primary documents as fact. Astudent may have a home language other than Englishif someone in his or her home speaks a language otherthan English—even if the student speaks only English!It is also possible for such students to have academicdeficiencies not related to language that would leadthem to do poorly on the LAS. Some students may evendeliberately fail their “language test” so that they can beplaced in the lowest possible (easiest) ELD classes.Thisis why the testing alone is not enough—the opinion ofthe classroom teacher after some days of observation isnecessary.

When students are assessed as “fully English profi-cient” through language tests, classroom work, reportca rd gra d e s , successful part i c i p a t i on in mainstre a mclasses, and other criteria required by individual schoold i s t ri c t s , bilingual students should no longer beassigned to ELD or ESL classes. If a student continuesto have problems with reading or with math, then he orshe should be given remedial reading or math tutorialsor whatever special services are available in these areas.C e rt a i n ly once a form e rly limited-English studentreaches the level of English-language competence to beenrolled in mainstream classes,that student is in no fur-ther need of ELD/ESL.

T E ACHING ST R AT EG I E SIf an LEP student has literacy skills in his or her nativelanguage and knows the Roman alphabet, the studentcan easily be taught to identify parts of speech, verbtenses, personal pronouns, synonyms, antonyms, falsecognates, prefixes, suffixes, and elements of Englishphonetics. Start the year with the “keys to memory”:o r g a n i za t i on , m e a n i n gf u l n e s s , f a m i l i a ri ty, a c t i verehearsal (practice),and effort.Each student is told howto organize a notebook and is required to have a sepa-rate planner. Helpful practices include keeping a chartof language families (with references to all the nativelanguage groups in the class and their relationship toeach other and to English) and using the “three-columnmethod,” an example of which is set out below.

The three-column method is especially helpful inintroducing new English verbs. Students can passivelylearn to understand the “common English” word whileactively using the more formal word, which is almostinvariably regular and is easier to use since it avoidsproblems with the use of prepositions. I teach all mystudents a step-by-step method for English readingcomprehension, so that they can get the gist of newwords, learn to recognize cognates, and identify keywords and parts of speech.

Beginners can participate in an abridged core classin which the emphasis is on English reading skills, basicgrammar, basic study skills, and basic vocabulary andthemes in the respective core classes. Classroom aidesshould be spoken to exclusively in English during classeven if a teacher must use Spanish as necessary with astudent. Assignments and the readings are always in theEnglish medium. Every unit test consists of an Englishcomprehension exercise (“translate or explain”) and thena history portion, which is graded separately.

Teachers may use advance organizers to give a simpleoutline of the main theme. Visuals also play a key rolein the learning process. Reading, interspersed with col-orful maps or relevant pictures in plastic guards or “color


Three-Column Method

Formal English Common English Synonym Spanish Translation

Humanity Mankind, humankind Humanidad –idad=ity

To emit (emitted) To give off (gave off ) Emitir (emitió)

coding,” reduces the need to speak languages other thanEnglish. In my class I use blue for English language [tobegin (began) (begun)], black for English synonym [tocommence (-ed)], red for important, and green forSpanish [comenzar (-aba/-ó)(comenzado)]. Students findthis very helpful, since it reduces confusion between thetwo languages. Teachers who are not multilingual canuse color coding for synonyms,pictures, drawings, sym-bols, or simplified explanations. I place a black dotunder all silent letters in English and routinely identifyshort vowels and long vowels and special consonantsounds. We have fun with archaic pronunciations suchas learnED and thouGHt (as in the Scottish loch).Students learn that, while there are some similaritiesbetween the sounds of, say, Filipino or Spanish andEnglish, one cannot speak English clearly using onlythe vowel sounds of Spanish or Filipino.

I teach writing simple essays in the first year. Afterfinishing a unit on the Greek city-states, for example, Iask the students to name two famous contrasting exam-ples (Athens and Sparta). I write the names on thewhiteboard, point them out on a map, and check forcomprehension by asking, “What is Athens?” Then Iask the class to tell me what they know of each city andits culture. When we have decided on the key facts foreach city, I present a question and a thesis statement:“Athens and Sparta were rival Greek cities with verydifferent governments.” If students are able, they thenwrite their own practice essays based on the notes usingglossaries, their texts, and dictionaries. If they are notable, I write a model two-paragraph essay for all stu-dents, reading it out loud, to be copied from the boardor overhead projector. I always give the essay topic forthe test in advance.

Students should be encouraged to read aloud inEnglish and to speak clearly. The key is to provide (1)as much written text as possible matched to the spokenword and (2) correct, clear speech. Teachers must bevery careful to use only the standard language of theclass text on tests. If you have said “before” in class andnot “prior to,” do not introduce such words on a test.Films with closed captions, so common on digitalvideodiscs (DVD), are very useful teaching devices ifthe films are used sparingly and have a solid relationshipto the content being taught.

E X T R ACURRICULAR AC T I V I T I E SExtracurricular activities such as computer clubs, chessclubs, sports clubs, intramural athletics, and interna-

tional clubs are very useful for integrating LEP studentswith their English-speaking classmates and for givingthem many more opportunities for informal speechinteractions. Before- or after-school tutorial programs,mentoring programs employing volunteers in the com-munity, summer and Saturday ESL/ELD reading andwriting proficiency enrichment programs all provideadditional and sorely needed extensions of the academ-ic learning begun during the school day and school year.Many LEP students find themselves ineligible for highschool team sports, so they need other outlets. Readingeditorial cartoons, comics, newspaper articles for youth(such as the “Mini-Page”), learning songs, and listeningto play-by-play of sporting events can be fun ways ofdeveloping language competency. The number of for-mal and informal activities offered to LEP secondarystudents are limited only by the resourcefulness of theprofessional staff and the resources of the school dis-trict.

Finally, the key to all success is motivation. Formerstudents should be encouraged to speak to classes abouttheir experiences. Success stories about perseverance,dedication, and success in careers and higher educationalso help to motivate students. Teachers should encour-age their students to come to them for academic help,encouragement, and letters of recommendation at anytime. LEP students need mentors whom they can counton.

R E ASONABLE EXPEC TAT I O N SAND ACCO U N TA B I L I T YThe best English-language learners and most enthusi-astic students identify themselves by their performanceand English-language development in the first fewweeks.These students may be mainstreamed in one yearor two, even to the point of enrolling in 11th and 12thgrade Advanced Placement (AP) classes. Such studentswill attempt to answer in the English language in thefirst quarter, both orally and on essays.

Students at the next ability level will participate inEnglish only by repetition or recitation. It is possible forsuch students, by the 11th or 12th-grade, to meet grad-uation standards in proficiency tests in math, reading,and writing. Marginal and late English-language learn-ers can also obtain diplomas through a combination ofGED-like migrant summer school classes (offered inEnglish and Spanish) and transfer credits from otherstates and countri e s . Those ambitious enough ca nattend college as well, although remedial classes at the


local community college level may be necessar y.Many states are imposing mandatory standardized

tests, as an accountability measure, which students mustpass in order to graduate. These tests pose a difficult,but not impossible, obstacle for students struggling withEnglish proficiency. Students who have not been well-trained in English-language testing techniques are at anoverwhelming disadvantage. These new accountabilitymeasurements, combined with the curtailment of reme-dial education in colleges, mean that all secondaryschools with LEP students must devise realistic gameplans for their students that include minimal proficien-cies, partial proficiencies, and full-diploma programs.Students should be tested at each level of developmenteach semester to measure and ensure adequate progressin sheltered classes and in the core areas.

C ontinuous ev a l u a t i on of student pro g ress alsoensures a proper placement for students at all times.Placement decisions are key to whether or not an LEPstudent is given appropriate help. Assigning a studentto courses simply by age, without proper reading andlanguage preparation, can have only two results: (1) the“dumbing down” of the course, or (2) if the course istaught as for native speakers, the failure by the majorityof LEP students. The challenge for public schools is toprepare as many of these older students as possible forskilled jobs and for higher education—a serious respon-sibility when students arrive without English-languageskills at high school age.

S E L ECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR TEACHERS ANDA D M I N I ST R ATO R SBarzun, Jacques. From Dawn to Decadence, HarperCollins, New

York, 2000.

Fuller, Graham E. How To Learn a Foreign Language, Storm KingPress, Washington, D.C., 1987.

Gersten, R.,Baker, S.,& Keating, T. “El Paso programs for Englishlanguage learn e r s : A longitudinal foll ow-up study, ” RE A DPerspectives, 5(l), 1998,pp. 4-28.

Goldberg, A. “Follow-up study on the Bethlehem, Pa., SchoolDistrict’s English acquisition program,” READ Perspectives, 4(l),1997, pp. 59-94.

Highet, Gilbert. The Art of Teaching, Vintage Books, New York,1950, reprinted 1989.

Holt,Marion & Dueber Julianne. 1001 Pitfalls in Spanish, Barron’s,Woodbury, N.Y., 1973.

Merino, José. Diccionario De Dudas, Parafino, Madrid, 1978.

Miller, J. “Muchas gracias, Mr. Doluisio,” Policy Review 77, May1996, pp. 46-49.

Munro, R. K. “Hadrian’s Italica: Mother of Spain and the HispanicWorld,” Calliope, December 1999, Vol. 10, No.4.

— — — - “Bilingual Miseduca t i on , ” S el e c ted Read i n gs on Sch o o lReform, Fall 1998, Vol. 2. No.4.

———-“Teach English as soon as possible,” Bakersfield Californian.Nov. 28, 1998.

———-“Control language with precision,” Bakersfield Californian.June 5, 1997.

———-“Program needs English focus,” Bakersfield Californian.July 23, 1995.

———-“A victory for bilingual education,” Bakersfield Californian.March, 26,1993.

New Oxford Picture Dictionary. Oxford University Press, New York,1989.

No on a n , K e n . “I Believed That Bilingual Educa t i on Wa sBest…Until the Kids Proved Me Wrong,” Washington Post, Sept.3,2000.

Porter, R. P. “The Newton alternative to bilingual education.” TheAnnals-Journal of the American Academy of Political and Social Sci-ences, 508, March 1990, pp. 147-160.

———-Forked tongue: The politics of bilingual education (2nd ed.).Transaction Publishers, Somerset, N.J., 1995.

— — — - “The Benefits of English Immersion , ” E d u ca t i o n a lLeadership, 1999/2000.

Ravitch, Diane. National Standards in American Education: A Citi-zen’s Guide (2nd ed), The Brookings Institute, Washington,D.C.,1995.

———-Left Back: A Century of Failed School Reform, Simon &Schuster, New York, 2000.

Rossier, R. E. “A critique of California’s evaluation of programs forstudents of limited-English proficiency,” READ Perspectives, 2(l),1995, pp. 27-51.

Shaw, Harry. The Joy of Words: Building a Richer Vocabulary, Dodd,Mead & Company, New York,1984.

Tierney, J. “A many tongued city hears a cry for English,” The NewYork Times, Aug. 16,1999, p. 20.


The Design andI m p l e m e n t a t i onof an EnglishI m m e r s i onPro g ra m

By Kevin Clark

Implementing an English immersion program isactually quite simple. In fact, for most schoolsand districts, an immersion program is usuallyeasier than any other program design for stu-dents new to English. All schools and districts

have teachers who speak English, many of whom havebeen trained in special methods and techniques forteaching English. And most places have plenty ofEnglish-language instructional materials, though theymay not be specifically designed for immersion teach-ing. But despite the abundance of these human andmaterial resources, there can lurk beneath the surfaceother issues that could make the provision of an immer-sion program more difficult.This article provides infor-mation on specific aspects of immersion programs thathave been implemented successfully in a variety of dis-tricts.

What is immersion language teaching? Immersion language education is sometimes referred toby several different names, including sheltered Englishimmersion, structured English immersion, or just plainimmersion. By whatever term you choose to call it,eachrefers to a program of instruction that can best bedefined as follows:

Students in immersion programs receive maximumexposure to the new language. This means that most orall of the instruction students receive is in the targetlanguage. Another characteristic of immersion educa-tion is that students learning the new language aregrouped together for most of their English languageinstruction.This means, in most cases, that they are nottogether with higher functioning English learners, orwith native English speakers, during their languageinstruction time. This homogenous grouping principleis an important one in immersion education. Anyonewho has ever studied a new language knows that in thebeginning it is difficult to understand native speakers.For many students new to English the pressure of usingthe new language with native speakers can be stressful.Moreover, for immersion students to learn the languagequickly requires that the teacher be able to design anddeliver English and content area lessons especially forstudents who have minimal English. Thus, keepingimmersion students in their own “environment” whilethey explore, practice, and learn the new language is animportant principle of immersion teaching. In this way,immersion students spend most of their school daylearning English that is presented at their level. Whenstudents understand their instruction, they can movequickly to higher levels of proficiency.


Immersion “An approach to teaching a new lan-guage where learners receive all or most of theirinstruction in the new language together with oth-ers who are learning that language.”

Immersion language teaching…■ Utilizes the target language for most instruc-

tion and learning

■ Features specialized groupings of new learnersaway from native speakers

■ Maximizes the amount of understandableinstruction in the new language

■ Seeks to accelerate language learning byincreasing time on task

■ Instruction is geared to the students’ developinglanguage level

What is the goal of immersion languageteaching?The goal is to equip students with a foundation ofEnglish skills that will enable them to participate morefully in educational programs that have grade-level con-tent delivered in English as their focus. Students inimmersion language programs are seeking to develop a“kit bag” of language skills that they can continue toexpand and utilize to learn subjects like math, science,social studies, and language arts. Immersion teachingdoes not claim to provide students with all the Englishlanguage skills they will ever need. Instead, after exitingan immersion program, students should be able to enterclassrooms where English is the language of instructionfor grade-appropriate subject matter. They continue todevelop their English proficiency as they learn new sub-jects. You might think of immersion teaching as estab-lishing a base upon which further skills and knowledgeare developed.

For which students is immersionappropriate?Immersion language programs are appropriate for stu-dents who possess less than what linguists generallyrefer to as “intermediate language proficiency.” Thiscovers a broad range of students, all the way from littleor no English ability to students who may speak Eng-lish fairly well but who still lack English literacy skills.Using the jargon, students at the pre-production, earlyproduction, or speech-emergent levels are good candi-dates for immersion programs. At the secondary level,immersion programs may also serve students who haveconversational English, but whose literacy skills are sig-nificantly below grade-level requirements.

How is immersion different from otherprograms for limited-English-proficientstudents, like bilingual education or “sinkor swim”?Immersion education differs from bilingual teachingapproaches in the language of instruction. In bilingualprograms, students receive much of their instructionthrough the home language, and may initially learn toread and write in that home language. Immersion edu-cation, of course, features instruction in the new lan-guage and does not seek to develop the home language.

Submersion programs or “sink or swim” approachesare often called immersion programs when they really

are not. Submersion refers to putting limited-English-p roficient (LEP) students into mainstream cl a s s e salongside native English speakers. They are expected togain not only English skills,but also content knowledgeat the same level as native speakers. This kind of pro-gram is one where students are taught “in” English,whereas immersion programs seek to “teach” English.Submersion classrooms, then, are very different fromimmersion classrooms, which as we know keep newlanguage learners apart from native speakers until theyhave developed a good working knowledge of English.

Laying the Foundation for YourImmersion Program Before implementing an immersion program, considerthe foundation on which you are building this program.The following three areas are, at some point,going to bevery important to the success of your program, and, ifignored, could undermine some or all of your efforts.

1. Understand both state and federal laws related toEnglish-learner education. Consult your educationcode, review your state department of education’srequirements, and take some time to study any rele-vant state and federal court rulings that could affectyour program. In California, for example, significantchanges were made to state law in 1998 whenProposition 227 passed.This law essentially called forimplementing English immersion and doing awaywith bilingual educa t i on appro a ch e s . While themedia ran wild with sensationalized stories of gloomand doom, very few educators actually had botheredto read the law, and precious few had any backgroundin the state and federal law issues that affect theseprograms. So read the court cases, consult your edu-cation code, and do your homework. 1

2. Analyze the local,regional, and state ideologiesforeducating English-learners. Every classroom, school,district, county office of education, and state depart-ment has a belief system about educating LEP stu-dents, and many want you to believe the same way.From bilingual education to submersion to dualimmersion to late-exit maintenance, everybody hasan idea of the best way to educate English-learners.School staffs are divided on the issue, some superin-tendents never take a stand, and benevolent countyand state leaders never fail to give you their opinionon the issue. Listen to these ideologies. Write them


1 See Article by Jim Littlejohn in this volume.

down. Then ask yourself this: What do they believeto be true about educating these students, and is itconsistent with immersion? You must understandtheir views to make yours understood. In the worstcase scenario, this knowledge will help you to mountyour informational campaign as effectively as possi-ble.

Before You StartNo program change is ever easy. If you’re moving frombilingual approaches to immersion, or from submersionto immersion, many of your staff, teachers, parents andcommunity members will find it painful at times. Themove to immersion forces many schools and districts toexamine past practices for educating LEP students thatoftentimes were inadequate or downright failures. Thisis never easy to do. Go slow, be patient, and be preparedto explain the program over and over again. In time,even your toughest critics will come to understand whatyour English immersion program is designed to do.

Designing Your Program You will need to make some decisions in five key areasto define your immersion program. Here are the fiveareas:

Student entry and exit criteria Which students will you include in your immersionprogram?

We start with defining the entry and exit criteria foryour immersion program. Once set, these criteria willtell us which students will go into the program and, log-ically, when students are ready to exit the program.We’ve already discussed that immersion education isusually for students who have less than what linguistsrefer to as “intermediate” English language skills. Thismeans, in practical terms,that the English oral compre-

hension, speaking, reading, and writing skills of thesestudents are not sufficient to allow them to accessgrade-appropriate content instruction in English. It’simportant to emphasize that this definition refers to allfour aspects of English proficiency: listening, speaking,reading, and writing. This is particularly important ifyou are designing an immersion program for older stu-dents, many of who may possess fairly well-developedEnglish oral skills, but for whose English reading andwriting skills are underdeveloped.

To better define “i n t e rm e d i a t e” p ro f i c i e n cy, a n dthereby decide what the cut-off point is for inclusion inyour immersion program, you might make use of one ormore of the following English assessment tests, most ofwhich are utilized in school districts across the country.

■ Language Assessment Scales (LAS)■ Idea Proficiency Test (IPT)■ Bilingual Syntax Measure (BSM)■ Woodcock-Munoz

Most of these tests include descriptions of their var-ious levels. It may be necessary, or desirable, to gobeyond these tests to determine who will be in your dis-trict’s English immersion program. The example onpage 27,from the Oceanside Unified School District, inCalifornia, shows how certain assessments are com-bined with others to form immersion program entrycriteria. This example also shows multilevel entry crite-ria useful for students in upper grades, including sec-ondary.

You can see from this example that the district usestesting instruments in all four language domains forstudents in certain grades. At lower grades, it is some-times adequate to base placement decisions on the useof an oral test only, reasoning that in most cases thesestudents will possess minimal English reading or writ-ing skills as well. An example of this is from an elemen-tary school district that utilizes the Idea ProficiencyTest (IPT) language assessment for initial programplacement.


The Five Components of YourImmersion Program

■ Student entry and exit criteria

■ Program goals

■ Time allocated to teaching the Englishlanguage

■ Language use policies and guidelines

■ Materials and role of subject matter content

Exit Criteria for District’s EnglishImmersion Program

Woodcock-Munoz Oral English Score: 3 or above(“limited English”)

English Reading Score: Within two grade levelsof student grade placement

English Writing: No more than one level belowgrade-level writing rubric score

One word of advice: To the degree possible, use lan-guage assessment criteria that are as objective as possi-ble. Of course, language measurement tests are far fromperfect, and there may be cases where a student testedpoorly and does not belong in the program. Clearobjective entry criteria are the first step to establishinga well-organized immersion program.

When designing entry criteria, you should decideyour immersion program’s exit criteria. What languageskills do students need to have to be successful in pro-grams teaching content in English? For students in

grades 3 and above, you will want to include all lan-guage domains. Thus, you may decide, as did theM c Fa rland Unified School District in Centra lCalifornia, that students need the following:

Many districts place students who have exited fromimmersion programs into programs with names like“transitional,” “bridge,” or “sheltered.” These programshave as their goal continued English language develop-ment and grade-appropriate subject matter instruction.Sometimes known as SDAIE (specially designed aca-demic instruction in English),these classes seek to con-tinue supporting LEP students through the use of spe-cialized teaching strategies for students who still do notpossess a full range of English language skills.The dia-gram below shows how your immersion program can beviewed as the base for subsequent student placement.


Program Placement Criteria Grades 3-12

GOALSEnglish LAS-O2: English LAS-O:Level 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Level 4, 5 Designation:Gates-MacGinitie3: Gates-MacGinitie: EO, FEP, R-FEP4

At least two levels below grade level. Within two levels of grade level.

PROGRAMStructured English Bridge MainstreamImmersion (SEI)

ASSESSMENT1. Rapid development 1. Continued English Grade-appropriate subject

of English. development. matter learning.

2. Subject matter instruction 2. Grade-appropriate subject at ability level. matter learning.

English-Learner Program Placement Guide

IPT Score(Idea Proficiency Test)

A, B, C D, E, F5 EO, FEP, R-FEP

Structured English Transitional Program Mainstream ProgramImmersion Program

2 Language Assessment Scales-Oral.3 Reading comprehension and vocabulary test.4 English Only, Fully english Proficient,Redesignated Fully English

Proficient.5 A through F refer to levels of English proficiency with A being the

lowest and F being near native proficiency.

Goals What will be the intended student outcomes for your immer-sion program?

English immersion programs are sometimes referredto as “sequential” programs. This is a term that comesf rom the fe d e ral court case C a s taneda v. P i c k a rd.Sequential programs, like immersion programs, seek todevelop students’ English skills first during an intensi-fied period of time. Once students possess a base ofEnglish skills they can begin learning grade-appropriatecontent. The chart below is an example from theAtwater Elementary School District in California; itshows in an easy-to-read format the salient aspects ofeach of its programs, including student learning goals.

In most cases, immersion programs will have as theirnumber-one goal the teaching of the English language,i n cluding listening, s p e a k i n g, re a d i n g, and wri t i n g.With respect to a content-related goal, you should besure to understand your local and state requirements,because these could have serious implications. It’s usu-

ally true that immersion programs will have a short,temporary but necessary interruption in subject matterlearning at the appropriate grade level in order to focusintensely on second-language learning. Students whodo not yet possess enough English should be taughtusing core content materials, albeit in a significantlymodified fashion. For this reason, most immersion pro-grams establish a content goal that sounds like the onein the chart above.

Instructional time dedicated to teaching English For how much time per day will students be taught theEnglish language?

Remember that earlier we made a distinctionbetween teaching in English versus teaching English.This is an important distinction when you decide howmuch time will be dedicated to this. Because immersionprograms are ideally designed to accelerate the develop-ment of English skills, time spent learning English isperhaps one of the most significant aspects of your pro-gram.Thus, if your immersion program for elementarystudents is an all-day program (with some time built infor structured mixing of immersion students into otherclassrooms for English practice), students may learnmore English than if it were a two-hour pullout pro-gram. At the secondary level, the issue becomes even


MAINSTREAM

TRANSITIONAL (SDAIE)

ENGLISH IMMERSION

Program Name Structured Transitional Mainstream EnglishEnglish Immersion

Description Students learn the English Students learn core curriculum Students learn corelanguage and modified and continue their curriculum at grade core curriculum. English learning. level taught in English.

Goals 1. Rapid development 1. Continued English 1. Grade-appropriate of English. development. subject matter learning.

2. Subject matter instruction 2. Grade-appropriate subjectat language ability level. matter learning.

Students Served English-learners with less English-learners with Students with fullthan reasonable reasonable English fluency. English proficiencyEnglish fluency. (EO, FEP, R-FEP).

Program Duration One or more years, K-6 K-6depending on need.

Special Features Required by law. In legal terms, this is an In legal terms, this is (Prop. 227). “English language an “English language

mainstream classroom.” mainstream classroom.”

harder. How many hours a day of English languageinstruction will enable a student to reach a level ofEnglish competence to perform high school level work?While there is no one answer for all school districts, theexamples below of daily immersion program schedulesgive you some idea of how other schools and districtshave designed their programs.

You can see from the above examples that each ofthese districts decided to allocate a significant portionof the school day to the teaching of English. In each oftheir cases, the decision to design the time allocationslike this were difficult. But in the words of one schooladministrator, “Learning English takes time. I’d ratherpay now than pay later.”

Language use policies and guidelines Which language or languages will be used for instructionin your English immersion program?

We have decided who will be in our immersion pro-gram and the criteria by which they will exit. We haveallocated enough time for them to learn English andplaced them in these classrooms. Now we must decidewhat language or languages teachers in these classroomswill use. The key lies in answering the following ques-tions.

■ What are the goals of the program?

■ Which language of instruction will help studentsreach that goal better, faster?

■ In what language are most teachers competent?

■ In what language are most teaching materials writ-ten?

■ For which language groups would primary languagesupport be effective?

■ Is the use of a non-English language equitable for allstudents? Do you have staff who speak all of theselanguages?

■ Will you differentiate between “instructional” lan-guage and non-instructional language?

■ How will you monitor your policies at a classroomlevel?

The box on page 30 offers an example of a districtlanguage use policy.

Instructional materials and role of subject matter content What teaching materials will teachers use and how muchcontent will they teach?

A com m on request from teachers assigned toEnglish immersion classrooms is the need for materials.While few would argue that teaching without propermaterials is challenging, materials do not by themselvesmake the program. Clearly, there is an abundance ofquality, user-friendly materials available for teaching alllevels of English-learners. Most schools and districts


Daily ScheduleSelf-Contained Elementary Structured English Immersion

Calendar Phonics Literacy ELD Math Structured MixingMorning Phonemic Instruction InstructionMeeting Awareness Science, Social Science,

P.E., Music

30 min. 60 min. 45 min. 45 min. 45 min. 120 min.

Single Subject SEIMiddle/High School

ELD I ELD II ELD III ELD IVEnglish Content- English English Math P.E. Elective

Conversation Based Reading Writing (SDAIE) (Mainstream) (Mainstream)and School Vocabulary Skills Skills

Skills

already possess an “adopted” English language develop-ment program of some kind. Most textbook publishersoffer something in the way of systematic English-lan-guage teaching materials. However, most of these aredesigned for daily English lessons of 30-60 minutes,notthe four or five hours of English language instructionfeatured in most good immersion programs.

The bigger issue, though, is what role will contentplay in your immersion program. Many teachers haveheard of content-based English language development.This refers to the use of content as a vehicle for teachingthe English language. Putting this in more concreteterms, it means that a fourth-grade science book chap-ter on the life cycle serves as the source of much vocab-ulary, more than a few key verbs, and perhaps a lessonon writing the findings from a simple experiment.What it doesn’t mean is that immersion students areexpected to read the chapter and answer the questions.

After all, in content-based ELD we are looking at con-tent materials as the source of rich, interesting subjectmatter that lends itself to teaching language as well.Thus, English immersion teachers sitting down to plana unit on the same chapter look at it very differentlythan a teacher who is presenting the material to nativeEnglish speakers.Immersion teachers start by establish-ing a list of the key vocabulary and related concepts.They base their lesson planning on what aspects of lan-guage (vocabulary, syntax, phonology, semantics, andpragmatics) can be taught with the material, and whichconcepts students can understand once they know therequired language.

This kind of lesson planning using content materialsin immersion teaching takes guidance and practice.Reminding them that they are really foreign languageteachers is sometimes useful for keeping their focus onthe direct teaching of language skills. Because mostschools and districts have plentiful sources of contentarea books and teaching materials, it makes good senseto use those as a significant piece of the immersioninstructional program. In some programs, teachers areencouraged to use materials from different grades. Thisis especially true in secondary schools, where many ofthe subject area texts are far too difficult for studentsnew to English. Many textbook companies offer mate-rials that feature secondary topics written at lower read-ability levels. English immersion teachers usually findthat they have many good instructional materials avail-able to them once they begin to look at everythingaround them as a source for English language teaching.

ConclusionLike any program for language-minority students,thereare people on every side who will both agree and dis-agree with its goals and premises. Moving past thoseissues to deal with the components of such a programcan be challenging and energizing. Each of the five crit-ical pieces of designing an immersion program present-ed here interacts with the other pieces to form a coher-ent, logical way of organizing language instruction forstudents who possess less than an intermediate range ofEnglish language skills.The concept of English immer-sion is really quite simple and offers English-learners aclear and attainable path to English proficiency andacademic success.


District Language Use PolicyThe predominant language of instruction in SEIclassrooms is English. All teaching personnel(teachers, assistants, resource and migrant staff,student teachers, etc.) are to adhere to the follow-ing district policy on the use of non-English lan-guages during instructional time.

1. A non-English language may be used in situa-tions regarding the health, safety, or welfare ofstudents.

2. A non-English language may be used with par-ents to discuss school matters.

3. A non-English language may be used in disci-pline and classroom management-related matters.

4. Students may use a non-English language forin-class purposes, recognizing, however, thatEnglish acquisition is the primary goal of the SEIprogram.

5. Explanation of directions or instructions perti-nent to a specific instructional task.

6. Clarification for a student, or group of students,of a word, concept, or idea.

B i b l i o g ra phy of Su c c e s s f u lReading Te x t sRecommended Materials forScripted English Immersion

By Douglas Lasken

Fo ll owing seve ral years of stagnation anddecline in reading scores, California adopteda new State Language Arts Framework,rejecting “whole language” and instead man-dating solid instruction in phonics and the

mechanics of reading. In the Los Angeles UnifiedSchool District, all schools in which the second- orthird-graders had scored below the 50th percentile inreading on the Stanford 9 test had to choose one oft h ree pre - a p p roved ph on i c s - i n t e n s i ve reading pro-grams: Open Court, Reading Mastery, or Success for All.

Many of these programs offer series specificallydesigned to meet the needs of English-learners at dif-ferent grade levels and levels of proficiency. Because ofthe nature of phonics instruction, however, even thoseprograms not specifical ly designed for English-learnersare still proving to be very beneficial. The three pro-grams approved for use in Los Angeles are carefullyscripted and the teachers’ lesson plans, lessons, anddirections come directly from detailed teachers’ edi-tions. Schools spend an average of 90 minutes of everymorning on phonics-intensive instruction at the kinder-garten level, and up to three hours in higher grades.

Simply teaching English-learners in English is notenough. It is just as important to know how to teachEnglish. In California, we were fortunate that thevoter-approved initiative mandating English instruc-

tion for English-learners was accompanied by a returnto phonics reading instruction for all students. Thestructure of phonics programs is well suited for the lan-guage needs of English-learners. The three programsare:

Open Court (SRA McGraw-Hill)Open Court was started by a man named Blouke Carus.In 1956, his son, Andre, was enrolled in a Germankindergarten. The following year, the Carus familymoved to Harvey, Ill., and Andre was enrolled in firstgrade at the local public school. Dissatisfied with thefamous “Dick and Jane” series that Andre’s school wasusing, Carus developed his own reading program andopened a primary school, catering mainly to minoritystudents. The school was housed in the same facility asC a ru s ’ ph i l o s o phy discussion group ca lled “ O p e nCourt,”and eventually the reading program adopted thesame name.

Word of Open Court’s success with minority childrenspread, and Carus expanded it around the country. InCalifornia, the first Open Court program appeared inOrange County in 1963, and, in 1964, the state boardof education approved Open Court. The program’s suc-cess caught the eye of SRA McGraw-Hill, which pur-chased Open Court in 1996.

Reading Mastery (SRA McGraw-Hill)Reading Mastery was developed by Dr. Siegfried Engel-mann of the University of Oregon. Engelmann startedhis program, originally called “Direct Instruction,” 30years ago. Grainy black-and-white videotapes showEngelmann focusing on essential phonics with inner-city children. Those children, adults today, often testifyto the power over the written word that Engelmanngave them. As his approach slowly gained acceptance,Engelmann named it “Distar,” then finally ReadingMastery. As with Open Court, SRA McGraw-Hilltook notice, and has purchased Reading Mastery.

Success for All Success for All (SFA) was started with the Baltimore Citys chools by Dr. J ohn Sl a v i n , of Johns HopkinsUniversity, and is now a not-for-profit foundation.Schools must contract the SFA Foundation to use thisprogram, which is actually a total school reform pro-gram, covering all subjects and grade levels; it includesa family outreach component that covers such areas asattendance and conflict resolution. A full-time facilita-tor is required, plus varying numbers of full-time tutors.


Unlike the other programs, SFA is not on theCalifornia State Approved Adoption list, and is ineligi-ble for state funds. Many schools pay for SFA by usingtheir federal Title I funds. One novel aspect of this pro-gram is that there is no SFA textbook, since the pro-gram is designed to work with whatever text the schoolalready has in place. If an SFA school uses a Harcourt-Brace social studies text, for instance, then the SFAFoundation supplies a teacher guide, also scripted,specifically for use with that text. SFA also says that itsprogram can be used with either Open Court or ReadingMastery texts.

The most important difference between the threeprograms is their respective responses to the differentrates at which children learn. Open Court keeps all stu-dents in their grade-level classroom. There is a desig-nated time each morning, called “workshop,” for chil-dren who are falling behind. Students work in smallgroups with the teacher or an aide; regular classroomassessments keep the teacher apprised of studentprogress.

Reading Mastery uses regular assessments, called“check outs,” and actually reassigns students to otherclassrooms that may not be at their grade level. A fifth-grade student may end up in a first-grade classroomuntil the assessments indicate progress. SFA has ele-mentary kids changing classrooms like secondary stu-dents, with the grade-level classroom called “home-room.” Children go to other classrooms, often not theirgrade level, for reading and other subjects,based on reg-ular assessments conducted by the SFA facilitator.

These commercially available materials are often seen insuccessful English immersion programs around the countryand have been recommended by teachers, administrators,and academics.

SRA McGraw-Hill is a K-8 educational publisher.Its web page provides teaching resources, includingh u n d reds of curriculum-aligned web sites, p ro d u c thighlights, sample lesson plans and placement tests,spelling strategies, research synopses, and testimonialvideos.

Open Court ReadingPublisher: SRA McGraw-HillCost: Call for pricingGrades: K-6Description: Although this program is not specificallydesigned for LEP students, it frequently appears inexemplary English immersion programs. The program

c ontains explicit ph onics and com p re h e n s i on skill sinstruction, balanced with extensive reading of bothdecodable texts and literature.This program is designedto ensure that by the end of the first half of first grade,all students can begin to read. Materials vary for eachgrade level but generally include:■ Student materials with a vari e ty of litera t u re,

anthologies and writing workbooks ($6 to $43);■ Take-home literature and classroom sets for students

($7 to $1,179);■ Teacher materials including teachers’ editions and

assessment tool ($7 to $47); and■ Professional guides for administrators and teachers

including a classroom library ($30 to $115).Contact Information: http://www.sra-4kids.com/ orcall (888) SRA-4543.

Open Court PhonicsPublisher: SRA McGraw-HillCost: Call for pricingGrades: K-3Description: Although this program is not specificallydesigned for LEP students, it frequently appears inexemplary English immersion programs. This programprovides the phonics aspects of Open Court Reading in aseparate format. It introduces students to the alphabet,concepts of print, and reading behaviors by connectingsounds to words and letters. Materials vary for eachgrade level but generally include a phonics workbookand kit with a variety of flashcards,a phonics audiotape,take-home workbooks, and a teachers’ guide. Prices forworkbooks are under $10 and whole kits about $350.Contact Information: http://www.sra-4kids.com/ orcall (888) SRA-4543.

Reading MasteryPublisher:SRA McGraw-HillAu t h o r s : Si e gf ried Engelmann, Elaine C. B ru n e r,Susan Hanner, Jean Osborn , St eve Osborn , a n dLeslie Zoref.Cost:Call for pricingGrades: 1-6Description: Although this program is not specificallydesigned for LEP students, it frequently appears inexemplary English immersion programs.This is a directi n s t ru c t i on pro g ram with scripted lesson plans forteachers. It is designed to provide students a brisk paceand instant feedback. The program contains explicitphonics instruction with a special alphabet to minimizeletter confusion. Materials vary for each grade level but


generally include:■ Student materials with storybooks and workbooks

($12 to $40);■ Teacher materials and guides ($20 to $480);■ Additional resources like skill profiles and assessment

tools ($20 to $50);■ Literature collections ($15 to $60); and■ Independent Readers library sets with a variety of

books ($50 to $230).Contact Information: http://www.sra-4kids.com/ orcall (888) SRA-4543.

Breaking the CodePublisher:SRA McGraw-HillCost: Call for pricingGrades: 4-12Description: Although this program is not specificallydesigned for LEP students, it is designed for troubledreaders who either cannot read at all or are two or moreyears below grade level. It frequently appears in exem-plary English immersion programs. A phonics-basedreading program, it develops basic skills in spelling,decoding, comprehension, and handwriting. Materialsinclude:■ Student notebooks ($15)■ Teachers’ guide ($51)■ Phonics package ($154)■ Various support materials like flashcards and assess-

ment books ($5 to $100)“This program contains explicit systematic phonics for sec-ondary low readers. Very similar in format and approach tothe Open Court elementary program with Open Court stylealphabet cards, emphasis on blending, scripted lessons”—Doug Lasken, Los Angeles County Office of Education.Contact Information: http://www.sra-4kids.com/ orcall (888) SRA-4543.

Corrective ReadingPublisher:SRA McGraw-HillAuthors: Siegfried Engelmann,et al.Cost: Call for pricingGrades: 4-12Description: Although this program is not specificallydesigned for LEP students, it is designed for studentswho have not succeeded in other programs and do notlearn on their own. It frequently appears in exemplaryEnglish immersion programs. The program is flexibleand allows students to work on decoding or compre-hension or both. Lessons are tightly sequenced andscripted. Materials vary for each grade level but gener-

ally include:■ Teacher presentation books with guides and lesson

plans ($15 to $155);■ Student workbooks and hardcover books ($17 to

$45); and■ Additional resources, practice and enrichment mate-

rials, and test packets ($18 to $35).“This is a more complete program, not just phonics”—DougLasken, Los Angeles County Office of Education.Contact Information: http://www.sra-4kids.com/ orcall (888) SRA-4543.

Into EnglishPublisher:Hampton BrownCost: Full classroom sets,up to $754Grades: K-6Description: This program is specifically designed forLEP students, and it frequently appears in exemplaryEnglish immersion programs. The program integratescontent-based instruction to core curriculum with visu-als and literature to create a language-rich learningenvironment for second-language learners in grades K-6. The program is designed to incorporate multilevelteaching strategies and contains consistent, easy-to-uselesson plans.The program also provides assessment thatmonitors student growth across proficiency levels andcontains a special section for newcomers. Materials varyfor each grade leve l , but cl a s s ro om sets genera llyinclude:■ Content posters■ Literature books■ Audiocassettes■ Teachers’ guideAdd-on components are also available and include:■ Classroom ESL library ($175)■ Literature sets ($45)■ Student language and activity logs ($5)Contact Inform a ti o n : h t tp : / / w w w. h a m p t on - b row n .com/ or call (800) 933-3510.

Phonics and FriendsPublisher:Hampton BrownCost: Full classroom sets,up to $1,353Grades: PreK-2Description: Although this program is not specificallydesigned for LEP students, it frequently appears inexemplary English immersion programs. This programis designed as a phonics-based program that containssystematic, explicit instruction focusing on one skill at atime.It contains multiple levels for flexibility and can be


integrated into existing curricula. Materials vary foreach grade level, but classroom sets generally include:■ Sing-along books and CD and tapes ■ Rhyme cards■ Storybooks■ Take-home workbooks■ Teachers’ guide■ Sound and letter packs“A reading program that fits well with many English-L a n g u a ge - D evelopment pro gra m s ” — Ru s s ell Ger s te nPh.D. University of Oregon.Contact Inform a ti o n : h t tp : / / w w w. h a m p t on - b row n .com/ or call (800) 933-3510.

Success for AllPublisher: Success for All FoundationCost:$70,000 to $85,000 (for 500 students for the firstyear)Grades: K-6Description: Although this program is not specificallydesigned for LEP students, it frequently appears inexemplary English immersion programs. Schools thatwish to use this program must sign a contract with theSuccess for All Foundation and establish a schoolwidecurriculum. Success for All is designed to work with exist-ing learning materials from other publishers a schoolmay already be using. Success for All is a comprehensiveK-6 re s t ru c t u ring pro g ram for elementary sch o o l s ,based on prevention, early and intensive intervention,and tutoring for students with academic difficulties.The program also integrates phonics, meaning-focusedinstruction, cooperative learning, and curriculum-basedassessments. At the second- through fifth-grade levels,students use school- or district-selected reading materi-a l s . This pro g ram emph a s i zes coopera t i ve learn i n gactivities built around partner reading; identification ofcharacters, settings,and problem solutions in narratives;story summarization; writing; and direct instruction inreading comprehension skills. At all levels, studentsread books of their choice for 20 minutes each eveningas homework. Success for All does offer supplementalmaterials and classroom sets that can vary widely inprice and include brochures, cassettes, videos, literaturebooks, flashcards, and assessment tools. Math and sci-ence materials are also available.Contact Information: http://www.successforall.net/ orcall (800) 548-4998.

Rewards:Reading Excellence Word Attackand Rate Development StrategiesPublisher: Sopris WestAuthors: Archer, Gleason,and Vachon.Cost: Teachers’ Guide, $45; Student Book, $6 (set of10 is $49)Grades: 4-12Description: Although this program is not specificallydesigned for LEP students, it frequently appears inexemplary English immersion programs. Designed forgrades 4-12, this program helps students decode longwords;increase their oral and silent reading fluency; andimprove comprehension. Materials include:■ Teachers’ guide with a comprehensive introduction;■ 20 comprehensive teacher-directed lessons; and ■ Overhead transparencies, assessment tests, and prac-

tice word lists.All student materials needed for the program are in-cluded in the Student Book.Contact Information: http://www.schoolviolence.net/or call (303) 651-2829.

Language!Publisher: Sopris WestAuthor: Jane Fell Greene, Ed.D.Cost: Instructors’Manual, $39; Student Book, $5.25 Grades: 1-12Description: This program is specifically designed forat-risk, Title I, and LEP students; it frequently appearsin exemplary English immersion programs. Designedfor grade levels 1-12 and adults, this is a comprehensiveintervention curriculum for students who lack age- orgrade-level mastery in reading, writing, and spelling.Includes decoding, spelling, comprehension, composi-tion, grammar, vocabulary, mechanics, usage, figurativelanguage, expository and narrative writing, and litera-ture. Materials include instructors’ manuals for threedifferent levels, and Student Mastery books. Completekits are also available for elementary ($275—includescourse syllabus,teachers’ manual, resource guide, soundsand letters cards, student mastery books, and languagere a d e r s ) , and middle/high school ($350—incl u d e scourse syllabus, teachers’manual, resource guide, soundsand letters cards, student mastery books, and languagereaders).Classroom sets, which include student masterybooks and readers, are available for 20 students ($1,195)and for five students ($285). Free preview video is avail-able.Contact Information: http://www.schoolviolence.net/or call (303) 651-2829.


THE LAW

It Wo rk s ,But Is It Le g a l ?What You Should Knowabout English ImmersionPrograms and the Law

By Jim Littlejohn

The Office for Civil Rights (OCR) in theU.S. Department of Education investi-gates school pro g rams for teach i n gEnglish-learners to ensure that the pro-grams meet federal civil rights require-

ments. School officials want to comply with the federalcivil rights laws and to observe their moral and legalobligation to ensure that school policies and practicesdo not discriminate. But it is not always easy to knowthe specific requirements,or to anticipate what a partic-ular OCR office may demand.

Schools that are unprepared to deal with an OCRinvestigation often find themselves reworking their pro-grams to meet OCR’s demands. This section of theguide provides school officials with critical informationon how to develop a compliance program that will avoidor minimize problems with OCR while providing qual-ity education for English-learners.

Does an English immersion programmeet federal civil rights requirements?Yes. A well-implemented English immersion programmeets all federal civil rights requirements for teachingE n g l i s h - l e a rn e r s . Under fe d e ral law, s chools maychoose any educational program that is based on asound educational theory. Aside from meeting federalcivil rights requirements, an English immersion pro-gram is a good choice for a number of other reasons. Forexample:

1 . English immersion pro g rams focus on teach i n gEnglish to English-learners from day one, unlike manybilingual programs that give priority for several years toinstruction in the native language.

2. English immersion programs minimize the segrega-tion of English-learners from other students. A goodprogram is designed so that most English-learners willacquire enough English to participate in a regular class-room within one year. This provides school officialswith more options for integrating the students intoclasses with native English speakers.

3. Academic instruction for English-learners, usingsheltered instruction and similar techniques, can beginwithin a short time and increase quickly as the studentlearns more English.

4. School administrators can train English-speakingteachers (including bilingual teachers) to teach English-learners using immersion techniques. This results in amuch larger pool of available, well-qualified teachers forEnglish learners and avoids the teacher shortage prob-lems that plague bilingual education programs.


Tips for School Administrators Facedwith an OCR Investigation

An Office for Civil Rights investigation regardingprograms for English-learners can be a frustratingexperience for school administrators and anexpensive proposition for the school system.School officials want to comply with the federalcivil rights laws and to observe their legal obliga-tion to ensure that school policies and practices donot discriminate. It is not always easy to know thespecific requirements, or to anticipate what a par-ticular OCR office may demand.The followingreminders can be the basis of an effective strategyfor maintaining local autonomy while meetingfederal requirements.

1. Know your program well.

2. Know OCR’s policies and the law.

3. Don’t be afraid to question OCR demands.

4. Don’t promise more than you can deliver.

5. Document everything.

6. Request written findings before acting.

7. Never stop negotiating.

5. All curriculum materials are in English.This enablesschools to coordinate reading programs within andamong the elementary schools, and eliminates costlyefforts to create a curriculum within a curriculum asrequired in bilingual education programs.

May a school system switch from abilingual education program to anEnglish immersion program if it has acompliance agreement with OCR thatrequires a bilingual education program?Yes. OCR cannot dictate which programs a school mayoffer its English learners.The agency expects schools toinform it when they make substantive changes to a pro-gram covered under a compliance agreement. This isnot a regulatory requirement, but it is a good practicefor schools to provide OCR with an outline of their newprogram and give notice that changes have been made.

What are the other federal requirementsrelated to teaching English-learners?OCR has interpreted federal law to cover a number ofcategories related to programs for English-learners.School officials should consider the significant areassummarized below as they develop or revise their civilrights compliance programs.

Identification of Students’ Primaryor Home LanguageOCR policy states that schools must take affirmativesteps to assist English learners “who are learn i n gEnglish as a second language, or whose ability to learnEnglish has been substantially diminished through lackof exposure to the language.”Federal requirements gen-erally do not cover “national origin-minority studentswhose only language is English,and who may be in dif-ficulty academically, or who have language skills that areless than adequate.”

OCR requires schools to identify all students whohave a primary or home language other than English( PH LOTE) by surveying parents and obtaininganswers to questions such as:

1. Did your child first learn to speak in a language otherthan English?

2.Does your child currently speak a language other thanEnglish?

3. Is a language other than English spoken in the home

(by parents, grandparents, or other persons)?If the answer to any of the above questions is “yes”, a

student is classified as having a PHLOTE. Schoolsshould provide training to staff who interview parentsregarding their children’s primary or home language,and school staff who conduct interviews with parentsshould speak the appropriate languages.

Language AssessmentOCR requires schools to assess the English languageabilities of all PHLOTE students, but provides fewdetails in its written policies about acceptable proce-dures for doing this. However, through its investigativepractices, OCR requires a number of detailed languageidentification and assessment procedures that oftenm i s t a k e n ly classify English-speaking students asEnglish-learners. Further, the agency will find a schooldistrict in violation of Title VI if it fails to assess thelanguage abilities of all PHLOTE students in the man-ner determined appropriate by OCR.

Below are some suggestions on how to prepare for anOCR review related to the language assessment issue.

1 . E n s u re that pro c e d u res are in place to assessPHLOTE students’ proficiencies in four areas: oralEnglish, reading, writing, and understanding. Schoolsthat offer bilingual educa t i on instru c t i on are alsorequired to assess students’ abilities in a language otherthan English.

2. Where available, use commercially developed teststhat have been determined to be reliable and valid forthe students being tested.

3. School officials should not rely solely on test scores.Teachers of English-learners as well as parents shouldalso be consulted to determine whether the initial place-ments appear to be correct. Since OCR does not likeschools to rely on teacher recommendations, schoolsshould document the procedures followed in arriving attheir decisions.

4. If commercially developed tests are not available,establish the best available alternative assessment proce-dures (e.g., student interviews combined with teacherobservations).

5. OCR requires that staffs who administer the testsspeak and understand the language of the students andbe properly trained. If there is no school staff memberwho speaks the necessary languages, OCR may requireschools to train parents or other persons in the commu-nity to assist in the assessment process.


Program Exit CriteriaOCR policy states, “Generally, a recipient will havewide latitude in determining criteria for exiting studentsfrom an alternative language program, but there are afew basic standards that should be met.” OCR cautionsthat:

1. Exit criteria should be based on objective standards,such as standardized test scores.

2. The district should be able to explain why it hasdecided that students meeting those standards will beable to participate meaningfully in the regular class-room.

3. Exit criteria that simply test a student’s oral languageskills are inadequate.

4. Students should not be exited from the LEP programunless they can read, write, and comprehend Englishwell enough to participate meaningfully in the recipi-ent’s program.

5. Alternative language programs cannot be “dead end”tracks to segregate national origin-minority students.

If OCR guidance were strictly followed,a large num-ber of so-called English-learners would never exit alter-native language programs,especially bilingual educationprograms. Schools should determine the exit criteriathat work best for their students and staff, but continueappropriate assistance to English-learners in Englishfor as long as they need it.

School administrators should be prepared to defendwith appropriate data their exit criteria and to negotiatetheir preferences with OCR. For example, in 1999, theD e nver Public Schools negotiated with the U. S.Department of Justice (acting on behalf of OCR) exitcriteria for its bilingual program that expect Englishlearners to exit bilingual education programs withinthree years, and gives teachers a significant role in thedecision.

StaffingOCR’s policy states that a regular state teaching certifi-cate may be insufficient for teachers of English-learn-ers; something more is required.The following summa-rizes OCR guidance on staffing requirements.

1. Structured English immersion teachers need not bebilingual to teach effectively.

2. A district operating a bilingual education programmust have teachers in the program that, at a minimum,

should speak, read, and write both languages. The dis-trict should be able to show that its bilingual teachershave those skills.

3. A district that uses a method other than bilingualeducation, such as ESL or structured immersion,shouldascertain that teachers who use those methods havebeen adequately trained.This training can take the formof in-service training or college coursework, or somecombination of the two.

4. In ensuring that all teachers of English-learners havethe necessary skills, a district should use validated eval-uative instruments (tests that have been shown to meas-ure the skills in question).The teacher’s classroom per-formance must also be evaluated by someone familiarwith the method being used.

5. If a district has a bilingual program and uses bilingualteacher aides, the district should be able to demonstratethat its aides have an appropriate level of skill in speak-ing, reading, and writing both languages.

6.Bilingual aides should work under the direct supervi-sion of certificated classroom teachers. Students shouldnot be getting instruction from aides instead of teach-ers, except on an interim basis.

OCR has substantially expanded its requirements forstaff training, regardless of the type of program thes chool system opera t e s . The agency now re q u i re sschools to retrain virtually every teacher in the districtwho has any classroom contact with English-learningstudents, even if the teachers are fully certified by thestate.

S chools with large numbers of English-learn e r sshould inventory the qualifications and training coursesof current staff. When OCR requires additional train-ing, school administrators will be in a better position toimplement training that meets their specific needs.S chool officials who disagree with OC R - i m p o s e dtraining should be prepared to document the qualifica-tions of the current teaching staff and to show howadditional training is not necessary for the district toimplement its programs for English-learners.

Access to Special ProgramsSchool officials should be aware that OCR often inves-tigates whether English-learners are assigned in dispro-portionate numbers to special education classes, andwhether such students are receiving special assistance inlearning English and academic subjects. OCR staff arenot experts in special education. Therefore, school officials


should not easily give in to OCR demands for reevaluatingstudents or other changes to special education procedures.Changes should only be made when school officialsagree that their procedures may not conform to theIDEA or Section 504 requirements.

OCR also examines the number and percent ofEnglish learners who are participating in gifted-and-talented programs and advanced placement classes.Thegeneral requirement is that English learners cannot becategorically excluded from such programs. Schoolsshould ensure that the entry criteria for these programsprovide all students who meet the criteria with anopportunity to be in the programs. However, schoolofficials should not revise the criteria if they believe thatdoing so will substantially weaken the program or beinconsistent with program goals.

Program Evaluations and ModificationsOCR policy states, “If a recipient does not periodicallyevaluate or modify its programs, as appropriate, it is inviolation of the Title VI regulation unless its program issuccessful.”

The policy does not clearly define what a “successful”program is, but does offer the following guidance:

Generally, “success”is measured in terms of whether the pro-gram is achieving the particular goals the recipient has estab-lished for the program.If the recipient has established no par-ticular goals, the program is successful if its participants areovercoming their language barriers sufficiently well and suffi-ciently promptly to participate meaningfully in the recipient’sprogram.

This circuitous language allows the agency a greatdeal of discretion in interpreting whether schools’ eval-uations are adequate and whether their programs are, infact, successful. As a result, few school systems, eventhose with good evaluation programs, can meet OCR’sunwritten requirements. For example, OCR now rou-tinely requires school systems to implement sophisticat-ed longitudinal testing studies that show progress forEnglish-learners versus English speakers. OCR alsorequires schools to keep extensive documentation on allaspects of their programs for English-learners and tosubmit voluminous annual reports to the agency.

School administrators should have reasonable proce-dures to evaluate the effectiveness of their programs forEnglish-learners. Achievement standards and account-ability systems are important ways to measure the effec-tiveness of the instructional program and the educa-tional progress of all students. However, school officialsmay want to challenge OCR demands for additional,elaborate evaluation systems that require substantial

time and staff resources.

Parental Notification and PermissionOCR policy states “school districts have the responsi-b i l i ty to adequately notify national ori g i n - m i n o ri tygroup parents of school activities which are called to theattention of other parents. Such notice in order to beadequate may have to be provided in a language otherthan English.” As a general rule, OCR requires almostall notices to be translated from English to all otherlanguages spoken in a district.If the numbers of parentsfrom a particular language group are quite small, schoolofficials may be able to negotiate less-formal proceduresfor communicating with non-English speaking parents.

Another important issue is whether parents ofEnglish-learners must grant permission for their childto participate in a bilingual program or may withdrawtheir child from such programs. This issue arises mostoften when parents of English-learners want their chil-dren to learn English quickly, but are faced with a stateor school system requirement that their children beplaced in bilingual education programs. OCR has nowritten policy on this issue, and there appears to be verylittle uniformity among OCR regional offices in itsimplementation. For example, the Dallas OCR officepressured schools in Texas to adopt very strict and bur-densome procedures designed to discourage parentsfrom withdrawing their children from the bilingual pro-gram. In contrast, the Boston OCR office acceptedparental choice as a legitimate factor in deciding theplacements of English-learners.

School administrators should not be persuaded byOCR to adopt parental permission procedures that arenot consistent with the preferences of the local commu-nity

Segregation of English-LearnersOCR policy provides that segregating LEP students forboth academic and non a cademic subjects, s u ch asrecess, physical education, art, and music could violatethe anti-segregation provisions of Title VI. But theagency does not confront the long-term segregation ofE n g l i s h - l e a rners into bilingual educa t i on pro g ra m s .This is in stark contrast to how OCR judges other pro-grams and practices such as ability grouping that mayresult in a high degree of separation of minority stu-dents from non-minority students. In such cases, OCRchallenges the grouping on the premise that there areother less segregative alternatives. The agency requiresthe school to adopt less-segregative methods for assign-


ing students to classes, whether or not the school findsthese methods to be educationally feasible. These stan-dards are not applied to bilingual education programs.

English immersion programs are clearly the leastsegregative alternative to long-term bilingual educationprograms. Students learn English quickly when taughtthrough immersion techniques. With proper attentionto details, classes can be structured to integrate English-learners very early into classes with English-speakingstudents for at least part of the school day. As studentsprogress in English, the time spent in English-speakingclasses should be increased. A good English immersionprogram seeks to move English-learners into regularEnglish-speaking classrooms within one school year.This does not mean that all remedial assistance to thestudents is halted. Appropriate assistance to strengthenEnglish language skills and enable the student toadvance in academic subjects should continue as need-ed, but it should be provided in English, and in inte-grated classrooms.

Schools have a number of choices for implementingeffective English immersion programs that meet legalrequirements and ensure full integration of English-learners into the educational mainstream as quickly aspossible. Initially, the greatest emphasis should be onteaching English-learners to speak English sufficientlywell to understand regular classroom instruction. To

reach this goal, it is essential that the school have anappropriate number of teachers trained in Englishimmersion teaching techniques and strategies. Second,it is important to provide English-learners with appro-priate content instruction as soon as feasible. The timefor beginning content instruction will depend on thecapacity of the individual student and the instructionalresources.

A good strategy to expedite content instruction is toidentify a few key teachers of academic subjects (e.g.,social studies, math, science) and provide them trainingon English immersion and sheltered instruction tech-niques. These teachers should be the first to teachE n g l i s h - l e a rners who are ready to begin con t e n tinstruction.The cadre of subject matter teachers shouldwork closely with the English immersion teachers toensure coordination of English vocabulary and con-cepts. With such cooperation among the instructionalstaff, English-learners can begin content instructionearly and have the added benefit of being in classes withother English speakers.

For more information about OCR’s policies and prac-tices see: Federal Control Out of Control: The Office forCivil Rights’ Hidden Policies on Bilingual Education,www.ceousa.org.


St a t eR e q u i rements forE d u ca t i n gE n g l i s h - Le a rn e r s

By Anita Garcia and Cynthia MorganALABAMAAlabama has no mandate.

ALASKABilingual education is mandated for every school that has eight ormore students who can speak a common language other thanEnglish.This applies to both LEP and non-LEP students.Districtsmay apply for a waiver from these requirements.

ARIZONAA ballot initiative approved by voters in November 2000 requiresthat all students be educated through structured English immersionunless they receive a parental waiver.

ARKANSASArkansas has no mandate, however, state law requires all courses tobe taught in English, “Any person violating the provisions hereofshall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction shallbe fined not to exceed twenty-five dollars, payable into the generalschool fund of the county.”1 However, school districts are allowed toestablish ESL programs.

CALIFORNIAA ballot initiative approved by voters in June 1998 replaced a bilin-gual education mandate with a new law that requires that all stu-dents be educated through structured English immersion unlessthey receive a parental waiver.

COLORADOColorado statutes require that instruction in public schools be con-ducted in English with the exception of LEP transitional programsthat may be bilingual education or ESL and are required underColorado’s English Language Proficiency Act.The Denver SchoolDistrict Consent Decree requires the creation of a bilingual educa-tion program.

CONNECTICUT Any school or school district with 20 or more LEP students whospeak any one language must provide a bilingual education program;however, legislative changes in 1999 limit bilingual education to 30months and specify that no student may be placed in a bilingual pro-gram without prior parental informed consent. The new state lawalso calls for “sheltered” English immersion for students not placedin bilingual programs.

DELAWAREThere are no statutes or regulations.However, by law, English is thelanguage of instruction. The state board of education recommendseither bilingual or ESL programs for LEP students.

FLORIDAState statutes require that either a bilingual or an ESOL program beprovided if there are at least 15 students who speak the same lan-guage in a school; they must have access to a teacher who is profi-cient in their native language in addition to a trained ESOL teacher.

GEORGIAState law requires schools to provide LEP student programs,designed to develop both the necessary English skills and Americanculture concepts for participation in regular English classroominstruction.

HAWAIIHawaii administrative education rules forbid discrimination on thebasis of national origin or race.This has been interpreted to meanthat language-minority students must receive special services.BothESL and bilingual education programs are allowed.

IDAHOState law requires English to be the language of instruction.However, transitional programs may be provided for students whodo not speak English in their homes. A consent decree requires auniform, comprehensive, and appropriate program statewide.

ILLINOISEither a transitional bilingual education program or a transitionalprogram of instruction must serve all students who are limited-English-proficient (LEP). Any school that has 20 or more LEP stu-dents of a single language group must establish a transitional bilin-gual education program. Any school with fewer than 20 LEP stu-dents of a particular language group may institute a bilingual pro-gram but must at the minimum institute a transitional program ofinstruction.

INDIANASchool districts are required to provide bilingual-bicultural pro-grams for those students whose native language is not English,whospeak a language other than English more often, or who live in ahome where the language most often spoken is not English. Thegoal of the program is to assist students in reaching their full aca-demic achievement and to preserve an awareness of cultural and lin-guistic heritage.

IOWAThere is no mandate. Iowa law allows for transitional bilingualand/or ESL programs.

KANSASSchools are required to establish programs for LEP students thatintegrate them into the regular educational programs and are taught


1 Arkansas State CODE 6-16-104 1996.

by qualified teachers, as determined by the state board. Schools areallowed to employ measures such as entering into a multi districtarrangement to share the costs of the program. The state board ofeducation established an advisory board to provide technical assis-tance to school districts.

KENTUCKYThere are no statutes or regulations.

LOUISIANAThere are no statutes or regulations.

MAINEState law requires English to be the language of instruction, butallows for bilingual or ESL programs for LEP students. The pr o-gram must provide transitional language support services to aid inthe acquisition of communicative and academic English skills.

MARYLANDState law establishes guidelines for creating both bilingual and ESLprograms. Each school is required to establish either an ESL orbilingual education program for students identified as LEP throughthe home language survey as well as an assessment of English lis-tening, speaking, reading, and writing skills.

MASSACHUSETTSAny school district with 20 or more LEP students of any grade leveland of a particular language group must offer a program of transi-tional bilingual education for the students. No school may placeLEP children of different language backgrounds in the same bilin-gual program without the approval of the state department of edu-cation. Bilingual education programs may include English-profi-cient children. Multigrade classrooms are allowed, but the agespread between students cannot exceed four years,except for kinder-garten, in which case the age spread cannot exceed one year.Additionally, the state board of education may, upon petition from aschool committee, waive any of these requirements in a particularschool district for such a time as is necessary to avoid undue hard-ship to that district.

MICHIGANMichigan no longer mandates bilingual instruction for LEP stu-dents. Schools are required to provide either ESL or bilingual pro-grams, but only bilingual programs receive state funding.

MINNESOTAThe state does not require either a bilingual or an ESL program,butany district with either program is required to prevent LEP studentisolation for any substantial part of the school day and to facilitatetheir integration into non-verbal subjects such as art, music, andphysical education.

MISSISSIPPIThere are no state regulations.

MISSOURIState statutes provide for the creation of programs for students whoare at risk of dropping out of school. Bilingual and ESL programsare included under this provision to address the specific needs ofLEP students.

MONTANAThere is no mandate.

NEBRASKANebraska has no state statutes or regulations concerning LEP stu-dents or bilingual education programs. State law does require thatschools teach in English.

NEVADANevada’s revised state statutes require the state board of education toestablish a program to assist LEP students.The board has adoptedregulations that endorse both ESL and bilingual instruction pro-grams.

NEW HAMPSHIRENew Hampshire has various policies included in each district’s com-pliance plan,which must be individually approved by the Bureau ofEquality at the New Hampshire Department of Education. NewHampshire largely uses the ESL programs for its LEP students;however, bilingual education programs are permitted.

NEW JERSEYAny school district in New Jersey with 20 or more LEP students ofany single language group is required to establish a bilingual educa-tion program. This requirement may be waived if a school districtcan establish that due to the age range, geographic location,or gradespan of the LEP students, a full-time bilingual program would beimpractical.The school district would still be required to implementa special alternative instructional program to serve these students.School districts with fewer than 10 LEP students must provide serv-ices to improve the English language proficiency of those students.When there are more than 10 LEP students within a school district,the district must establish an ESL program. All LEP students mustbe enrolled in one of the above programs and may be placed in reg-ular English monolingual classes when they are ready to function insuch a program. In addition, schools are not required to providebilingual education to individual students for more than three years.

NEW MEXICONew Mexico law establishes bilingual education programs as a localoption,not a mandate.However, only bilingual programs can receivestate funds. A ll state pro g rams for English-learners must bereviewed at regular intervals by the school board, the state depart-ment of education, and a required parent advisory board.This eval-uation should include students’ achievement in English and in thehome language.

NEW YORKEach school district receiving state funds for programs for English-learners,which has 20 or more LEP students in the same grade levelassigned to a building with the same native language, must have abilingual education program. New York schools may not keep chil-dren in programs for English-learners for more than three years,butthe state commissioner of education may extend that period withrespect to individual students for up to six years total. Additionally,all LEP students’ proficiency in English must be measured annuallyto determine if the student should remain in the program.

NORTH CAROLINAThe North Carolina Department of Public Instruction requires thateach school district adopt a program for LEP students. NorthCarolina requires that these programs be ESL, bilingual education,or other programs that meet the needs of the students.

NORTH DAKOTANorth Dakota has no laws or regulations regarding LEP students.


OHIOThe Ohio Department of Education does not mandate that schooldistricts use a particular approach to assist LEP students. The onlymandate is that schools with a bilingual education program have onecertified bilingual teacher for every 25 students. ESL programs arealso used in addition to structured immersion and tutoring.

OKLAHOMAThe Oklahoma attorney general ruled in 1975 that schools must“make remedial efforts by providing bilingual classes or otherwise asnecessary to meet the linguistic needs of pupils who enter schoolunable to speak and understand the English language.”2 English isstill considered the basic language of instruction in Oklahoma, butother languages may be used to instruct students.

OREGONOregon doesn’t require any specific programs for LEP students,butstate law permits bilingual instruction for students “who are unableto profit from classes taught in English.”3 Special courses are offereduntil students can benefit from classes taught solely in English.

PENNSYLVANIAPennsylvania has no state laws concerning bilingual education orLEP programs. However, one curriculum regulation exists whichstates that every school district shall provide a program for each stu-dent whose dominant language is not English so that these studentsmay obtain English proficiency. Programs must be either bilingual-bicultural or ESL instruction.

RHODE ISLANDEach district is required to design a program to assist its LEP stu-dents. Most districts have chosen ESL programs. No other man-dates or regulations exist in Rhode Island.

SOUTH CAROLINASouth Carolina has no statutes or regulations regarding education ofLEP students.

SOUTH DAKOTASouth Dakota has no state laws or regulations for programs for LEPstudents.

TENNESSEETennessee passed a Civil Rights Act in 1964 at the state level,whichwas amended in 1995 by Chapter 381 of the Public Acts. The actmakes each district responsible for designing its own LEP program,having its resources effectively implemented, and proving its pro-gram is effective or under modification by regular evaluations.English as a Second Language programs are endorsed and are to betaught by ESL certified teachers. Furthermore, if the programs arenot available in the student ’s home school, the district must providetransportation to a place where services are offered.

TEXASState statutes require school districts with 20 or more limited-

English-proficient students in the same grade level “in any languageclassification” to establish a bilingual program. This mandate onlyapplies to grades K through 6. LEP students in higher grades mustbe provided with either a bilingual or an ESL program.

UTAHUtah statutes require all school districts to implement programs forLEP students. These can be bilingual, or ESL, or another estab-lished alternative. The San Juan County School District and theNavajo Nation entered into a consent decree that requires the dis-trict to establish a bilingual education committee to review the exist-ing bilingual education program. The committee must determinewhether to accept, improve, or expand the bilingual program. Theschool district relies on this new decision since it replaces the 1975Agreement and Consent Decree.

VERMONT Vermont has no statutes or regulations referring to the education ofLEP students.

VIRGINIAVirginia law mandates instruction in English that is designed toenhance the education of students for whom English is a secondlanguage. The state regulates that programs for LEP students“should include a means of identification, assessment, and place-ment in an appropriate education program.” 4 Virginia only providesstate funding to ESL and other non-bilingual programs.

WASHINGTONEach school district board of directors must make available a transi-tional bilingual instruction program or an alternative instructionalprogram,if the bilingual program isn’t feasible. ESL programs qual-ify under alternative instructional programs. The programs are tolast no more than three years, with the majority of funding beingfocused on the early elementary years. However, if a student isunable to demonstrate acceptable improvement,then he or she mayremain in the bilingual or alternative instruction program.

WEST VIRGINIAWest Virginia has no statutes or regulations referring to the educa-tion of LEP students.

WISCONSINWisconsin state law requires bilingual-bicultural education pro-grams for each language group, if there are 10 or more limited-English-speaking students in kindergarten to grade 3,or 20 or moreLEP students in grades 4 to 12.These students are to be taught bybilingual teachers with bilingual counselors made available to highschool students.However, if bilingual teachers aren’t available, certi-fied ESL teachers upon approval of the state superintendent mayteach the program.

WYOMINGWyoming has no statutes or regulations dealing with the educationof its LEP students.4 Code of Virginia. Section 22.1-212.1


2 Opinion 75-231. Issued Oct. 2,1975.

3 Oregon Revised Statutes 1995 Edition. 336.o74-336.075.

AUTHORS

Kevin Clark is the president of the Clark Consulting Group, Inc., a California-based company that specializes inhelping schools, districts, and individual educators to meet the needs of today’s language-minority students. He hasworked with more than 100 schools and districts in the design and implementation of English immersion programs.He has taught both elementary and secondary education in Arizona, California, and Mexico.

Anita Garcia is a graduate of the University of California at Berkeley and a scholar with the Foundation forTeaching Economics.

Russell Gersten is a professor of educational research at the University of Oregon and president of the EugeneResearch Institute.

Ann Goldberg is the coordinator of the English Acquisition Program for the Bethlehem Area School District inPennsylvania and serves on the state ESL/Bilingual Coordinators’ Network Committee.

Douglas Lasken teaches high school English for the Los Angeles Unified School District, and is now on loan tothe Los Angeles County Office of Education as a reading specialist.

Jim Littlejohn is an educational equity consultant and a former program director at the Office for Civil Rights atthe U.S. Department of Education. He has 30 years of experience working on civil rights issues in education at thefederal, state, district, and classroom levels.

Cynthia Morgan is an Ashbrook scholar at Ashland University in Ohio.

Richard K.Munro is a certified teacher of Spanish, English, and social studies at the Arvin High School in Arvin,Calif. He is a former mentor teacher at Kern High School District and an Advanced Placement Faculty Consultantfor the Educational Testing Service in Princeton, N.J.

Rosalie Pedalino Porter is the co-chairman of the Massachusetts Commission on Bilingual Education and a for-mer Spanish bilingual teacher and director of Bilingual/ESL Programs in the Newton, Mass., Public Schools.

Christine H. Rossell is a professor of political science at Boston University and author of the book BilingualEducation in Massachusetts:The Emperor Has No Clothes.

Janet Siano is a reading specialist and consultant for English as a Second Language programs. She has taughtEnglish-learners in New Jersey and in China.


Center for Equal Opportunity815 15th Street, N.W.

Suite 928Washington, DC 20005Phone (202) 639-0803

Fax (202) 639-0827www.ceousa.org

the abc's of english immersion a teachers' guide

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