The Agenda

• Review structure of arguments• Practice coming up with claims, reasons and

warrants• Proposal Arguments• Discuss the next writing assignment

Structure of an Argument

• Review: What are the five parts of an argument?

Structure of an Argument

• Modern Structure • Introduction (Classical: Exordium)• Background (Classical: Narratio) • Lines of Argument (Classical: Partitio, Confirmatio) • Alternative Arguments (Classical: Refutatio) • Conclusion (Classical: Peroratio)

Structure of an Argument

• Introduction• Gets readers’ interest and willingness to listen• Establishes your qualifications to write about the topic• Establishes some common ground with your readers• Demonstrates that you’re fair and evenhanded• States your claim

Structure of an Argument

• Background• Presents information, including personal narrative,

that’s important to your argument

• Lines of Argument• Presents good reasons, including logical and emotional

appeals, in support of your claim

Structure of an Argument

• Alternative Arguments• Examines alternative points of view and opposing

arguments• Notes the advantages and disadvantages of these

views• Explains why your view is better than others

Structure of an Argument

• Conclusion• Summarizes the argument• Elaborates on the implications of your claim• Makes clear what you want the audience to think or

do• Reinforces your credibility and perhaps offers an

emotional appeal

Structure of an Argument

• Look at the Declaration of Independence and find the following elements … • Introduction • Background • Lines of Argument

Toulmin Argument

• Named for British philosopher Stephen Toulmin• Five parts• Claim – the argument you wish to prove• Qualifiers – any limits you place on your claim• Reasons/Evidence – support for your claim• Warrants – underlying assumptions that support your

claim• Backing – evidence for warrant

Toulmin Argument

• Claims • Debatable and controversial• May start out as sweeping and overly simplistic

but will progress toward something more reasonable and subtle• Vegetarianism is the best choice of diet.• NASA should launch a human expedition to Mars.

Toulmin Argument

• Claims • Can begin to develop a claim by first coming up

with reasons to support it or finding evidence that backs up the point …

• Look at the example on p. 134

Evidence and Reason(s)

So Claim

Toulmin Argument

• Claims • Once you make a claim, people will

automatically start questioning it • How do you know your evidence is good?• Do the reasons really support your claim?

• There must be a logical and persuasive connection between a claim and the reasons and data supporting it• This connection is called the warrant

Toulmin Argument

• Warrants • Answer the question: How do I get from the data

to the claim?

Evidence and Reason(s) So Claim

BecauseWarrant

Toulmin Argument

• Warrants • Look for the general principle that allows you to justify

the move from a reason to a specific to a specific claim – the bridge connecting them• Often a value or a principle that you share with your

readers

• Refresher: What’s an enthymeme? • A statement that links a claim to a supporting reason• Gas-fueled cars should be illegal because they pollute the

environment.

Toulmin Argument

• Warrants • Enthymeme: Don’t eat that mushroom because

it’s poisonous!• The warrant is that anything that’s poisonous shouldn’t

be eaten.• Or … If something is poisonous, it’s dangerous to eat.

Reason: The mushroom is

poisonousClaim: So don’t

eat it!

Because: Eating poisonous things is

dangerous

Toulmin Argument

• Practice • Enthymeme: __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Reason: Claim:

Because:

Toulmin Argument

• Backing • Support for warrants• Enthymeme: NASA should launch a human

expedition to Mars because Americans need a unifying national goal. • What’s the claim? • What’s the reason?

• Warrant: What unifies the nation ought to be a national priority.

Toulmin Argument

• Backing• Americans want to be part of something bigger than

themselves • Emotional appeal as evidence

• In a country as diverse as the United States, common purposes and values help make the nation stronger. • Ethical appeal as evidence

• In the past, government investments such as the Hoover Dam and the Apollo moon program enabled many – though not all – Americans to work toward common goals. • Logical appeal as evidence

Toulmin Argument

• Qualifiers• Make writing more precise and honest (believable) by

acknowledging limitations of your case … • Few• It is possible• Rarely• Most• In general• Often• For the most part• Typically

Toulmin Argument

• Practice with Qualifiers• Enthymeme: You will get into law school because

your LSAT scores are in the 98th percentile. • How can this be qualified?

Reason: Your LSAT scores are in the 98th percentile

Claim: So, you will likely get into law school

Because: High LSAT scores are an important factor in law school admission

Proposal Arguments

• Provide thoughtful reasons for supporting or resisting change

• The simplest form … A should do B because of C“The student government should endorse the Academic Bill of Rights because students should not be punished in their courses for their personal political views.”

Proposal Arguments

• Three main characteristics:• They call for change, often in response to a

problem• They focus on the future• They center on the audience

Proposal Arguments

• Consider the audience carefully• General audience – avoid using technical language or

jargon; keep points simple and straightforward; charts also work• Specialized audience – tailor language to suit technical

or specialized knowledge; be ready to dig deeper into the issue because this audience will have questions

Proposal Arguments

• Four Steps• Define a problem that needs a solution or a need that is

not currently addressed• Paint a vivid picture of the problem/need – give it a “face”

and show how it affects a broad audience• Underscore why problem/need is important/urgent and

why previous “fixes” may have failed

• Make a strong claim that addresses the problem or need. Your solution should be an action directed at the future. • A proposal of what X or Y should do followed by the

reason(s) that X or Y should act and the effects of adopting the following proposal.

Proposal Arguments

• Four Steps• Show why your proposal will fix the problem

or address the need.• Relate the claim to the need or problem that it

addresses; use facts or other evidence; personal experience works, too.

• Demonstrate the feasibility of your proposal.• More evidence – from similar cases, experience,

observational or other data, etc. Mention $$ if your proposal costs money.