The Anglo-Swedish Alliance against Napoleonic France

Also by Christer Jorgensen

TANK WARFARE IN THE 20TH CENTURY (with Chris Mann)

HITLER’S ARCTIC WAR: The German Campaigns in Norway, Finland and the USSR 1940–1945 (with Chris Mann)

STOCKHOLM: Historien om den Stolta Staden (with Niklas Ericsson and Magnus Hansson)

ROMMEL’S PANZERS: Rommel and the Panzer Forces of the Blitzkrieg1940–1942

HITLER’S ESPIONAGE MACHINE: German Intelligence Agencies and Servicesduring World War Two

GROWTH AND GOVERNANCE: The Rise of the Liberal State during theNineteenth Century

The Anglo-SwedishAlliance againstNapoleonic France

Christer Jorgensen

© Christer Jorgensen 2004

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First published 2004 byPALGRAVE MACMILLANHoundmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010Companies and representatives throughout the world

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataJorgensen, Christer, 1967–

The Anglo-Swedish alliance against Napoleonic France/Christer Jorgensen.

p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.1. Sweden – Foreign relations – 1792–1809. 2. Sweden – Foreign

relations – Great Britain. 3. Sweden – Foreign relations – France. 4. GreatBritain – Foreign relations – Sweden. 5. Great Britain – Foreign relations –1789–1820. 6. France – Foreign relations – Sweden. 7. France – Foreignrelations – 1789–1815. 8. Napoleonic Wars, 1800–1815. I. Title.

DL796.J67 2004940.2�72—dc22 2003062093

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 113 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04

ISBN 978-1-349-39904-8 ISBN 978-0-230-28774-7 (eBook)DOI 10.1057/9780230287747

Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2004 978-0-333-67239-6

This book is dedicated to my loving and supporting parents

Marianne and Ole Jorgensen

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Contents

Preface xi

Acknowledgements xiv

Note on Conventions xv

List of Abbreviations Used in the Notes xvi

Map 1 Europe in 1803 xx

Map 2 Scandinavia, the Baltic Sea and the Kingdoms of Sweden–Finland and Denmark–Norway, 1805–8 xxi

Map 3 The West Indies showing Danish and Swedish Colonies xxii

1 The Legacy: Anglo-Swedish Relations during the Eighteenth Century 11 Sweden from the Age of Liberty to Gustavus III 12 ‘Tranquillity of the North’: Britain’s Baltic interests

and northern policy, 1701–96 33 Contraband and convoys: the Anglo-Swedish conflict,

1797–1801 64 Between enemies and friends, 1801–3 95 The road to the Treaty of London

(September 1802–June 1803) 126 The fatal German visit and the renewal of the

Anglo-French War, 1803–4 14

2 The Road to War: The Creation of the Common Cause against Napoleon, March 1804–October 1805 181 Murder most foul: the death of the Duke of Enghien and

the beginning of the ‘common cause’ against Napoleon (March–July 1804) 18

2 The Anglo-Russian coalition 233 Dresden: the first Anglo-Swedish negotiations

(March–October 1804) 254 Building and burning diplomatic bridges: Sweden’s

worsening relations with France and Prussia as the European crisis deepens (October 1804–April 1805) 28

vii

5 To the edge of war: the long hard road to the Anglo-Swedish alliance (April–October 1805) 34

3 The Great Offensive: The Campaign of the Third Coalition, October 1805–February 1806 411 The grand encirclement: the Allied war plans against

France 412 Victory at sea, defeat on land (October 1805) 433 Italian imbroglio: the Anglo-Russian expedition to

Calabria (November 1805–January 1806) 434 The Elbe expedition: the British landing and operations

in North Germany (November 1805–January 1806) 445 The Russo-Swedish expedition to Pomerania and

North Germany (October 1805–January 1806) 476 Austerlitz: the demise of the alliance

(October–December 1805) 517 The end of an era: the decline and fall of the Pittite

system (November 1805–January 1806) 52

4 Phoney War, Phoney Peace: The Anglo-Swedish ‘War’ with Prussia and the Anglo-Russian Peace Negotiations with Napoleon, February–September 1806 541 A new diplomatic direction 542 France and Fox: the phoney peace 553 Phoney war 564 A blunder and a ‘miracle’: the battles of Buenos Aires

and Maida ( July–August 1806) 705 A friend in need? Prussia, the Coalition Powers

and the pending war with France (August–October 1806) 72

5 The Watershed: Napoleon’s Campaigns against Prussia and Russia, October 1806–March 1807 751 Napoleon crushes Prussia (October 1806) 752 Russia comes to the rescue 773 The old or the new world: Britain’s strategic

dilemmas (1806–7) 794 Defeatism and the great diversion: Gustavus IV’s

offensive plans and rising Swedish defeatism (October 1806–March 1807) 81

5 The neutral nuisance: Denmark’s role and foreign policy in the Napoleonic War 87

viii Contents

6 The Beginning of the End: Tilsit, the Battle of Copenhagen, the Franco-Russian ‘Continental’ Coalition against Britain and Invasion Plans against Sweden, March 1807–March 1808 90

1 The return to Europe: the Tories take office andchange Britain’s political course (March–April 1807) 90

2 The last victory: the Swedish offensive in Pomerania(March–April 1807) 92

3 Tilsit 934 Too little and too late: the British expedition to

Pomerania (May–July 1807) 955 Canning’s coup: the British assault upon Copenhagen

(August–October 1807) 986 Sweden’s last stand: the fall of Pomerania and the

first plots against the king (August–September 1807) 1027 Colonies and conquests: Gustavus IV’s plans and

hopes for conquests at the expense of Denmark and overseas colonies (September–October 1807) 105

8 A world war: Napoleon’s plans to invade Sweden, conquer Portugal and subjugate Spain 110

9 Before the storm: Sweden’s domestic and foreign difficulties (October 1807–February 1808) 114

10 ‘In our hour of need’: Sweden calls for British assistance 120

7 Peninsular Priorities: The Anti-Climax of the Common Cause, the Futile Expedition, the Peninsular Campaign and the Finnish Front,February–September 1808 126

1 The forgotten front: Finland and Sweden’s war against Russia (February–April 1808) 126

2 Mistrust and misunderstandings: planning the British expedition to Sweden and Sweden’s failed invasion of Norway (March–April 1808) 130

3 The fall of Finland’s ‘Gibraltar’: May 1808 1364 A savage war: the revolt of Spain and the beginning

of the Peninsular War (May–July 1808) 1385 The futile expedition: General Moore’s military fiasco in

Sweden (May–July 1808) 1396 Peninsular priorities: Sweden or Spain? Britain’s strategic

choices in a world war (April–August 1808) 145

Contents ix

7 The shield of Sweden: Admiral de Saumarez’s first Baltic expedition (May–November 1808) 151

8 Endgame: The Decline and Fall of the Common Cause, October 1808–March 1809 1531 The decline and fall of the Anglo-Swedish ‘Common

Cause’ (October 1808–March 1809) 1532 The last act: allied setbacks in Finland and Spain

(October 1808–January 1809) 1613 Clubs, conspiracies and coup-makers: the Swedish army

officers’ plan to save Sweden and overthrow the king (October 1808–March 1809) 163

4 Uprising: Adlersparre’s insurrection in the west of Sweden (5–9 March 1809) 167

5 Palace coup: the military take charge in Stockholm (10–13 March 1809) 169

9 The Twilight Era: The End of the Common Cause and the Shadow Alliance between Sweden and Britain, March 1809–October 1810 1711 Invasion, insurrection and incompetence 1712 Peace at any price 1723 Wagram, Walcheren and Wellington 1744 The real price of peace 1765 Sweden between Scylla and Charybdis 179

Conclusion 187

Notes 194

Select Bibliography 228

Index 244

x Contents

Preface

Writing history, especially the academic sort, is like all forms of writingno easy task. The author is called upon to perform a series of compli-cated tasks that may seem contradictory but should not. One mustcombine the utmost scrutiny of all available sources while being objec-tive, concise in one’s writing while the quality of the prose must be suchthat the reader is impressed enough to read on but this must not be atthe expense of scientific precision and objectivity.

I sincerely hope that I have been able to strike a workable balancebetween these various demands and I sincerely apologize to the readerwhere this has not been possible.

The first question that begs to be answered is why I chose to look atthe Anglo-Swedish alliance during the middle years of the NapoleonicWar? Why not relations between Sweden and England during theseventeenth century, when Sweden was a great power that inspired bothfear and respect? The topic is by no means a new one and scholars farmore distinguished than myself have considered it in the past. The workof Professor Michael Roberts is legendary, especially his monumentalbiographical history on Gustavus II Adolphus, while Professor RagnhildHatton’s biography is the best in any language on Charles XII and theGreat Northern War.1

I chose this period because it was virgin territory and, being adventur-ous in my interests, I felt this topic was well worth exploring. Except forBernadotte’s alliance (1812–14) and quite intimate relations during theCrimean War Sweden and Britain were not allies throughout the courseof the nineteenth century and hardly ever before 1800 either. Swedenwas to crawl into its isolationist shell once Bernadotte had addedNorway to his new Scandinavian state and she has only recentlyemerged. Between 1805 and 1809 Sweden was part of the general polit-ical system of Europe, tried and failed to act as a real European power onthe political stage of the continent. My interest in the topic was alsowhetted by an excellent article by Professor Raymond Carr on theAnglo-Swedish alliance which he wrote back in the 1940s.2 Yet Carrchose to dedicate his career to the study of the history of Spain and thetopic was left for others to study.

I could perhaps understand this neglect of the North during theNapoleonic age by British historians since they have had enough on

xi

their plate in considering developments in other areas of Europe and theworld. While the interest in Norway and Denmark (whose fates duringthis period was as dramatic as Sweden’s) have been kept alive by suchscholars such as Professor Ole Feldbaek, the period has been of littleinterest to academic historians in Swedens since 1960. So from bothsides this topic had been far from exhausted and was ripe for explo-ration. The fruits of that exploration are brought together in this book.

This self-conscious neglect by Swedish historians for foreign policyand diplomatic history since four decades back reflects a curious relativeneglect by historians internationally vis-à-vis the Napoleonic era.Instead interest has focussed upon the French Revolution and thechaotic decade of the 1790s. But Napoleon carried on and finished the work that had been started by Mirabeau, Danton, Robespierre and theother leaders of the revolution. While these men limited their revolu-tion to their colonies, their own hapless nation and the western fringesof the continent, Napoleon, by contrast, turned the whole continentupside down. While the revolution was only supported and appreciatedby a small intellectual elite in Sweden, Napoleon affected – both directlyand indirectly – the whole course of Swedish history because his imper-ial reach extended all the way to the southern shores of the Baltic.

Throughout these years of trial and tribulation (1805–9) Britainremained defiantly undefeated and untouched by Napoleon’s expan-sionism and hegemony on the continent. As an island Britain couldchose when and where to intervene militarily on the continent. Shecould also choose to remain neutral or indifferent to the ‘CommonCause’ against Napoleon if she so desired. Although not an islandSweden shared Britain’s insularity and popular disinterest in the affairsof what the Scandinavians also call the continent. Why should Sweden,no longer a great power, marginalized, impoverished and economicallybackward, involve herself in the politics of Europe? Why not (as in theFirst and Second World Wars) benefit economically by feigning neutral-ity while in fact supporting the strongest continental power, France, orif fortune changed the allies?

The reason why Sweden chose sides in 1805 (and did not do so in1914 or 1939) was that Sweden had been ruled as an autocratic statesince 1772 and the final decision lay with the king. In 1805 that kingwas Gustavus IV Adolphus. He ignored the opposition to his policiescoming from the Swedish nobility and her few radicals and opted tofight Napoleon. Gustavus IV (as we shall call him hereafter) had severalreasons for taking this course of action. Like his father the king was adedicated, altruistic and somewhat naïve ideological opponent to the

xii Preface

French Revolution. In addition he wanted (like his father) to play apolitical role in the affairs of Europe. He wanted to restore the ancientand great name of Sweden as in the imperial past. He had yet anotherreason: his growing personal hatred for Napoleon, whose arrogance andbrutality of conduct repulsed this conservative supporter of the exiledBourbons.

He failed in his endeavour since he failed to follow the meanderingpolitical views of his powerful and dangerous neighbour, cousin andbrother-in-law the Tsar of All of the Russias: Alexander I. This unreliableand enigmatic ruler chose to abandon the allied cause in 1807, invadedFinland a year later and added this nation to his empire in 1809 – thevery year in which Gustavus IV was toppled by a palace coup inStockholm.

Since that fateful day in March 1809 Gustavus IV’s name has beenassociated in Sweden with failure and defeat. For almost a century hisname was blackened beyond repair by his revolutionary enemies both inSweden and abroad – to such an extent that his name was reviled as noother in Swedish history. But his policy seemed to be correct since theman chose to succeed him – a French revolutionary general by the nameof Jean Baptiste Bernadotte – ironically came to the same conclusion asthe king. As long as Napoleon dominated and tyrannized the continentthere would be no safety for Sweden, for himself or his dynasty. After littlemore than a year of war Napoleon had been toppled and Sweden, for thelast time, intervened militarily on the continent. Her reward wasNorway.

In both cases the alliance with Britain was the cornerstone of Swedishactivism in the field of foreign policy. Being impoverished by a bureau-cratic and incompetently managed agricultural economy, Sweden couldnot possibly afford to fight France on her own. Only generous Britishdiplomatic support, naval protection for her extensive coastline, and –most importantly – even greater financial generosity in the form of sub-sidies enabled Sweden to take an active role in the ‘Common Cause’against Napoleon.

This book is the story of the birth, life and final demise of that allianceas it unfolded against the backdrop of the greatest war of the nineteenthcentury.

Preface xiii

xiv

Acknowledgements

I passed my viva in early 1999 thanks to my supervisor at UniversityCollege London (UCL), Dr Thomas Munch-Petersen, and my two dili-gent examiners, Dr Robert Frost and Dr Charles Esdaile. I thank them allfor an interesting and learned discussion about the topic of my thesis.

I also owe a lot to my patient editors at Palgrave Macmillan ArunaVasudevan and Luciana O’Flaherty but especially Tim Farmiloe whogave me the opportunity to get my thesis published.

A specially warm thank to my many friends in London: NikolaiSokolow, Fiona Chick, Chantal Richardson, Chris Mann and severalothers for their invaluable support and help in completing this book.I would also like to thank the Earl of Harewood for making available theCanning MSS at the Leeds Record Office, whose staff were both friendlyand efficient. The same can be said for the PRO, the British LibraryManuscripts Dept in London and the Royal Library and NationalArchive in Stockholm.

Finally, I would like to thank my parents, Marianne and OleJorgensen, whose support – both emotional and financial – have beenabsolutely indispensable.

A warm thanks to you all from a most grateful author.

Silsand, North Norway CHRISTER JORGENSEN

Note on Conventions

All Swedish names have been modernized and standardized in theirspelling such that Gustaf becomes Gustav and Jöran Silfverhielm hasbecome Göran Silverhjelm. I have also chosen to use available Englishequivalents wherever possible both for the sake of simplicity for theEnglish-reading audience and for the sake of consistency. ThusSödermanland has become Sudermania, Göteborg has becomeGothenburg, Skåne is spelt Scania and so forth. The same applies to firstnames of the Swedish and foreign characters thus Gustavus III andGustavus IV instead of Gustav III and Gustav IV, Duke Charles instead ofDuke Karl etc.

I have translated all quotes in Swedish or Scandinavian but left those inFrench in the original since French is an internationally recognized lan-guage and is, of course, in more common use among the English-read-ing audience. I have also chose to introduce the characters with theirfull titles only the first time they appear in the text. This saves on space.

Abbreviations used in the footnotes have been given their own list at thebeginning of the text. This cuts down on the confusion and the sourceshave been listed in alphabetical order.

xv

xvi

List of Abbreviations Used in the Notes(Full details of sources used in the Select Bibliography)

Primary sources

Add. Mss. Additional ManuscriptsAddington MSS Addington (Sidmouth) MSS. Devon ROALS Alstedt samlingenAnglica RA. Diplomatica collection [Britain]BFA RA. Bernadottska familjearkivetBLA RA. Beskickningen i Londons arkivBLMC British Library Manuscripts CollectionBrandenburgica RA. Diplomatica collection [Prussia]Dropmore MSS Dropmore MSS. HMC. Vol. XEnSO KB. Engeström samling. OsigneradeESKB KB. Engeström samlingFRA Finnish State Archive [Finska riksarkivet]

[Helsinki]Germanica RA. Diplomatica [Germany]GLS RA. Handlingar angående Löwenhjelms expedi-

tion till Lauenburg 1806GP BLMC. Gordon PapersGrey MSS Grey MSS. Durham ROHarewood Canning MSS. Leeds ROHMC Historical Manuscripts CollectionKB Kungliga Biblioteket [Royal Library] StockholmKPA RA. Kanslipresidentens arkivKrA Krigsarkivet [Swedish War Office Archive]

StockholmKUB RA. Kabinettet för utrikes brevväxlingenKUDHA RA. Kabinettet. UD. HuvudarkivetLAGS RA. Lagerheimska samlingenMP BLMC. Moore PapersMuP National Library of Scotland. Murray PapersMuscovita RA. Diplomatica [Russia]RA Riksarkivet-National Archives [Stockholm]RD RA. Reuterholmska samlingen. Reuterholms

dagbok

RO Record OfficeRDMF RA. Russian Documents Microfilm CollectionSbornik Sbornik impertorskago russkago obschvestiaSRE H. Arnold Barton, Scandanavia in the Revolutionary

Era, 1760–1815 (Minneapolis, 1986)SRO Scottish RO. [Edinburgh]SSA RA. Stedingk. Svenska arkivetSSKB KB. Silverhjelmska samlingenTSLUB Lunds universitetsbibliotek. Tollska samlingenÄlvsjö RA. Lagerbjelkska samlingen. Älvsjö arkivet

Secondary sources

Bailleu Briefwechsel König Friedrich Wilhelm IIs und derKönigin Luise mit Kaiser Alexander I

BFK Gustaf Björlin, Finska kriget 1808–1809Borelius Hilma Borelius, Carl Gustaf von Brinkman under

diplomatåren, 1792–1810Björlin Gustaf Björlin, Sveriges krig i Tyskland åren

1805–1807Bååth Cecilia Bååth-Holmberg, Förräderiets spel i kampen

om FinlandBryant Arthur Bryant, Years of Victory 1801–1812Brown John Brown, Original Memoirs of the Sovereigns of

Sweden and DenmarkCarr Raymond Carr, Gustavus IV and the British

Government, 1804–1809CC Correspondance […] Viscount CastlereaghChandler David Chandler, The Campaigns of NapoleonConnelly Owen Connelly, Blundering to Glory: Napoleon’s

Military CampaignsEhrman John Ehrman, The Younger Pitt. Vol. III. (1797–806)Fedorak Charles Fedorak, The Addington Ministry and the

Interaction of Foreign and Domestic Politics,1800–1804

Finley Milton Finley, The Most Monstrous of Wars: theNapoleonic Guerilla War in Southern Italy,1806–1811

Fletcher Ian Fletcher, The Waters of Oblivion: the BritishInvasion of the River Plate, 1806–1807

Fortescue J.W. Fortescue, A History of the British Army

List of Abbreviations xvii

Fouché The Memoirs of FouchéFregosi Paul Fregosi, Dreams of Empire: Napoleon and the

First World War 1792–1815Fremont G.B.A. Fremont, The British Role in the Formation of

the Third Coalition 1802–1805Gash Norman Gash, Lord LiverpoolGLG Lord Granville-Leveson-Gower, Private Correspon-

dance 1780–1821Grade Anders Grade, Sverige och Tilsitalliansen (1807–1810)Granberg P.A. Granberg, Historisk Tafla …Hall Christopher Hall, British Strategy in the Napoleonic

War 1803–1815Ham V.R. Ham, Strategies of Coalition and Isolation:

British War Policy and North-West Europe,1803–1810

Hartley Janet Hartley, Alexander IHinde Wendy Hinde, George CanningHolland John Holland Rose, William Pitt and the Great WarKlemming Sven Klemming, General S.B. De SuremainKWAH Kungliga Wendes Artilleriregementes historia

1794–1994, redaktör Sven ScheutzLindeberg Lars Lindeberg, Englandskrigerne 1807–1814Longford Elizabeth Longford, WellingtonMackesy Piers Mackesy, The War in the Mediterranean,

1803–1810Malmesbury Diaries and Correspondance of the Earl of

MalmesburyMinto The Life and Letters of [...] Earl of MintoMitchell L.G. Mitchell, Charles James FoxPalmer Allan Palmer, BernadottePalmer, Alexander I Allan Palmer, Tsar Alexander IPalmer, ENE Allan Palmer, Encyclopaedia of Napoleon’s EuropePlaten Carl H. von Platen, Curt von StedingkPorter Robert Ker-Porter, Travelling Sketches in Russia and

Sweden [1805–8]Ramel Stig Ramel, Gustaf Mauritz Armflet 1757–1814Roach E.E. Roach, Anglo-Russian Relations from Austerlitz

to TilsitRothenberg Gunther Rothenberg, Napoleon’s Great Adversary:

Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army, 1792–1814

xviii List of Abbreviations

Seton-Watson Hugh Seton-Watson, The Russian Empire1801–1917

Schroeder Paul W. Schroeder, The Transformation of EuropeanPolitics 1763–1848

Schom Allan Schom, Trafalgar: the Countdown to Battle,1803–1805

Sherwig John M. Sherwig, Guineas and Gunpowder: BritishForeign Aid in the Wars with France, 1793–1815

Smith E.A. Smith, Lord Grey, 1764–1845Taylor The Foxite Party and Foreign Politics, 1806–1816Tangeraas Lars Tangeraas, The Question of Norway in British

Foreign Policy, 1805–1809Tingsten Lars Tingsten, Gustaf Wilhelm af TibellTrolle Anteckningar och Minnen af Hans Gabriel Trolle-

WachtmeisterWD The Wynne Diaries, edited by Fremantle. Vol. IIIWindham The Diary of the Right Hon.William Windham

1748–1810Zawadzki W.H. Zawadzki, A Man of Honour: Adam Czartoryski

as a Statesman of Russia and Poland 1795–1831Zlobin K.D. Zlobin, De diplomatiska förbindelserna

mellan Ryssland och Sverige under de första åren afAlexander I: s regeringstid …

List of Abbreviations xix

xx

Örebro

FriedlandErlau

Fredrikshamn

ST.PETERSBURG

Yarmouth

HELIGOLAND

LONDON

Amiens

FRANCE

PARIS

VENDÉE

Ulm

VENICE

PRUSSIA RUSSIA

AUSTRIABUDAPESTVIENNA

BORDEAUX

BAYONNE

ZARAGOZA

MADRID

SPAIN

Bailen

BERBERY STATES

GIBRALTAR

LYONSMarengo

TOULON

SARDINIA

SICILY

MALTA

PAPALSTATE

Austerlitz

~

WagramPRAGUE

SERBIA

WALLACHIA

MONTENEGRO

OTTOMAN

EMPIRE

CO

NST

ANTI

NO

PLE

MOSCOW

WARSAWBERLIN

International frontiers Auerstädt (1806)Towns/citiesBattles or sites of treatiesBritish base

Gibraltar (1703)Malta (1801)Heligoland (1807)

1

1

MOLDAVIA

BUCHAREST

IRELAND

SCOTLAND

GREATBRITAIN

NORWAYSWEDEN

DRESDEN

LISBON

PORTUGALPORTO

Tilsit

Jeha

DardanellesNAPLES

Maida

ROME

Map 1 Europe in 1803

xxi

Niemen3

2

1

4

5 1

2

3

HOLSTEIN

SLESWIG

FÜNEN

4

5

SJAELLAND(ZEALAND)

THE SOUND(ÖRESUND)

RUSSIATORNEÅ

ULEÅBORG

KAJANA

LULEÅPITEÅ

KUOPIO

FINLAND

TAVASTEHUS

DAGÖ

ÖSEL

GOTLANDVISBY

STOCKHOLM

RUSSIAN

ST. PETERSBURG

LIVONIA

RIGA

ESTONIA

REVALGULF OF

FINLAND

RUSSO-SWEDISHBORDER (1701)

NOVGOROD

ÖSTERSUND

ÅLAND

UPPSALA

VÄRMLAND

ÅBO

KYMMENE R

DALARNA

RÖROS

ATLANTIC O

CEAN

KRISTIANIA

BERGEN

STAVANGER

NORWAY

KARLSTAD

ÖREBRO

BORNHOLM

KOLBERG

STETTINBREMEN

HANOVER

DENMARK

North Sea

THE NETHER LANDS

LÜBECKDANZIG

LIBAU

KOVNOPARTS OF DENMARK

TILSIT

COURLAND

PRUSSIABERLIN

MECKLENBURG

MARSTRANDGOTHENBURG

CHRISTIANSAND

GÄVLE

VÄS

TER

BO

TTE

N

ÖST

ERBO

TTEN

VASA

Dvina

HELSINGFORS

KÖNIGSBERG

FINLAND

SVEABORG

New borderwith Russia (1809)

LAPLAND

SKÅNE (SCANIA)ÖLAND

HELSINGBORG

COPENHAGEN

JUTLAND

STRALSUND

HAMBURG

SWEDISHPOMERANIA

RUSSIA

VYBORG(VIBORG)

KRONSTADT

L.LADOGA

KONGSVINGER

KARELIA

UMEÅ

TRONDHEIM

Torneå

Munio

Map 2 Scandinavia, the Baltic Sea and the Kingdoms of Sweden–Finland andDenmark–Norway, 1805–8

xxii

PUERTO RICO

CUBA (Sp)

Santo Domingo(Sp)

Fredrik-sted

Christiansted GUSTAVIA

St. Eustatius(Dutch)

St. Martin

Anguilla (Br)

St. Kitts (Br)

Barbuda(Br)

Antigua(Br)

ST. BARTHELEMY(SWEDISH)

Nevis (Br)

Saba (Dutch)St. Croix(Denmark)

St. Croix(Denm)

Danish Antilles

St. Barthelemy (Sw)

Guadeloupe (Fr)DominicaMartinique (Fr)St. Lucia

Barbados

GrenadaAruba

BonaireCuracao

TRINIDAD

Proposed as compensationto Sweden for loss of SwedishPomerania. Became insteada part of the British Empirein 1814 as British Guyana.

Berbice, Demerara & Essequibo (Dutch Colonies)

Jamaica(Br)

SaintDomingue

(Fr)

PuertoRico(Sp)

Map 3 The West Indies showing Danish and Swedish Colonies