the artist's handbook - the artists handbook - by pip seymour

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INTRODUCTION 10

PIGMENTS 15

Pigments: An Int roduct ion 15

Key to Pigment Informat ion 17

Pigment Types 22

Part icle Size of Pigments 24

Art ists� Pigments 25

Permanence of Art ists� Pigments 28

Pigment Tables 31

Miscellaneous Pigments 180

DRAWING MATERIALS 191

Dry Drawing Tools 192

Wet Drawing Tools 200

EGG TEMPERA PAINTING 203

Supports for Panel Paint ing with Egg Tempera 203

Natural Wood 204

Preparat ion of t he Panel, Prior to Applying Gesso Ground 205

Applicat ion of the Paint ing Ground 206

Glue 207

Preparing the Panel with Gesso 211

Preparat ion of Pigments for Egg Tempera Paint ing 214

Egg Yolk as a Binder 215

Palet te for Egg Tempera Paint ing 219

Procedure for Paint ing 224

Tempera and Oil Paint , Egg-Oil Emulsions 226

Varnishes for Tempera Paint ings 227

Tempera and Gilding 229

OIL PAINTING 233

Supports for Oil Paint ing 233

Sizing and Priming Supports for Oil Paint ing 248

Contents

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6 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK

Propert ies of Oil Paints 258

Hand-Made Oil Colour 273

Manufactured Oil Colour 289

Building an Oil Paint ing 294

Drying Rates of Oil Colours 300

Oil Paint ing Whites 304

The Oil Paint ing Palet te Explained 307

Oil Paint Mediums 309

Picture Varnishes 326

Solvents for Oil Paint ing 331

Clean-Up of Oil Paint , Palet te and Brushes 333

WATERCOLOUR AND GOUACHE PAINTING 335

Watercolour 335

Historical Background 335

Propert ies of Watercolour 337

Commercially Manufactured Watercolours 342

Hand-Prepared Watercolours 343

Light fastness and Permanence 346

Support s for Watercolour Paint ing 346

Papermaking 347

St retching Watercolour Paper 350

Care and Storage of Watercolours 352

Auxiliary Materials 353

Paint ing Addit ives 354

Combining Watercolour and Other Media 355

Gouache 356

Art ists� Gouache and Designers� Gouache 357

Hand-Made Gouache Colours 358

Applicat ion 361

Supports 361

Preservat ion and Storage of Work 361

Alternat ive Water-Based Binding Agents 362

SOFT PASTEL PAINTING 371

Supports for Pastel Paint ing 372

Binding Agents for Pastel 381

Filler Material 381

Format ion of Colour Ranges 381

Basic Recipes for Making Soft Pastels 384

Procedure for Hand-Making Soft Pastels 390

Working with Pastels 394

Manipulat ing Pastel 395

Fixing and Storage of Pastel Paint ings 396

ACRYLIC PAINTING 400

Acrylic Paint Systems 400

How Acrylic Paint Works 400

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CONTENTS 7

Acrylic Paints 402

Hand-Preparat ion of Acrylic Paints 404

Health and Safety Informat ion 410

Manufactured Acrylic Paints 411

Acrylic Paint ing Mediums 413

Why Art ists Somet imes Mist rust Acrylic Paint 419

Priming Informat ion for Acrylic Paint Systems 422

ENCAUSTIC PAINTING 427

Supports for Encaust ic Paint ing 427

Equipment for Encaust ic Paint ing 428

Composit ion and Use of Encaust ic Paints 429

Wax Types 430

Suggested Palet te for Encaust ic Paint ing 432

Paint ing Techniques 433

Glazing with Encaust ic 435

Working in Layers 435

Presentat ion of Finished Encaust ic Paint ings 435

Safe Clean-Up of Encaust ic Paint 436

LIME-FRESCO PAINTING 437

Health and Safety Precaut ions 438

Supports for Lime: Preparing Walls and Other Subst rates for

Applicat ion of Lime 439

Pigments for Lime-Fresco 448

Whites in Lime-Fresco 450

Applicat ion of Colours 452

Fresco Secco 453

Protect ion of Fresco Paint ings 455

Alternat ive Wall Paint ing Binders 455

BRUSHES 459

Brushes for Oil Paint ing 459

Brushes for Acrylic Paint ing 464

Brushes for Watercolour Paint ing 466

Brushes for Gouache Paint ing 470

Brushes for Priming 470

Brushes for Varnishing 472

Brushes for Soft Pastels 473

Brushes for Fresco Paint ing 473

STORAGE AND PRESERVATION OF FINISHED ARTWORKS 475

Oil Paint ings 475

Acrylic Paint ings 478

Works on Paper 478

Pastel Paint ings 480

BIBLIOGRAPHY 48 1

INDEX 48 8

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About the Author

Pip Seymour is a painter and writer, who lives in England and Italy.

He studied Fine Art at Bradford College of Art, Winchester School

of Art and Brighton Polytechnic and has been a practising art ist

since the mid-1980s.

He teaches about the use of paint ing materials at a number of

inst itut ions in the United Kingdom, including the Prince�s

Foundation, London; Camberwell College of Art & Design, London;

the Colour Museum, Bradford and Abbot Hall Art Gallery, Kendal,

Cumbria.

Pip Seymour is a member of the Society of Dyers and Colourists.

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the following people for their help and co-

operat ion:

Sue Petheridge and Quentin Burkenshaw at the Society of Dyers

and Colour ists, Bradford, West Yorkshire (for Colour Index

information, especially in relat ion to historical pigments). Dr Georg

Kremer and Uta Williams, at Kremer Pigmente, Aichstetten,

Germany. Yvonne Hindle at University of Cent ral England,

Birmingham. Sarah Miller, Technical Advisor, Winsor & Newton. Dr.

Mike Roberts, DEFRA. Susan Ward-Booth, Alison Barratt, Jo

Wooding, Arif Ozakca, Mary Gregis-Walker, Kathrin Kinseher, Kate

Dineen.

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Int roduct ion

In relation to th e activity of pain tin g, th e app lication of

tech n iqu e can be a cru cial factor in th e com p lete

realisation of pain ted im ages.

For m an y artists, th e role of tech n ique in pain t in g is

som eh ow m issin g. In recen t years, th e teach in g of Fin e

Art h as con cen trated m ore on th e developm en t of ideas

th an on th e provision of in form ation relatin g to th e

properties of pain tin g m aterials. Despite th is, m an y artists

requ ire tech n ical in form at ion abou t th eir m aterials in

order to progress an d develop th eir work.

My own stu d en t s h ave freq u en t ly asked fo r m ore

in form ation th an is possible to tran sm it in th e teach in g

en viron m en t, often th e type of detailed in form ation th at

pertain s to an in dividual path of developm en t . Th e n eed

to provide th is h as prom pted m e to at tem pt to put in to

book form everyth in g I h ave learn t abou t pain t in g

m aterials an d practice over th e last fifteen or so years.

Th e aim of th is book is to collate, in on e com preh en sive

volum e, in form ation th at wou ld oth erwise requ ire cross-

referen cin g from m an y d ifferen t p u blicat ion s, from

various t im e periods.

Th e book is in ten ded as a resource for pain ters, an d covers

practically all th e accep ted pain t m edia in som e depth . In

m an y sen ses, th is book is a person al respon se to th e

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INTRODUCTION 11

ch oice an d use of m aterials. Th is in form ation h as been

glean ed from m y own p ain t in g p ract ice; t h rou gh

discussion with oth er art ists, studen ts, fellow tu tors,

pain tm akers an d con servation specialists.

Th e in form at ion in cluded in th is book is n ot in ten ded to

be prescrip tive: som e of th e opin ion s abou t m aterials

expressed h ere relate to m y own p ract ice, an d m y

un derstan din g of th e workin g properties of th e m aterials

d iscussed . Neverth eless, th is in form at ion h as been h ard

won : just like an y oth er pain ter, on e m akes m istakes

alon g th e way an d on e con tin ues to m ake m istakes.

In deed , som e of th e m ost in terestin g pain tin gs com e by

acciden t, or th rough experim en tation with m aterials.

Th e recip es, form u las an d tech n ical advice can be

con sidered as a start in g poin t for an y artist wh o is

in terested in developin g th eir tech n ique. To th is en d , th e

raw m aterials used in pain tin g are d iscussed at len gth ,

alon g with som e practical advice as to h ow best to

in corporate th ese raw m aterials in to pain ts, m edium s,

prim ers, varn ish es, etc.

Th e im portan ce of un derstan din g th e n ature of th e

m aterials on e uses in pain tin g can n ot be un derestim ated .

With out som e basic kn owledge of th e workin g properties

of m aterials, art ists m ay n ot fu lly develop an d progress

with th eir work.

Th e m aterials at th e disposal of th e m odern -day artist are

perh aps wider in scope th an at an y oth er t im e in h istory.

However, because m an y of th ese m aterials are presen ted

in ready-to-use form (e.g. tube oil colou rs), m an y artists

do n ot kn ow h ow th eir pain ts an d associated m aterials

are m an u factu red , an d wh ere, wh y an d h ow th ose

m aterials cam e to be used in th e first p lace. Th is book

attem pts to provide in form ation on just th ese aspects, by

givin g som e h istorical backgroun d in relation to th e use

of a m aterial (e.g. th e date of in troduct ion of a p igm en t)

an d suggestion s on h ow best to u se it .

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At th e begin n in g of th e 21st cen tury, we fin d ou rselves in

th e st ran ge posit ion of h avin g available n ot on ly m odern ,

in dustrially m ade p igm en ts bu t also a revived selection of

h istorical colou rs.

For th e m odern artist , th e ch oice is n ot ju st between

differen t bran ds of pain t, bu t also between h an d-m ade

pain t system s an d m an ufactured pain t ran ges. As a

con sequen ce, th is book focuses st ron gly on th e propert ies

of p igm en ts an d th eir in corporation in to a variety of

d ifferen t bin din g agen ts.

Wh en an art ist selects a p igm en t, it is often possible to use

th at p igm en t with th e wh ole fam ily of bin din g agen ts

available. However som e p igm en ts are n ot stable in

certain m ixtu res. In order to h elp facilitate good workin g

practice, each p igm en t is iden tified with th e appropriate

bin din g system (s), con form in g to th e n otion th at art ists

sh ou ld m ake th eir work with lon gevity in m in d.

Sim ilar in form ation is provided in relation to th e workin g

properties of bin ders, resin s, waxes, gum s, an d all th e

oth er m aterials com m on ly used in art ists' pain ts. Th e

correct ch oice of prim in g for exam ple, is fun dam en tal to

th e execu tion of both th e im age an d lon gevity of th e

fin ish ed artwork. Wh erever in form ation is available in

relation to a m aterial, it is given in order to provide as

th orough a backgroun d as possible to all of th e m aterials

used in pain tin g.

In form at ion on th e perm an en ce of p igm en ts is in cluded ,

with th e proviso th at th is was accurate at th e t im e of

goin g to press. Th e supply of art ists' m aterials, like an y

oth er m aterial, is in con stan t flux: as a con sequen ce,

specificat ion s relatin g to a m aterial m ay ch an ge.

Th e h istorical in form at ion on p igm en ts (an d o th er

m aterials) com es m ain ly from th e Western European

t rad it ion : th e sam e m aterials m ay be h an d led an d

prepared in differen t ways in som e oth er cu ltu res, m ost

n oticeably in Orien tal pain t in g.

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INTRODUCTION 13

Our un derstan din g of th e use of pain tin g m aterials

ch an ges an d develops with t im e. Th an ks to m odern

con servation tech n iques, th e com position of h istorical

pain t layers h as begun to be successfu lly iden t ified . With

th is developm en t, som e previously obsolete colou rs, such

as sm alt an d lead-t in yellow h ave com e back in to th e

palet tes of con tem porary artists. Sim ilarly, h istorically

im p ortan t p ain t b in d ers, su ch as lim e-fresco an d

en caust ic h ave been revived .

For m an y artists, th e ch oosin g of colou rs rem ain s a

daun tin g task with out som e supervision . For each pain t

m edia, a select ion of basic colou rs is suggested . Th ese can

be adopted as a start in g poin t: th ere will be m an y oth ers

to explore. Again , th e p igm en t section provides a lin k

between colour an d appropriate bin din g agen t .

Modern artists' pain t ran ges offer th e opportun ity to work

with p igm en ts th at h ave a h igh perm an en ce to both ligh t

an d air. Most art ists' m aterials com pan ies offer th eir own

perm an en ce ratin gs in th eir catalogues an d on colour

ch art s/ tu be labellin g. In t h e p igm en t sect ion , an

in dicat ion of perm an en ce accord in g to in depen den t

auth orit ies (Blue Wool Scale/ASTM) is provided wh ere

available.

Som e artists con tin ue to use older colours, som etim es of

a less-perm an en t n atu re. Th e p igm en t section con tain s

m uch relevan t in form at ion about all th e p igm en ts th at

are cu rren tly available to th e m arket. Th e ch oice of

colou rs listed relates to m y own travels with in th e last few

years, th rough Europe an d North Am erica. Th e section

in cludes all th e p igm en ts I h ave foun d listed as bein g

availab le in cu rren t art ist s' su p p ly cat alogu es an d

associated literatu re.

Sim ilarly, oth er m aterials (oils, gum s, resin s, waxes, etc)

are in cluded because on e can fin d th em on th e m arket

today. Wh ile som e of th e tech n iques discussed h ave

h istorical im portan ce (e.g. egg tem pera pain tin g), all

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m edia are con sidered an d given value. For exam ple, th e

properties of acrylic pain t system s are d iscussed at len gth ,

with th e aim of givin g th e reader a clear overview of h ow

best to u se th is relatively n ew m edium .

In m akin g th is book as com preh en sive as possible, m y

aim h as been to provide in form ation on each m aterial

com m on ly used in pain tin g practice, from wh ich artists

can ch oose th e appropriate m aterials for th eir own work.

My h ope for th is book is th at it becom es a stan dard

resource for all art ists, p rovid in g a practical lin k between

m aterial an d pract ice.

Pip Seym our, Lon don . 2003

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Th e colourin g substan ces em ployed in pain t m an ufacture are

derived from m an y sources. In sim ple term s, colour can be

presen ted in th e form of p igm en ts (com posed of fin ely divided

part icles) or dyestuffs (wh ich d issolve wh en in troduced to water or

alcoh ol to form coloured liqu ids). In m ost in stan ces, dyestuffs are

n ot used in pain t m an ufacture, because th ey are a) resoluble, b)

with out body/solidity an d c) liable to fade wh en exposed to th e

u ltra-violet ligh t rays con tain ed with in sun ligh t .

By con trast , p igm en ts always h ave a part icle structure, even wh en

th e part icle size is m in uscu le. Con sequen tly, pigm en ts are easier to

con trol wh en m ixed with bin d in g m edia an d create stable pastes of

colour, wh ich can be expressed by brush in g or spreadin g on to a

surface. In addit ion , p igm en ts usually h ave a greater resistan ce to

fad in g on exposure to sun ligh t wh en com pared to dyestuffs.

A sim ple way to ch eck th e quality of a p igm en t is to p lace a sm all

quan tity of powdered pigm en t (e.g. 20g) in to a glass jar (100m l).

Fill th e jar with cold water, st ir, an d th en leave to stan d for 2-3 days.

After th is t im e, all th e p igm en t part icles (bein g h eavier th an water),

will h ave sett led at th e bottom of th e jar, leavin g th e water clear. If

th e pigm en t con tain s an addit ion of dyestuff, th e water m ay

rem ain coloured, even after bein g left to sett le for m an y days or

weeks.

Th e pigm en ts used in th e m an ufacture of th e best quality of art ists'

colours are carefu lly ch osen , to p rovide optim um resu lts.

Pigments

Pigment s: An Int roduct ion

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Th e ideal pigm en t for use in an art ists' colour would be:

� Fast to light . Does not lose it s br illiance when exposed to

sunlight .

� Permanent to atmospheric condit ions (e.g. some lead-based

pigments are known to darken when exposed to sulphurous

compounds in the air).

� Regular in part icle size, helping to provide a uniform/stable paint

paste.

� Free of impurit ies: some earth pigments have inclusions of

�foreign� mat ter, which can cause diff icult ies in the mixing

process, when preparing colours.

� Free of addit ives: some pigments are topped up wit h f iller

material (low t int ing st rength white pigments, such as blanc fix,

or chalk), or admixed with other pigments.

In p ract ice, th ere are som e pigm en ts in use wh ich do n ot con form

to th is wish list, sim ply because th ey h ave always been used by

tradit ion . Alizarin crim son , a syn th etic organ ic pigm en t first

in troduced in th e m id-19th cen tury, is a good exam ple. Desp ite th e

fact th at it is kn own to fade wh en app lied as a glaze (a th in ,

tran sparen t layer), it h as rem ain ed in art ists' colour assortm en ts

because art ists still dem an d it, even th ough th ere are a n um ber of

m odern altern at ives wh ich cou ld easily be subst itu ted.

Sim ilarly, m an y art ists dislike m odern syn th etic iron oxides (e.g.

m ars red, m ars yellow), because, alth ough th ey h ave sim ilar colour

values to th e tradition al earth pigm en ts, th ey lack ch aracter.

Syn th etic iron oxides are super-opaque, absolu tely regu lar in

part icle size an d do n ot ten d to alter from on e batch of pigm en t to

an oth er. By con trast , n atural och re p igm en ts, dug from th e earth ,

are always irregu lar in term s of part icle size an d can alter in sh ade

from batch to batch , due to in clusion s of varyin g am oun ts of ch alk

an d silica. Wh en prepared in to pain t form , such earth p igm en ts

ten d to be sligh tly grit ty in texture an d m ay take lon ger to m ix in to

an accep table pain t paste. Desp ite th is, or perh aps because of it ,

art ists often ch oose such colours, because th ey sh ow ch aracter,

id iosyn crasy an d con trast wh en com pared with m odern , in dustrial

p roducts.

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PIGMENTS 17

It is th is facet in regard to th e raw colourin g m aterial th at m akes th e

un derstan din g of pigm en ts so vital to an yon e learn in g to pain t, or

in volved in th e p ract ice of pain tin g.

Th e ch aracter of each p igm en t is differen t . Th e way th at each

pigm en t is m ixed with a bin der to form a pain t paste can be

d ifferen t . It is also true th at as artists, we express each colour

d ifferen tly on to th e pain t in g support , accordin g to th e ch arac-

teristic of th at part icu lar colour. For exam ple, viridian is a brigh t ,

cold green wh ich sh ows great tran sparen cy wh en applied as a glaze.

Wh en m ixed with oth er colours, it loses its in fluen ce with in th at

m ixture (i.e. it h as a low t in t in g stren gth ). Wh y is th is? How can we

recogn ise th is? In p ract ice, we fin d such in form ation th rough trial

an d error: by takin g each colour in tu rn an d workin g with it ;

m ixin g it with wh ite to see h ow it beh aves as a t in t ; applyin g it to

wh ite groun ds an d to black groun ds to see h ow tran sparen t it is

(very tran sparen t pigm en ts h ard ly sh ow at all wh en applied to

black groun ds).

Th is section aim s to p rovide in -depth in form ation about th e

ch aracterist ics of all th e pigm en ts th at are com m on ly used in

art ists' m aterials, or th at h ave been used in pain t in g practice. In

addit ion , a n um ber of h istoric p igm en ts are m en tion ed because in

recen t years th ey h ave becom e available to th e m arket again ,

especially in d ry pigm en t form .

For each pigm en t, a table h as been created to p rovide as m uch

in form ation as is curren tly available. Th e tables are laid ou t in th e

followin g form at:

Colour Index Name

Th e Society of Dyers an d Colourists h ave assign ed m an y colourin g

substan ces an in dex n am e an d n um ber as a m ean s of iden tification .

Su ch in form at ion is u sed by th e pain t in dust ry to iden t ify

Key t o Pigment Informat ion

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in gredien ts an d is also often in cluded on th e labellin g of art ists'

colours or associated product in form ation . For exam ple, lead wh ite

is kn own as PW 1 (Pigm en t Wh ite Num ber 1).

Colour Index Number

Th e Colour In dex Num ber is a fu rth er m ean s of iden tificat ion used

with in th e pain t in dustry. For exam ple, lead wh ite is Colour In dex

Num ber CI 77597.

A com plete up-dated list of all colourin g m atter is available from

th e Society of Dyers an d Colourists in th e form of both book an d

CD-Rom (see Bibliograph y).

Common Names

Th e tradit ion al colour n am e (e.g. ven etian red , is th e com m on

n am e for a n atural red earth p igm en t with a sligh tly p in k-violet

un dersh ade). Oth er com m on ly accep ted n am es for th e sam e

pigm en t are in cluded (e.g. u ltram arin e is often referred to as fren ch

ultram arin e. Th is relates to its developm en t in th e 19th cen tury,

wh ere it was first paten ted in Fran ce).

Origin

A descrip t ion of th e m an ufacturin g process an d/or wh ere th e raw

m aterial is sourced . An ou tlin e of th e use of each pigm en t in

pain t in g pract ice cit in g, in som e cases, specific use by in dividual

art ists.

Composit ion

Th e accepted ch em ical form ula for a p igm en t. For exam ple, lead

wh ite is basic lead carbon ate (2PbCO3).

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PIGMENTS 19

Tint ing St rength

Th e relative t in t in g stren gth of a p igm en t (e.g. wh en adm ixed with

wh ite).

Shade

A descrip t ion of th e sh ade (warm , cold, blu ish , reddish , etc) of each

pigm en t.

Suitability to Media

Certain p igm en ts are n ot com patible with som e of th e bin din g

agen ts used for pain t m akin g. For exam ple, lead-based pigm en ts do

n ot work well in acrylic bin ders, because th ey are too h eavy to

rem ain stable in th e acrylic resin d ispersion bin der.

Opacity/ Transparency

Pigm en ts can give eith er t ran sparen t or opaque pain t film s,

depen din g on th e part icle size an d structure. For each pigm en t, th e

relative tran sparen cy/opacity is in dicated � a useful aid wh en

selectin g colours.

Defects

Som e colours can n ot be in term ixed , or m ay ch an ge appearan ce on

exposure to ligh t/atm osph ere. In som e cases, th is can be coun tered

by select ion of specific bin din g m edia (e.g. lead wh ite is less pron e

to su lph urous com poun ds wh en prepared as an oil pain t th an

wh en prepared in a water-based bin der, because th e oil film

protects th e p igm en t from exposure to th e atm osph ere).

Availability/Cost

Th e relative availability of a p igm en t th rough regular suppliers of

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art ists' m aterials is m en tion ed an d , wh ere n oteworth y, referen ce is

m ade to its cost (e.g. rock-m in eral based pigm en ts ten d to be qu ite

cost ly, wh ereas m odern , in dustrial iron oxides are in expen sive).

Th e cost of th e raw m aterial (pigm en t) m ay h ave som e in fluen ce on

th e buyin g price of a pain t product .

Special Comments

If a p igm en t requ ires a wett in g agen t in order to aid d ispersion in to

th e ch osen pain t bin der, th is is in d icated . Th e ch oice of correct

wettin g agen t is vital. Th e followin g wett in g agen ts are com m on ly

used in th e m an ufacture of art ists' pain ts:

Wett ing Agent for Oil Colours

Min eral (wh ite) spirit . It is n ot advised to use tu rpen tin e, because

th is solven t takes lon ger to evaporate th an m in eral sp irit . Special

dispersion form ulat ion s m ay be available for oil colours, un der

bran d n am es (e.g. �Disperse aid�).

Wett ing Agent for Acrylic Colours

Special syn th etic wettin g agen ts are available, usually in th e form

of very d ilu te detergen t (e.g. �Orotan�, �Dispon il�). Ch eck with

supplier as to th e m ost appropriate wett in g agen t wh en purch asin g

acrylic resin s.

Wett ing Agent for Watercolours/Gouache

Alcoh ol, or ox-gall. Ox-gall is n orm ally sold as a dilu te liqu id,

som etim es deodorised. Neat ox-gall m ay be over-stron g (causin g

too m uch wett in g, dispersion of pain t paste) an d pron e to th e

release of bad odour. Alcoh ol sh ould be 99% water-free an d n on -

coloured . It m ay be wise to dilute th e alcoh ol with a lit t le water,

p rior to use.

Wett ing Agent for Hand-made Soft Pastels

Alcoh ol, dilu ted with water in th e rat io on e part alcoh ol to ten

parts water.

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PIGMENTS 21

Wett ing Agent for Egg Tempera

Alcoh ol.

Wett ing Agent for Casein Binder and Animal Skin Glue

Binders

Alcoh ol.

Wh ere app licable, fu rth er in form ation is p rovided on th e special

ch aracterist ics of som e pigm en ts. For exam ple, som e of th ose

derived from m in erals, such as th e sem i-precious ston es m alach ite

an d azurite, n eed carefu l p reparation . Wh en such pigm en ts are

m ixed for too lon g, th e part icle size can be altered: as th e part icle

size reduces, so th e colour becom es paler an d paler. Con sequen tly,

it is n orm al with th ese two p igm en ts to m ix th em with th e relevan t

bin din g agen t usin g a sligh tly coarser part icle size th an would be

th e case with oth er pigm en ts.

Drying Rate (in Oil Paint)

Som e pigm en ts h ave a catalyt ic effect on th e vegetable oils used as

bin ders for art ists' oil colours. For exam ple, raw um ber (con tain in g

m an gan ese deposits) will cause lin seed oil to d ry out in perh aps a

day, or even less. As a con sequen ce, it is often em ployed for

un derpain t in g (th e first �sketch in g-in� coat of pain t). Such fast-

d ryin g colours can be adm ixed with oth er pigm en ts to im prove

th eir dryin g rate. Th is fast-d ryin g action is on ly seen in oil-based

pain t system s.

Heath & Safety Informat ion

Som e pigm en ts can be poten tially in ju rious to th e user, especially

in th eir dry, powdered form . All d ry, powder-form p igm en ts

represen t a h azard in th at th ey can be classed as n u isan ce dusts. It

is im perat ive wh en h an dlin g dry p igm en ts th at th e user wears an

appropriate dust m ask, protect ive gloves an d protective cloth in g.

An in dicat ion is given of th e relat ive h ealth h azard of each

pigm en t.

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Th e supplier of each m aterial m ay offer fu rth er in form ation on its

correct use. It is pruden t to request up-to-date in form ation on all

th e m aterials discussed , as th e available in form ation is always

ch an gin g.

Pigm en ts can be derived from two dist in ct sources:

1. Inorganic Pigments.

2. Organic Pigments.

Inorganic Pigments

Colourin g m atter th at is derived from com poun ds th at were n ever

part of livin g m atter are con sidered to be in organ ic pigm en ts.

With in th is category th ere are coloured com poun ds th at are form ed

as a) earth deposits, b) m in eral/ rock, c) t reated m etallic com poun ds

an d d) fused m etallic com poun ds.

Some Examples of Inorganic Pigments

Pigment Types

Earth Deposit

Ear th Deposit

(naturally

calcined)

Earth Deposit

(ar t if icially

calcined)

Yellow ochre. Mix of clay with silica, t inted by iron

deposits which oxidise to give a coloured earth.

Pompeii red. A natural earth pigment , given a red

t inge through contact with heat from volcanoes.

Burnt sienna. Natural (raw) sienna is a special type

of ochre, which contains a high propor t ion of silica

(a t ranslucent mater ial). Raw sienna gives a

relat ively t ransparent paint f ilm, when applied as a

glaze. When raw sienna is calcined (heated) in a

closed furnace or kiln, it changes shade to give a

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PIGMENTS 23

Organic Pigments

Colou rin g m at ter th at is d erived from livin g su bstan ces o r

substan ces wh ich were on ce part of livin g th in gs, can be ascribed as

organ ic p igm en ts. With in th is cat egory, p igm en t s m ay be

com posed from a) an im als, b) p lan ts or c) syn th etic treatm en t of

p lan tstu ff.

Mineral/ Rock

Treated Metallic

Compound

Fused Metallic

Compounds

fiery-red colour. This calcining process also creates

a slight ly more t ransparent effect when t he

resultant paint paste is applied as a glaze.

Cinnabar. A red rock, fused from mercury wit h

sulphur, normally within volcanoes. It may also

contain ot her aggregates such as sandstone,

quar tz, etc. The rock is pulverised in a pest le and

mortar, t hen put through a fine sieve to separate

the different part icle sizes in order to gain a red

pigment with a regular part icle size. This pulverised

form of cinnabar is known as vermilion (�t he lit t le

worm� � Old French and Lat in).

Lead white. When sheets of lead are exposed to

vinegar, t he metal corrodes to form carbonate of

lead. This simple white pigment is one of the oldest

manufactured inorganic pigments, dat ing back to

ant iquity.

Cobalt blue. When two metallic compounds are

burnt together (fused), t hey can be employed to

create a new material. Cobalt blue, for example, is a

fusion of cobalt and aluminium oxides.

B

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Pigm en ts are rated accord in g to th e size o f th e in d ivid u al

(m olecu lar) p art icles from wh ich th ey are com p osed . Th e

m easurem en ts are given in m icron s (�).

Th e relation sh ip between part icle size an d th e bin din g agen t used

can be a factor in th e m akin g of coh eren t pain t film s. For exam ple,

th e m icron size of n atural earth pigm en ts (n aturally occurrin g

oxides of iron ) m ay vary from between 20-50 m icron s an d th e

particle structure m ay be irregu lar. By con trast , syn th etic iron

oxides (art ificial oxides of iron ) m ay h ave a particle size as sm all as

10 m icron s. In add it ion , th e regu lar form of such m an ufactured

pigm en ts can m ake th em easier to in corporate with in th e ch osen

bin din g system .

Animal

Plant

Bone black. A simple black pigment can be

produced by calcining cat t le bones, which are t hen

pulverised to a f ine grain powder.

Madder red lake. Many plant roots, f ibres or leaves

can be used to make colouring substances. In the

case of madder red, the roots of the madder plant

are warmed with water t hat has been t reated with

potash. This produces a red dyestuff, which is then

fixed to a metallic subst rate (e.g. rock alum, a type

of salt ) to form a pigment with a part icle st ructure.

Synthet ic

Organic

Alizar in cr imson. Crude oil is conver ted into

pet roleum products. The solvents created t hrough

this process can be developed, through modern

organic chemist ry, into a wide range of coloured

dyes. Some of t hese dyes can be converted into

pigment form (at tached to a part icle st ructure).

These �synthet ic� organic pigments provide very

st rong, bright colour and are now widely employed

within the paint indust ry as colourants.

Par t icle Size of Pigment s

B

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PIGMENTS 25

Th e m icron size is represen ted by th e sym bol �. Th e term �grin d

size� is also som etim es used in con n ection with part icle size.

Com parat ive exam ples of m icron size in p igm en ts (sizes vary

accord in g to m an ufacturer an d processin g of th e origin al m aterial):

Natural Earth Pigments 20-50�

Synthet ic Iron Oxides 10�

Synthet ic Organic Pigments 0.1-5�

Titanium White 5-15�

Azurite 10-120� (larger part icle size

shows greater colour)

Glass Pigments 63-125�(larger part icle size

shows greater colour)

Th e com bin ation of larger part icle size p igm en ts with sm aller

part icle size pigm en ts m ay lead to a loss of colour reson an ce in th e

resu ltan t pain t film . Rath er th an in term ixin g p igm en ts with widely

d ifferin g part icle sizes, it m ay be bet ter to overlay on e colour on top

of an oth er to gain th e optim um effect .

Th e followin g in dex of p igm en ts in cludes in form ation on both

h istoric an d m odern colours. Wh erever possible perm an en ce

in form ation is in cluded. However, th e reader sh ould bear in m in d

th at such in form ation is always in flux an d liable to revision over

t im e. Wh ere a p igm en t h as been m en tion ed , its in clusion in dicates

its use in th e fin e arts, it does n ot n ecessarily con firm perm an en ce

or recom m en d use in perm an en t works of art.

Pigments Classif icat ion

Wh en purch asin g art ists' colours, th e colour n am e given on th e

product label m ay or m ay n ot relate to th e pigm en t(s) used in its

m an u factu re. It is im p o rt an t t h at art ist s u n d erst an d th e

com position of th e pain ts th ey use, to en sure a full un derstan din g

Art ist s� Pigment s

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of a) t h e workin g p rop ert ies o f t h e p ain t ch o sen , b ) t h e

com position of th e raw m aterials of th at pain t an d c) th e poten tial

toxicity of th e pain t . Th e art ists' m aterials in dustry often assign s

n am es to pain ts th at do n ot reflect th eir ch em ical com position . For

exam ple, sap green is often a com bin ation of two or m ore

p igm en ts. With in publish ed in form ation (e.g. colour ch arts), th e

m an ufacturer m ay in d icate th e p igm en t com posit ion of th e pain t.

In creasin gly, m an y com pan ies sh ow th e pigm en t com posit ion on

tube or can labellin g. However, th is approach h as n ot been adopted

by all m an ufacturers: as a con sequen ce, art ists m ay n eed to do som e

research before select in g th eir m aterials. Wh ere th e m an ufacturer

does in d icate th e p igm en t com posit ion of th eir pain ts, iden tifi-

cation is m ade by use of th e relevan t Colour In dex Nam e an d/or

Num ber.

Th e Colour In dex (C.I.) is th e in tern ation ally recogn ised system for

th e iden tificat ion of pigm en ts an d dyes. It is publish ed join t ly by

th e Society of Dyers an d Colourists in th e Un ited Kin gdom an d th e

Association of Textile Ch em ists an d Colorists in th e Un ited States.

Th e Colour In dex in cludes tech n ical in form ation an d classificat ion

of all coloured m aterials, in cludin g p igm en ts an d dyes th at m ay be

foun d in art ists' m aterials.

Th e com plete Colour In dex iden tificat ion com prises two separate

item s:

a) The Colour Index Name

An exam ple of a Colour In dex Nam e would be �C.I. Pigm en t Violet

23�.

Th e Colour In dex Nam e com prises th ree d ifferen t parts:

1. Use. What the colourant is used for (e.g. �Pigment�, or dye class

such as �Acid� or �React ive�).

2. Colour. Pigments are classif ied into ten colour groups, which are

abbreviated as follows:

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PIGMENTS 27

PB p igm en t blue, PBk pigm en t black, PBr p igm en t brown , PG

pigm en t green , PM p igm en t m etal, PO p igm en t oran ge, PR

pigm en t red, PV p igm en t violet , PW pigm en t wh ite, PY

pigm en t yellow. NR = n atural red, NY = n atural yellow, etc

(for colours based on p lan t or oth er organ ic source).

3. A Number. This number was assigned sequent ially as the

substance was added to the Index and has no chemical or

const itut ional signif icance.

b) The Const itut ion Number

C.I. Con stitu t ion Num bers are assign ed by ch em ical class an d run

from 10000 to 77999. From th is n um ber, th e exact form ula an d

structure of m ost dyes an d pigm en ts can be foun d. Wh ile th is

in form ation m ay n ot be requ ired by m ost art ists, it m ay assist

iden tificat ion of colours. At th e very least, an un derstan din g of

th ese classificat ion s allows art ists to recogn ise wh at pigm en ts m ay

h ave been used in th e pain ts th ey ch oose.

Th e full Colour In dex Nam e an d Con stitu tion Num ber for a

p igm en t com m on ly foun d in art ists' m aterials, alizarin crim son , is:

Colour Index Name Const itut ion Number Common Name

C.I. PR 83 C.I. 58000 alizarin

cr imson

Th e Am erican Society for Test in g an d Materials (ASTM) is often

quoted by m an ufacturers an d in tech n ical literatu re with regard to

art ists' p igm en ts. Th eir rat in gs refer to th e perform an ce of selected

p igm en ts wh en groun d in a variety of veh icles, for exam ple oil,

gum arabic (watercolour), acrylic. ASTM ratin gs relate to p igm en t

m ixed with a bin der (e.g. lin seed oil) rath er th an proprietary bran ds

of pain t. Man ufactured colours m ay con tain th e p igm en ts listed on

th e tube or in tech n ical in form ation bu t can also in clude oth er

un disclosed m aterials, wh ich could in th eory reduce perm an en ce.

B

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ASTM Ligh tfastn ess Ratin gs for oil pain ts h ave been based on

testin g don e of th e ch osen p igm en t(s), let down with titan ium

wh ite to a pastel-like t in t at approxim ately 40% reflectan ce.

Th e pigm en ts m en tion ed m ay fall in to th e followin g categories (in

relation to oil colours):

ASTM I Excellent light fastness

ASTM II Very good lightfastness

ASTM III Not sat isfactory (may be sat isfactory when

applied full st rength)

Note: ASTM rat in gs are con tin ually updated , an y in form ation

supplied in th is text m ay be subject to ch an ge.

The Blue Wool Scale

In th e textiles in dustry, dyed cloth is m easured for fastn ess again st

ligh t accord in g to th e Blue Wool Scale. Sam ples of wool are dyed

with eigh t differen t grades of blue dye an d exposed to sun ligh t for

a set period (e.g. twelve m on th s, sou th facin g Florida sun ligh t). Th e

eigh t separate dyes sh ow fadin g to differen t degrees: th e dye with

th e stron gest resistan ce to ligh t is graded n o.8 (n o ch an ge after 12

m on th s exposure), wh ile th e dye th at fades th e m ost is graded n o.1.

(com plete or virtually com plete fad in g after 12 m on th s).

Oth er colours (both dyes an d p igm en ts) can be exposed to sun ligh t

an d m easured again st th is scale. With regard to art ists' p igm en ts,

colours th at are graded 7-8 on th e blue wool scale m ay be

con sidered perm an en t (bein g m ore or less equ ivalen t to p igm en ts

accorded th e rat in g ASTM I, ASTM II un der th e ASTM rat in g

system ). Man y p lan t-based colours, alon g with th e earlier variet ies

of syn th etic organ ic p igm en ts m ay fall below th is ben ch m ark. For

exam ple, p igm en ts th at m easure 6 or lower on th e blue wool scale,

m ay perform less well wh en exposed to stron g sun ligh t , or wh en

stron gly m ixed with wh ite pigm en ts.

Permanence of Art ist s� Pigment s

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PIGMENTS 29

Th e in form ation supplied by m an ufacturers of art ists' m aterials an d

by suppliers or m an ufacturers of d ry pigm en ts is assum ed to be

correct an d diligen tly research ed. However, �h om e� test in g of

batch es of pain t or dry pigm en t m ay becom e appropriate for

specific p rocesses. For exam ple, a n um ber of publicat ion s h ave been

produced in recen t years th at attem pt to test an d evaluate th e

perform an ce of proprietary bran ds of watercolour pain t . Such

evaluation s often seem h igh ly subject ive, bu t it m ay be a usefu l

exercise for art ists to m ake th eir own , sim ilar tests. Such tests can

provide a usefu l record of, for exam ple, th e way a particu lar pain t

brush es out , or perh aps th e degree of gran u lat ion observed wh en

pigm en t is sim ply m ixed with gum arabic an d app lied to paper as a

wash . A register of pain t-ou t sam ples would be a usefu l resource for

an y profession al art ist 's studio, sh owin g pain t-ou ts of favourite

colours an d perh aps adm ixtures between differen t colours. It m ay

also be usefu l to expose such pain t-outs to sou th -facin g ligh t for a

period of weeks or m on th s, to ascertain an y ch an ge in term s of

fad in g.

For such tests, th e ch osen pain t sh ould be applied on to a support

wh ich is th e sam e as th at n orm ally used for pain t in g. For oil

colours, it cou ld be an off-cu t of p rim ed can vas, or perh aps a series

of prim ed pan els. For watercolour, a su itable paper is selected. For

each pain t sam ple, th e colour n eeds to be app lied at fu ll stren gth ;

adm ixed with 10% wh ite (adm ixture with perh aps m ore th an on e

variety of wh ite cou ld be con sidered); adm ixed with wh ite in th e

rat io on e part colour, to n in e parts wh ite; applied diluted (as a wash

in watercolour); applied com bin ed with a ch osen pain t m edium

(e.g. in oil pain t , co-m ixed with a 10% addit ion of stan d oil-

dam m ar m edium ). Th e fin ish ed pain t sam ples are left exposed to

sun ligh t (p referably in a sou th -facin g win dow). On e h alf of each

sam ple can be covered up, so th at it is p reserved an d th us acts as a

�stan dard� again st wh ich th e exposed sam ple can be com pared.

After on e m on th , th e pain t sam ple is in spected for an y ch an ges,

th en re-position ed for an oth er m on th , an d so on . After a period of

perh aps six m on th s, an y sign ifican t ch an ges are n oted an d

recorded for fu tu re referen ce. Alth ough th is p rocedure m ay seem

len gth y an d pedan tic, it m ay h elp in d ividual artists to recogn ise

subtle differen ces of quality between on e pain t bran d an d an oth er.

In th e case of dry p igm en ts, to m ake a colour sam ple, th e ch osen

pigm en t is m illed in to a specific bin der. For exam ple, a sim ple gum

B

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arabic solut ion can be used to m ake basic watercolours. Th is is

especially useful wh en select in g p igm en ts for watercolour pain t in g,

wh ere qualities such as th e stain in g or gran ulat ion propert ies of a

p igm en t are bet ter un derstood .

Staining Pigments

Som e sm all/ fin e particle size pigm en ts, such as th e syn th etic

organ ic p igm en ts an d also p russian blue, ten d to give a stain in g

effect wh en used in water-based tech n iques. Th is is part ially due to

th e very h igh t in t in g stren gth of such pigm en ts, bu t is also

con n ected to th eir fin e part icle size. Th ese stain in g colours ten d to

be difficu lt to wash ou t of brush h airs, especially soft sable h air

brush es. Th ey m ay also cause run n in g or bleedin g wh en applied to

th e pain t in g surface (e.g. pain t in g on paper in watercolou r

tech n ique), wh en on e wet colour con tacts with an oth er.

An addit ion of gum water (gum arabic solu t ion ) with such colours

m ay h elp to give m ore con trol in term s of applicat ion (th e colour

is slower to disperse). In som e gouach e pain t ran ges, colours m ay

be based on dyes rath er th an p igm en ts, wh ich will h ave a stron g

stain in g effect , o r rath er, bleed in g � wh ere colour is easily

redissolved an d react ivated on th e surface wh en re-wetted.

Granulat ion (in Watercolour)

Th e part icle structure of a pigm en t m ay cause th e app lied pain t to

sh ow an effect referred to as �gran ulat ion�, wh ere th e particles

part ially sett le out in th e pain t m ixture, to give a gran u lar effect.

Th is gran u lat ion of app lied colour can be aesth et ically p leasin g,

especially in th e con text of watercolour pain t in g, wh ere th e grain y

part icles set t le ou t in th e p its/grain of th e paper. Exam ples of th ese

gran ulat ion pigm en ts in clude cobalt blue, cobalt violet, ceru lean

blue, m an gan ese blue, cobalt green , n atural earth s, n atural m adder,

stil d i grain , n atural in digo, viridian , u ltram arin e violet . Alon gside

th ese co lou rs, m ost o f th e m in eral-based p igm en t s sh ow

gran ulat ion due to th eir crystallin e structure. Th e large particle size

of such pigm en ts m ay m ean th at th ey require greater bin din g

stren gth th an fin er part icle sized p igm en ts.

B

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PIGMENTS 31

Pigment Tables

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity


Drying Rate (in oil)

Defects

77597

ASTM I

Kremnit z white, krems white, cremnit z white,

not t ingham white, london white, genoa white, silver

white, ceruse white, snowflake, or f lake white. The term

flake white is often used in tube oil paint to describe

lead white admixed with zinc white. It is common for

lead white oil colours also to include addit ions of blanc

fix (barium sulphate), which is incorporated to improve

the paint consistency.

2PbCO3.Pb(OH)2. Art if icial mineral pigment . Basic lead

carbonate. Used since ant iquity. Krems is a town in

Aust r ia, where lead white pigment was produced.

Good reducing power when mixed with other colours.

Pure white, not over bright . A warmish white as oil

colour.

Fair ly good � t it anium white has greater hiding

(covering) power.

Not suitable for use in water-based media. Lead white

is a heavy pigment, which set t les out in water-based

media. The pigment is more prone to darkening upon

exposure to sulphurous compounds in t he

environment , when used in water-based techniques. In

oil paint and also when carefully bound in egg yolk for

tempera, lead white performs well.

Fast .

In oil, lead white yellows with age, especially if kept in

the dark during drying. Can blacken on exposure to

(sulphur) polluted at mospheres, alt hough t his

tendency is reduced when the pigment is locked in an

oil binder.

WHITE PIGMENTS

LEAD WHITE PW 1

B

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Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

Withdrawn from use in most indust r ial paints in Europe

and the US. Current EU legislat ion has made it more

cost ly and prohibit ive for art ists� colour-makers to

produce lead white as an oil paint . As a consequence,

prepared white lead oil colour has become expensive.

Similarly, the dry pigment is now more expensive and

more difficult to purchase. Demand from art ists for

this pigment is st ill high. The availabilit y of lead white

is limited by current UK regulat ions. It is available for

the restorat ion of works of art and buildings upon

applicat ion to the relevant authority. In the UK, this

has been The Council for Museums, Archives and

Libraries, who inherited this responsibility from the

Museums and Galleries Commission. This situat ion is

apparent ly due to change, however, and DEFRA

(Depar tment of Environment , Fisheries and Rural

Affairs) can advise as to the appropriate authority

henceforth.

As an oil colour, lead white can be prepared to provide

a r ich, but tery texture, ideal for mixing down with other

colours. Add to other colours to speed drying in

underpaint ing. Most f lexible of all whites, with a

smoot h, pasty consistency, of ten preferred for

admixing and modifying consistency of other colours.

Lead sulphate (PW 2/C.I. 77633) is sublimed lead

carbonate and not permanent for works of art � was

formerly used in indust rial paints.

Toxic, contains lead. Wear gloves and dust mask when

handling dry pigment . Wash hands thoroughly after

using pigment or paint . Lead can be ingested through

the skin � wear a barrier cream, applied to hands and

forearms to ease cleaning and prevent pigment/paint

from rest ing in contact with skin.

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PIGMENTS 33

ZINC WHITE PW 4

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity



Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

77947

ASTM I

Zinc oxide, chinese white (originally a special grade used to

make body colour for watercolour paint ing), permanent

white (not to be confused with blanc fix, which is also

somet imes afforded this name).

ZnO. An ar t if icial mineral pigment , pure zinc oxide.

Developed from 1746 onwards, int roduced to art ists in t he

1830s (by Winsor & Newton: chinese white, as a watercolour

paint).

Good.

Cold, bluish white.

Semi-opaque, admix with other colours to gain pastel

shades.

Stable in oil, watercolour, gouache, tempera, but not advised

for outdoor mural paint ing using acrylic, where the paint

surface can chalk.

Very slow.

Forms brit t le paint f ilms in oil, especially when applied

thickly.

Widely used.

Thick passages of paint may form hard, brit t le f ilms, leading

to a danger of cracking.

Zinc sulphate (PW 7/C.I. 77975) is formed when zinc oxide is

exposed to hydrogen sulphide. Although zinc sulphate is a

similar white colour to zinc oxide, it is rarely used in the

preparat ion of art ists� colours, but f inds use in indust r ial

products. It is also used in the manufacture of lit hopone,

where it is co-precipitated with barium sulphate. Zinc

sulphate is not stable in acidic mixtures. Exposure to heat

causes release of toxic hydrogen sulphide gas.

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Health & Safety

Informat ion

with barium sulphate. Zinc sulphate is not stable in

acidic mixtures. Exposure to heat causes release of

toxic hydrogen sulphide gas.

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PIGMENTS 35

LITHOPONE PW 5

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity



Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

77115

Not tested.

Lit hopone silver, ponolit h, carlton white, gr iff it h�s

patent zinc white, jersey lily white, orr�s zinc white.

BaSO4 + ZnS. An art ificial mineral pigment . First

produced in England in the 1870s. Early lit hopones had

a tendency to darken when mixed with oil. The modern

pigment (dat ing from 1926) is stable. A co-precipitate

of zinc sulphide and barium sulphate.

St ronger than zinc white, with more hiding power due

to bet ter opacity.

Similar to zinc white, a bright , coldish white.

Semi-opaque.

Oil, watercolour, gouache, tempera � although in oil it

shows a certain yellow-greenness.

Very slow.

�

Inexpensive, somet imes used to bulk out other white

oil paints.

�

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�

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TITANIUM WHITE PW 6

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

77891

ASTM I

Titanox, t itanium dioxide.

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity

Suitability to

Media


Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

TiO2. An art if icial mineral pigment , Titanium dioxide is

derived from ilmenite, black t itanium ore. Int roduced in

the 1920s.

High.

Very bright pure white.

Very opaque.

Stable to all media.

Slow. Hand-ground oil colour can take months to dry

out .

Dries to a brit t le film (when ground in oil). For this

reason, it is not recommended for oil priming, or for

thick passages of oil paint ing.

Inexpensive, widely used.

An inert , non-toxic pigment with the highest t int ing

st rength of all whites and very high refract ive power.

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PIGMENTS 37

A Note on Pearlescent Pigments

In Jap an ese p ain t in g, irid escen t o r n acreou s p igm en t s are

tradition ally p roduced by grin d in g th e in side of m oth er of pearl sea

sh ells. Th is tech n ique is st ill in use an d Japan ese art m aterials

catalogues detail various iridescen t wh ite an d pearl pigm en ts,

wh ich are m ixed with a skin glue bin der in th e trad it ion al Japan ese

pain tin g tech n ique on paper. Mica, called m uscovite, or m uscovy

glass, (h ydrous potassium alum in ium silicate) H2K Al3 (SiO4)3, is a

type of n atural quartz, wh ich occurs in th e form of com pressed th in

sh eets or p lates th at divide easily.

Mica h as been used as a p igm en t in pain t in g an d th e decorat ive

arts. Wh en groun d in to a fin e powder, it acts like th e Japan ese

groun d-sh ell p igm en ts, givin g a sligh t iridescen t effect . Mica is

available in a variety of grades, from fin e powder to sequin -size

p latelets. Th ey retain th eir lustre best wh en m ixed with water-based

bin ders, especially acrylic d ispersion , bu t also with an im al glue

(distem per), or gum arabic.

Mica is used as th e substrate for th e m odern pearlescen t pigm en ts.

In a costly p rocess, th e fin e m ica plates are coated with m etal

oxides. Th e pearlescen t pigm en ts are extrem ely ligh tfast an d stable

in all th e usual pain t bin ders: oil, acrylic, gum arabic, casein , lim e,

etc. Th e pearlescen t p igm en ts can be divided in to th ree d istin ct

groupin gs: Pearlescen t, Iridescen t an d In terferen ce.

Pearlescent types

Fin e particles of m ica are coated with a very th in layer of t itan ium

wh ite pigm en t (t itan ium dioxide, TiO2), to produce pearlescen t

an d silver, or rath er silver-wh ite sh ades. Th ese are gen erally referred

to as pearlescen t p igm en ts. Exam ples of th ese are th e Ekaton types.

Th ey h ave a m etallic surface sh een an d brush ou t to a tran sparen t

glaze wh en p rep ared with m ed iu m (e.g. acrylic p o lym er

d ispersion ).

Iridescent types

Iridescen t pigm en ts (for exam ple, Colibri types) are very sim ilar, in

th at th ey are derived from m ica, wh ich is coated with iron oxide

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an d t itan ium wh ite, or just iron oxide, to p rovide a ran ge of yellow

gold, oran ge gold an d copper sh ades. However, th ey are less

tran sparen t wh en com pared with pearlescen t pigm en ts an d give a

very good approxim ation to sh ades of real gold, copper an d bron ze.

Th ese iridescen t gold , copper an d bron ze sh ades can be m ixed from

th e dry p igm en t to im itate gildin g effects, or in m an y cases, bough t

ready-d ispersed in to a bin din g m edium .

Th ese sh ades are already available in th e form of acrylic an d oil

pain t . Th e iridescen t p igm en ts can be m ixed with an im al glue

bin der to replicate fin e water gildin g effects but are perh aps closest

to gold, or sh ell gold , wh en m ixed in to an acrylic polym er

d ispersion .

By con trast to sim ilar sh ades available as bron ze powder, th e

iridescen t p igm en ts sh ow a greater subtlety with a softer fin ish , are

stable to ligh t an d do n ot tarn ish or oxid ise.

Interference types

In terferen ce p igm en ts (for exam ple, Ch rom a types) d iffer from th e

pearlescen t an d iridescen t types in th at th e com bin ation of

refraction an d reflect ion of ligh t upon th e t itan ium wh ite coatin gs

produces an in terferen ce effect , rath er like th e rain bow colours

visible wh en lookin g at a th in film of oil upon th e surface of water.

With in terferen ce pigm en ts, m ica is coated with t itan ium wh ite to

a specific th ickn ess, wh ich allows on ly a n arrow ban d of ligh t to

reflect . As a resu lt , th e eye sees just on e colour of th e spectrum ,

yellow for exam ple. Th e p igm en t is structured so th at it ed its ou t

oth er colours in th e spectrum , wh ich are th en n ot seen by th e eye.

Th e resu ltan t in terferen ce colour is best seen wh en th e pain ted

surface is t ilted , or viewed at an an gle. Th e colour is also m ore

visible wh en pain ted out again st a dark groun d.

By con trast , wh en lookin g at pearlescen t pigm en t types, th e on ly

colour seen is a lustrous wh ite, or silver-wh ite. Th is is because th e

coatin g of t itan ium wh ite is very th in an d ligh t wavelen gth s are

reflected as wh ite on ly.

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PIGMENTS 39

IRIDESCENT WHITE (MICA/ PEARL LUSTRE)

PW 20 or PW 26 (nat ural mica) +PW 6 (t it anium whit e)

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity



Defects

77019, 77718 + 77891

Not tested.

Pearlescent white, mica white, glimmer white.

�

When mixed with t ransparent pigments, the result ing

colour takes on a pearlescent appearance.

Bright , pearl white.

Translucent .

Stable in all media. In oil, t he colour of t he oil used may

show st rongly. Tends to make poor paint pastes when

combined with drying vegetable oils such as poppy oil

or linseed oil. Bet ter suited to combinat ion with alkyd

resin.

Normally presented in oil colour ranges with fast-

drying alkyd resin as binder.

Difficult to make into a paste without addit ions of wax

paste. Best used as required, into glaze mediums, etc.

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

Expensive but intense, now available in some paint

ranges and as dry pigment .

�

�

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4 0 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK

BLANC FIX PW 21 (ar t if icially prepared), PW 22 (nat ural

mineral baryt es, heavy spar)

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS

Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity

77120

Not tested.

French: blanc fix; English: permanent white, constant

white, barytes, heavy spar.

Barium sulphate, Ba(SO4). Occurs naturally, but can

also be manufactured by precipit at ion of bar ium

chloride with sulphuric acid. The manufactured form

was int roduced by Kuhlmann (Lille, France) in 1830.

Poor. Blanc f ix has lit t le t int ing st rength.

When mixed with cold water only, blanc f ix appears as

a perfect snow white, having a high reflectance in light .

However, when mixed into any binding agent, it takes

on a dull white appearance, especially so with oil

binders.

Has some opacity: when admixed with other opaque

pigments, it can be used to emphasise or enhance

opacity. In water-based systems it retains an opaque

effect . When used as an addit ive in oil colours, blanc f ix

will enhance opacity when added in quant ity, but when

used sparingly, as an addit ion to coloured glazes, it

enhances the t ransparency of such glazes.

Suitability to

Media


Defects

Stable to all media, most often used as a f iller material

in oil paints and opacifier in gouache paints. When used

in water-based paints, blanc fix shows as a bright ish

white, especially so with binders that remain water

clear (e.g. klucel).

Slow.

If prepared alone as an oil colour, blanc f ix would show

a great tendency towards yellowing, due to weak

t int ing st rength.

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PIGMENTS 4 1

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

Inexpensive and widely used as an addit ive in art ists�

paints.

Blanc f ix is primarily used as a f iller/extender in paint

systems. When added to pigments milled in linseed oil,

blanc f ix provides opacity but also adds bulk and

weight to the paint mixture. This weight can prove to

be decept ive when used in larger quant it ies to extend

paints: t he resultant tube of paint may be heavy in

weight and thus seemingly appears to indicate a high

pigment load. However, the inclusion of excess blanc

fix will render the paint mixture rather stodgy and

make the colour value somewhat dull. It is best used in

small amount s to improve t he consistency and

regulate the opacity of the pigments with which it is

mixed. In gouache paints, blanc fix may be used alone

as an alternat ive to white. It is also commonly used in

gouache paints to achieve a regular opacity across a

range of colours, giving a paint paste that has body and

will dry to leave a mat t paint film.

�

Contains barium.

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ALUMINIUM HYDRATE PW 24

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS

Rat ing

Common Names

77002

Not tested.

Alumina hydrate, aluminium hydroxide.

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity

Suitability to

Media

Drying Rate (in

oil)

Defects

Al(OH)3. A metallic soap, aluminium hydrate is

manufactured by mixing soda ash or potash with a

solut ion of aluminium sulphate.

Very low, almost negligible. It is often used as a

t ransparent extender for paint systems, notably oil

colours.

Soft , bright white as dry powder. When mixed with any

binder it takes on the colorat ion/ hue of t hat binder.

When milled with linseed oil, it creates a dull yellow-

orange paste, which if applied as a paint dries to show

intense yellowing/darkening.

Has lit t le or no hiding power when used in any binder,

but especially so in oil.

Iner t , can be used as a f iller/extender in any paint

system but most commonly with oil colours. Aluminium

hydrate quickly forms a pleasant but tery paste when

mixed with linseed oil. It is often added to oil colours to

improve consistency. However, overuse (e.g. more than

5-10%) will leave the resultant paint unworkable,

smeary in consistency. The inclusion of small amounts

of aluminium hydrate in oil paints may help to break up

light as it hits t he paint surface, so enhancing colour

resonance. Overuse will cause the paint f ilm to become

dull and lacking in luminosity.

Slow. When added to oil colours, aluminium hydrate will

act to retard drying t imes.

When overused as an extender/ filler, it encourages

yellowing/darkening of the paint film. Cheaper art ists�

oil colours may contain larger quant it ies, and as a

consequence may show excessive yellowing upon

drying. Overuse of aluminium hydrate makes the paint

paste unworkable and matts the dried paint f ilm. Due

to its very high oil absorpt ion rate, aluminium hydrate,

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PIGMENTS 4 3

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

when added in quant ity will encourage wrinkling or

shrivelling of t he drying oil paint f ilm. In good-quality

oil colours it is added sparingly, no more than 5-10% of

the whole. This is especially important when adding to

t ransparent pigments with a high oil absorpt ion rate.

Overuse of t his f iller in such circumstances will

increase the likelihood of yellowing and may weaken

the st ructure of the paint f ilm.

Widely used in all art ists� oil colours, but its use is

governed by the quality of t he paint . Ideally it is only

added in small quant it ies.

Avoid paint mediums based on aluminium hydrate

milled into linseed oil: t heir use will encourage

darkening of the overall paint f ilm. When hand-making

oil colours, it is useful to add a small amount of

aluminium hydrate (5-10%): t his not only helps to

stabilise consistency but will also help to prevent

separat ion of oil from pigment when filling the paint

paste into empty metal tubes.

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YELLOW PIGMENTS

HANSA YELLOW (t ypes)

RN = PY 65 � C18H18N4 O6

GX = PY 73 � C17H15ClN4O5

5GX = PY 74 � C18H18N4O6

10G = PY 3 � C16H12Cl2N4O4

G = PY 1 � C17H16N4O4

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS

Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

PY 65/ 11740, PY 73/ 11738, PY 74/ 11741, PY 3/ 11710, PY

1/ 11680

ASTM I (except PY 3, PY 1 = ASTM II)

Brilliant yellow, hansa yellow light , hansa yellow dark,

arylide yellow, monoazo yellow, azo yellow.

Synthet ic organic pigment . Originally dates from early

1900s, alt hough the modern equivalents have been

improved. These pigments are often adulterated in

cheaper paint ranges by the addit ion of extenders. The

high t int ing st rength allows for a greater amount of

extender to be incorporated without losing colour

st rength. However, such addit ions tend to cause

problems in terms of stability of consistency and loss

of t ransparency. In oil, t he slow drying rate makes

hansa yellow unsuitable for any technique t hat

involves a degree of impasto, as the paint f ilm may

wrinkle upon drying.

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity

Suitability to

Media


Defects

Good.

Bright yellow, cool to warm shades, from light to dark.

Tends towards t ransparency.

Stable in all media.

Slow.

When too much extender is added, hansa yellow loses

its tendency towards t ransparency.

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PIGMENTS 4 5

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

Fairly inexpensive and widely used, especially in cheap

paints to imitate expensive cadmiums.

New types have improved light fastness.

Requires wett ing agent . Hansa yellows tend to show

lit t le or no yellowing when ground in oil.

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BARIUM LEMON YELLOW PY 31

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

77103

Not tested.

Lemon yellow, barium yellow, yellow ult ramar ine,

permanent yellow.

An ar t if icial mineral pigment . Bar ium chromate,

(BaCrO4). Discovered by Vauquelin, 1809. Used in

wider indust ry as ingredient in ant i-corrosive paints.

Weak.

Dull, pale, yellow.

Opacity

Suitability to

Media


Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

Slight ly t ransparent as glaze.

Stable in all media, but liable to turn greenish in oil.

Medium.

Upon ageing, becomes slight ly greenish in oil paint .

Hard to find in manufactured ranges. Usually replaced

with non-toxic nickel t itanium yellow. The pigment is

available from specialist pigment suppliers.

�

�

Toxic, barium chromate.

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PIGMENTS 4 7

CHROME YELLOW PY 34

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

77600, 77603

Not tested.

Primrose yellow.

A group of art ificial mineral pigments. Lead chromate,

PbCrO4 . Developed by the French chemist , Nicholas

Louis Vauquelin (1763-1829), af ter st udying t he

propert ies of a Russian mineral called chrocoite, which

could be processed to give yellow, green and red

precipit ates. The discovery of French sources of

chrocoite led to the indust rial product ion of chrome-

based pigments, both in France and England.

Found in paint ings from early 1800s. Chrome yellow

was formerly used widely in indust ry and ar t ists�

colours. Due to its relat ive toxicity, EU direct ives have

reduced t he availabilit y of t he chrome pigments.

Chrome yellows can darken on exposure and with age.

In recent years, chrome yellows have been developed

in which the part icles have been silica encapsulated, so

prevent ing darkening upon exposure and with age.

When these pigments were in wider use, it would be

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity

Suitability to

Media


Defects

quite common to f ind chrome yellows, with barium

sulphate (blanc f ix) as a bulking agent . Similarly,

chrome yellows were often mixed with yellow ochres to

brighten the appearance of t he natural earth colour.

Very good, as a pure t int (i.e. without extender).

Lemon, light , mid-yellow, deep to orange shades.

Good.

Oil (but can turn dark on exposure to atmosphere and

show a greenish t inge, when too much oil is used in the

milling process).

Fast (lead-based). Somet imes used in oil gilding, co-

mixed with oil to act as a mordant .

Turns greenish or brownish with age, especially in oil

f ilms, where contact with acid in the oil can turn the

lemon and pale yellow variet ies to a greenish t inge

very quickly.

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Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

Unt il recent ly, this pigment was cheap and available in

many paint ranges. Withdrawn from colour ranges in

the early 1990s and now difficult to obtain through

pigment suppliers.

St ront ium yellow (PY 32/ C.I. 77839), st ront ium

chromate, is similar to chrome yellow, with a bright

lemon shade (SrCrO4). This pigment has been hard to

f ind in recent years, due in part to the toxicity of it s

manufacture. St ront ium yellow may also appear under

the name �ult ramarine yellow�.

An important art ists� pigment. No longer available

(from most sources in Europe), due to EU legislat ion.

Chrome green (PG 15) is formed from a mixture

between prussian blue and chrome yellow and may

vary in shade according to a) the amount of prussian

blue to yellow b) the tone of t he chrome yellow used

(e.g. lemon, mid, deep, etc).

Toxic, lead chromate.

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PIGMENTS 4 9

CADMIUM YELLOW (shades)

LIGHT PY 35 � CdSZn

MEDIUM PY 37 � Cds

DEEP PY 37 � CdS

ORANGE PO 20 � CdS. x CdSe

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS

Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity

Suitability to

Media


Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

PY 35/ 77205, PY 37/ 77199, PO 20/ 77202

ASTM I

Cadmium lemon, cadmium yellow pale/ light , cadmium

yellow medium, cadmium yellow deep/dark, cadmium

orange.

CdS. The metal cadmium was discovered in 1817 and

first used by art ists in England in the 1840s. However,

due to the scarcity of t he material, it was not fully

developed as a pigment for art ists unt il t he early 20th

century. An art if icial mineral pigment , pure cadmium

sulphide is somet imes mixed with cadmium selenide.

Cheaper cadmium pigments may be co-precipitated

with barium sulphate. According to ASTM, the pigment

can include up to 15% barium sulphate. PO 20:1 is

cadmium orange blended wit h bar ium sulphate

(cadmium lit hopone orange, CdS. x CdSe.yBaSO4). The

purest grades are derived only from cadmium sulphide

and this is generally ref lected in the price.

Good.

Cool lemon, light yellow, mid yellow, dark yellow to

orange shades.

Tends towards t ransparency in ext remely thin layers,

otherwise opaque.

Stable in all media. Exterior applicat ion is not advised,

because when cadmium is exposed to damp and/or air,

it changes to cadmium carbonate, showing a degree of

discolorat ion.

Slow.

Can fade, when exposed in combinat ion to damp and

sunlight .

Expensive but widely used.

�

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631


Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

Mixt ures wit h lead-based colours are not

recommended, although mixtures with lead white tend

to remain unchanged. Aurora yellow was a patented

form of cadmium yellow, developed by Winsor &

Newton in 1889. Their catalogue of 1925 suggests that

this yellow vies with chrome yellow in terms of opacity

and brightness. Orient yellow is a deeper shade of

aurora yellow.

Contains cadmium.

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631

PIGMENTS 51

ZINC YELLOW PY 36

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS

Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity

Suitability to

Media


Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

77955

Not tested.

Zinc chrome yellow, primrose yellow, cit ron yellow.

An art ificial mineral pigment , zinc chromate, ZnCrO4 .

Developed by Vauquelin, 1809.

Weak.

Cold pale yellow, almost lemon in shade.

Semi-opaque.

Stable in oil, but reduced in permanence when admixed

st rongly with white. In water-based media, zinc yellow

remains part ially soluble and is soluble when in contact

with alkalis (i.e. avoid in lime-fresco).

Fast .

Sensit ive to moisture and alkalis.

No longer widely available in pigment form: st ill offered

by some Italian manufacturers as prepared oil colour

and dry pigment .

Was formerly used in the product ion of mixed greens,

such as zinc green (with prussian blue). In some cases,

such admixtures were fur ther complicated by the

inclusion of blanc fix. The author has in recent years

bought a variety of zinc greens from old pigment

stores in Italy (which were closing down), showing a

wide range of colours, from light , acid greens, to murky,

subdued shades.

Special Note �

Health & Safety Toxic.

Informat ion

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631


ORPIMENT PY 39

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS

Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity

Suitability to

Media


Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

77085

Not tested.

Kings yellow (denotes the art ificial product).

As2S3, mineral cont aining a nat urally occur r ing

sulphide of arsenic. It can be prepared ar t ificially from

arsenic t richloride and sodium thiosulphate. Due to its

ext remely poisonous nature, orpiment is used with

great caut ion. Also, because it is sulphide-based, it can

react with other pigments.

Good.

Bright yellow, similar to cadmium yellow light or

medium.

Not especially t ransparent .

Stable in egg tempera, and when used in oil-resin

mixtures where t he pigment is protected f rom

exposure to the atmosphere and other pigments.

�

�

Expensive as dry pigment.

�

In historical paint ings, somet imes found admixed with

blue (e.g. lapis, azurite) to make green shades.

Toxic, contains arsenic.

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631

PIGMENTS 53

COBALT YELLOW, AUREOLIN PY 40

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS

Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity

Suitability to

Media

Drying Rate (in

oil)

Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

77357

ASTM II

Sunshine yellow.

CoK3(No2)6] .H2O. Ar t if icial mineral pigment , from

cobalt salt s and potassium nit rate � Pot assium

cobalt init rite. Int roduced as an art ists� pigment in the

1860s, primarily as a watercolour.

Good.

A pure golden yellow, similar to t rue indian yellow

when applied as a glaze. When ground in oil, it takes on

a slight ly greenish cast at full st rength but appears as

a t rue yellow when thinned to a glaze.

Almost t ransparent as a glaze colour.

Stable in all media, except lime-fresco.

Slow.

�

Very expensive. Available in many paint ranges, in all

media.

�

�

�

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631


NAPLES YELLOW PY 41

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS

Rat ing

Common Names

77589

ASTM I

Ant imony yellow.

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity

Suitability to

Media

Drying Rate (in

oil)

Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

Pb3(SbO4 ). An ar t if icial mineral pigment . Lead

ant imoniate (lead and ant imony oxides). Often

confused wit h lead t in yellow in histor ical paint

samples.

Good.

Lemon, mid-yellow to reddish-yellow shades.

Good hiding power, opaque. Heavy powder makes thick

paint pastes with st iff ish consistency.

Stable in oil, lime, casein, egg but some variet ies may

be liable to darkening (on exposure to sulphurous

compounds) in water-based media. Also, in water-

based media the heavy powder tends to set t le out in

mixtures.

Fast (contains lead). Can also be used to speed up

drying t ime of pigments intermixed with it .

�

Hard to find in manufactured ranges, alt hough the

pigment is st ill available f rom specialist pigment

suppliers.

Naples yellow in modern colour ranges usually refers

to the shade rather than the t rue pigment . Excellent

for f lesh t ints. Avoid using steel palet te or paint ing

knives with the dry powder, as this can cause a

greenish/darkening effect .

Jaune brilliant is a mixed colour, originally based on

naples yellow with cadmium yellow, vermilion and lead

white. Modern examples may be based on admixtures

of lead white (or other whites) with cadmium red and

cadmium yellow.

Toxic, contains lead.

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631

PIGMENTS 55

LEAD TIN YELLOW,

TYPE I PY 46

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity

Suitability to

Media


Defects

Giallorino (as ment ioned by Cennini).

Pb2SnO4 , lead stannate, prepared from a heated

mixture of lead dioxide with t in dioxide. Thought to be

a by-product of t he glass-making indust ry in former

t imes. Two dist inct shades can be produced in this

manner; at temperatures of around 700-800�C, a cold

lemon yellow is achieved. At lower temperatures, a

slight ly warmer shade is created. Lead t in yellow was

often incorrect ly ident ified as either naples yellow or

massicot in historical paint ings. In 1941, the Doerner

Inst itute in Munich ident ified the presence of t in in

lead-based yellow histor ical paint samples. The

pigment was subsequent ly remade according to

chemical analysis, t he development of cool lemon and

warm yellow shades being effected in the early 1960s.

Weak. Best used alone, or as very pale yellow when

admixed with lead white.

Pale lemon, or warm mid-yellow.

Both pale lemon and warm shades are milky and

opaque when mixed into binder. Lead t in yellow is

somet imes found in old paint ings as an underpaint ,

subsequent ly overpainted with a green glaze (copper

resinate), to achieve bright , st rong green shades.

Stable in oil, tempera and oil-tempera emulsions.

Dries fast (contains lead).

Can turn black in watery binders (e.g. gum arabic),

where the lead content darkens on contact wit h

sulphur in the atmosphere.

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS

Rat ing

77577

Not tested.

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631


Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

Available as dry pigment .

�

�

Contains lead, toxic.

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631

PIGMENTS 57

LEAD TIN YELLOW,

TYPE II PY 46

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS

Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity

Suitability to

Media


Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

77577

Not tested.

Giallorino.

Lead and t in oxides, with the inclusion of free t in oxide

and silicon (quartz). As with type I, type II may

originate from glass colouring fabricat ion. It is a yellow

lead-glass pigment , most probably a by-product of lead

crystal glass manufacturing. The inclusion of quartz

effects a degree of t ransparency to the pigment ,

making it possible to use in glaze techniques. The

colour is warmer and st ronger than type I. The pigment

is sif ted through a fine mesh to provide a grind size

suitable for use in oil, tempera and egg-oil paint ing.

Weak.

Warm, t ranslucent yellow.

Transparent .

Oil, egg-oil emulsions, egg tempera. The grainy part icle

size makes it unsuitable for use in very thin paint f ilms

where the paint f ilm can show a textured f inish.

Fast drying.

May discolour (darken) in aqueous media.


A t ransparent glazing pigment with a warm hue.

�


B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631


MASSICOT PY 4 6

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity



Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

77577

Not tested.

Lit harge (pale variet ies); massicot (warmer variet ies).Lead monoxide may be named according to t hecount ry of origin. For example in France, pigmentsbased on lead oxide are known as �massicot�.

PbO. Manufactured inorganic pigment , derived fromlead monoxide (PbO). Manufactured by oxidisat ion oflead, at temperatures of 500-700�C. At one stage,pale yellows in old paint ings were ident ified as beingforms of massicot . However, this is due in part to thefact that while lead was ident if ied in such paintsamples, no tests were done to ident ify the presenceof t in. In 1941, t he Doerner Inst it ute in Munichident if ied t in in many paint samples previouslythought to contain only lead (such as forms of lead-t inyellow).

Weak.

Pale yellow to warm yellow-orange.

Milky, opaque.

More stable in oil than other media, but st ill liable to

darken upon contact with sulphides in the atmosphere.

Also unstable in dry form, turning paler when exposed

to air.

Fast . Often used as a drying agent in old paint medium

recipes.

Unstable in all media (tends to darken), especially in

any water-based binder. Due to its part icularly heavy

nature, tends to set t le out in paint mixtures.

Inexpensive but never used in art ists� paints due totoxicity and instability.

Discarded as a pigment for most techniques. May have

some pract ical relevance as a drying agent when

added to paint mediums or varnishes. For example, in

t he manufacture of sun-t hickened linseed oil, an

inclusion of perhaps 10% massicot into the oil bath

may impart fast-drying propert ies to the resultant oil.

�


B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631

PIGMENTS 59

NICKEL TITANIUM YELLOW PY 53

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS

Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity

Suitability to

Media


Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

77788

ASTM I

Nickel yellow, lemon yellow (hue), naples yellow (hue).

(Ti,Ni,Sb)O2. A group of art ificial mineral pigments,

developed since the 1960s. Oxides of nickel, t itanium

and ant imony. Available in a variety of shades of cool

lemon yellow, yellow-green.

Fairly st rong.

Similar to barium lemon yellow, or naples yellow

light / lemon.

Good.

Stable in all techniques.

Slow.

When mixed with other colours, t he opacity of nickel

t itanium yellow tends to t ransfer to the co-mixed

pigment . This is especially so wit h t ransparent

pigments, which tend to become lost within mixtures.

However, the opacity and bulky nature of paint pastes

made with nickel t itanium make this pigment an ideal

subst itute for barium lemon yellow and naples yellow.

Widely used (especially in acrylic paints) as lightfast ,

permanent and safe to use alternat ives to barium

lemon yellow and genuine naples yellow.

Soft , f luffy powder, easy to hand-grind into oil colour.

�

�

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631


PYRAMID YELLOW PY 108

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS

Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity

Suitability to

Media


Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

68420

ASTM I/ BWS 8

Anthrapyrimidine yellow.

C30H15N3O4 . Synthet ic organic pigment .

Good.

Warm, mid-yellow, with slight ly mustard shade at mass

tone. As a thinned glaze, shows a warmer t inge.

Tends towards t ransparent (semi-opaque).

Not stable to lime.

Medium.

�

�

Permanent to light .

Requires wett ing agent.

�

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631

PIGMENTS 61

IRGAZINE YELLOW PY 110

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS

Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

56280

ASTM I/ BWS 7-8

Isoindolinone yellow, chromophtal yellow.

Synthet ic organic pigment, tet rachloroisoindolinone.

Int roduced 1960s.

High.

Shade

Opacity

Suitability to

Media


Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

Bright , warmish yellow, similar to cadmium yellow mid-

deep.

Good, similar to cadmium pigment.

Stable in all media, including lime.

Slow.

�

�

�

Requires wett ing agent .

�

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631


PALIOTOL YELLOW PY 139

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity



Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

56298

ASTM I

Isoindoline yellow.

C16H9N5O6. Synthet ic organic pigment , int roduced

1960s.

Good.

Warm yellow-orange, reddish yellow.

Semi-t ransparent .

Not stable to lime.

Slow.

�

�

Similar in tone to cadmium yellow deep but with more

t ransparency.


�

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631

PIGMENTS 63

PRIDERITE YELLOW PY 157

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity



Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

77900

Not tested.

Nickel barium, t itanium primrose.

Art if icial mineral pigment . A complex mat rix of nickel,

barium and t itanium.

Medium.

A bright lime green-yellow (similar in shade to the old

chrome based cinnabar green hue).

Good.


Slow.

�


�

�

�

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631


BISMUTH-VANDATE YELLOW PY 184

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

11777

Not tested.

Bismuth yellow, bristol yellow, sicopal yellow.

Ar t if icial mineral pigment , mixed crystal of t he

bismuth-vanadium oxide system. Stable and light fast .

Int roduced 1980s. A new class of bismut h-based

pigments, known as bristol yellows have recent ly been

int roduced.

Good.

Shade

Opacity



Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

Very pure, st rong bright lemon shade. Bristol yellows

are also available, ranging in shade from light yellow,

mid-yellow to reddish yellow. Br istol yellows are

opaque, permanent colours which offer a good

alternat ive to zinc yellow, chrome yellow or cadmium

yellow.

Good � use in mixtures with t ransparent synthet ic

organic pigments to create opaque mixtures.


�

Lemon shades may appear greenish when poorly

mixed with oil.

Becoming available in paint ranges.

�

�

�

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631

PIGMENTS 65

INDIAN YELLOW GENUINE

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity

�

Not tested.

�

C19H16MgO11. 6H2O. Magnesium salt of euxanthic acid.

True indian yellow is derived from the urine of cows fed

on mango leaves. The urine is mixed with a clay base to

make a pur�e, which is then dried out and ground into

a light fast powder. It is now banned on grounds of

cruelty. Indian yellow was formerly imported from

Calcut ta to London, t he pigment being produced at

Monghyr, in the Indian state of Bihar.

Good.

A st rong, warm yellow orange.

Excellent t ransparency.



Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

Stable in all media but dest royed by alkalis, so never

used in lime-fresco.

Slow.

�

No longer available, except perhaps in the t rade of

ant ique pigments between collectors.

Modern synthet ic organic pigments such as Indian

Yellow Subst it ute (PG10) can make a reliable

alternat ive. Earlier synthet ic organic pigments such as

tart razine lake are less permanent, especially when

mixed with whites and exposed to direct light .

By 1925, Winsor & Newton record that the genuine

colour being �no longer available�, was replaced at

that t ime by a coal tar yellow with a similar shade.

�

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631


GAMBOGE Nat ural Yellow 24

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

�

Not tested.

Camboge, gomma gut t i (Italian).

Gamboge is a t ree resin, from the species Garcinia,

found in India and South East Asia. In the crude �pipe�

form, the resin, or sap is tapped from the t ree,

collected into a mould and left to dry. The resin

contains both pigment and binding agent. With just a

brush and water, one can take colour from the solid

resin and apply the resultant �paint� to paper as a

watercolour (i.e. it requires no binding medium).

Gamboge is sold in lump form or as a powder.

Weak when admixed with other pigments, alt hough in

watercolour mixed greens can be made by combinat ion

with small amounts of prussian blue or indigo.

A warm orange-yellow.

Opacity



Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

Very t ransparent , often used as a colouring agent for

alcohol (sandarac/shellac) varnishes, in t he toning of

furniture or musical inst ruments.

The resin part ially dissolves in water to form a st icky,

resinous form of watercolour (i.e. does not require the

addit ion of gum arabic to adhere to paper). Gamboge

can also be dissolved in alcohol and warm turpent ine

and thus used as a colouring agent for t ransparent

warm-yellow varnishes, such as those employed over

silver leaf, to imitate gold.

Soluble in oil, t herefore unsuitable.

Not fast to light (fugit ive).

Available in powder or resin form.

Subst itute with cobalt yellow.

�

Toxic.

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631

PIGMENTS 67

STIL DE GRAIN

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity

�

Not tested.

Brown lake, yellow lake, persian lake, buckthorn lake,

dutch pink, yellow carmine, italian pink.

C16H12O7. Plant-based pigment , derived from unripe

buckthorn berries. Similar yellow �lake� pigments

could be processed from quercit ron bark and fust ic.

The plant berries are steeped in a lye (potash), t hen

precipitated with alum to create a t ranslucent yellow

�lake� pigment . Some yellow pigments derived from

plant material (e.g. weld) may be st ruck on to opaque

subst rates such as finely ground marble dust .

Weak.

Warmish yellow, can vary from batch to batch of

pigment .

Very t ransparent , especially in oil.



Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Compat ible with all media, except lime, but liable to

fade on exposure to sunlight .

Slow.

Fugit ive to light .

Available as dry pigment, also as dried berries which

can be hand-t reated with potash and alum to create a

pigment.

Somet imes used as overpaint , on top of blue

underpaint , to achieve a green colour. However, may

part ially or wholly fade when used in this manner. In oil,

the binder saturates the pigment to give very dark,

almost brown-yellow character; in watercolour, t he

pale, warm yellow hue is preserved.

In old watercolour ranges, various mixed hues were

prepared using st il de grain as an ingredient :

Olive green � st il de grain, indian yellow genuine, indigo

Olive lake � st il de grain, bone black (brown shade),

ult ramarine.

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631


Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

Sap green is also obtained from buckthorn berries, but

is expressed from the ripe (dark) fruit . By t radit ion it is

prepared as a watercolour paint by immersing the

berries into a warm solut ion of alum and water. To ease

the process, the berries may be left to steep in water

for a few hours, drained and then crushed in a pest le

and mortar before placing in the alum-water bath. The

alum-water solut ion with the berries in it is slowly

st irred over a gent le heat for 15-30 minutes. The

result ing liquid is st rained through muslin to form a

thick syrup or jelly, which is applied in this semi-liquid

state as a watercolour paint . When f irst applied, t he

colour is a warmish green, turning a warm yellow-

brown upon drying. Sap green in this form is very

unstable to light , bleaching out quickly when exposed

to sunlight , turning a poor green-brown. Genuine sap

green is no longer available in this form, other than by

processing the berries by hand. Early 20th century

subst itutes for this colour were derived from non-

light fast coal tar colours, such as alizarin green. In

recent years, sap green is usually a mixed colour, based

on more permanent synthet ic organic pigments.

�

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631

PIGMENTS 69

INDIAN YELLOW (SUBSTITUTE) PG 10

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity



Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

12775

ASTM I

Nickel azo yellow.

Nickel-based synthet ic organic pigment . A reliable

alternat ive to genuine Indian yellow (not available in

Europe since the 1920s).

Good.

Greenish as mass tone, gives a t ransparent yellow

when used as glaze.

Gives perfect t ransparent glazes.

�

Slow.

�

Relat ively expensive, but high t int ing st rength means a

lit t le goes a long way as a glaze colour.

�

Requires wett ing agent . Has a more greenish tone than

genuine indian yellow.

�

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631


ORANGE PIGMENTS

CINQUASIA YELLOW GOLD PO 48

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

�

ASTM I

Quindo gold, quinacridone gold.

C20H12N2O2. Synthet ic organic pigment .

Good.

Shade

Opacity



Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

Warm yellow-orange, similar to raw sienna but with

higher t int ing st rength.

Tends towards t ransparent .

Diff icult to disperse without a wett ing agent, paint film

may not remain consistent over t ime. In all other

respects, stable to all media.

Medium-slow.

Some uncertaint ies remain with regard to stable f ilm

format ion, more likely to become apparent in cheaper

paint ranges, where less t ime has been spent on

mixing.

Available in some acrylic ranges and as dry pigment .

�

Requires wet t ing agent .

�

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631

PIGMENTS 71

CINQUASIA RED GOLD PO 49

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity



�

ASTM I

Quindo red gold, quinacridone red gold, quindo gold

deep.

C20H12N2O4 . Synthet ic organic pigment .

Good.

Warm red-orange, yellow-orange, similar to burnt

sienna but with higher t int ing st rength.


Diff icult to disperse without a wett ing agent , paint f ilm

may not remain consistent over t ime. In all other

respects, stable to all media.

Medium-slow.

Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

Some uncertaint ies remain with regard to stable f ilm

format ion, more likely to become apparent in cheaper

paint ranges, where less t ime has been spent on

mixing.

Available in some acrylic ranges and as dry pigment .

�


�

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631


PALIOTOL ORANGE PO 59

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity



Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

12075

ASTM II/ BWS 8

Permanent orange, dinit raniline orange.

C16H10N4O5. Organic synthet ic monoazo pigment .

Good.

Bright red-orange.


Stable to all media (may st reak or run when in contact

with mineral solvents).

Medium.

�

�

�

Requires wet t ing agent .

�

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631

PIGMENTS 73

HOSTAPERM ORANGE PO 60

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity



Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

11782

ASTM I

Benzimidazolone orange HGL.

Synthet ic organic pigment . Monoazo benzimidazolone.

Good.

Warm orange as mass tone, thins to warm orange

glaze.

Good t ransparency.

Stable to all media.

Slow.

�

�

�


�

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631


ISOINDOLINE ORANGE PO 61

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity

11265

BWS 8

Chromophtal orange.

Synthet ic organic pigment .

Good.

Warm, dark orange as mass tone, takes on a colder hue

when diluted to a thin glaze.

Good t ransparency as glaze.



Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

�

Slow.

�

Available as dry pigment and in some updated oil

colour ranges.

Good glazing colour.


�

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631

PIGMENTS 75

IRGAZINE ORANGE PO 73

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity



Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

�

BWS 8

Pyrrol orange, irgazine orange DPP (Di-Keto-Pyrrolo-

Pyrrol).

Synthet ic organic pigment , int roduced 1980s.

Good.

Warm, deep orange.

Relat ively opaque � glazes when thinned r ight down

with binder/medium.

Stable in all media, including lime.

Slow.

The raw pigment tends to form together in clumps.

Before combining into binder, break the part icles down

and separate t hem by wet t ing f irst with alcohol

(watercolour, casein); a disperse agent for acrylic such

as orotan (acrylic); mineral spirit (oil).


Offers an excellent alternat ive to cadmium pigments,

with a similar opacity.


�

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631


RED LEAD PR 105

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity



Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

77578

Not tested.

Minium, saturn red, orange mineral.

Red tet roxide of lead, Pb3O4 . Manufactured by heat ing

eit her lead white or lit harge (massicot ) over a

prolonged period at a constant temperature of 480�C.

If t he temperature varies during manufacture, t he

colour can be ruined. Lead red is often found in gilding,

as an underpaint and as a mordant for oil gilding. Its

fast -drying character ist ic is also ut ilised for t he

coat ing of iron exterior st ructures (e.g. bridges).

Good.

Bright red-orange.

Good.

Not stable in any medium, especially water-based

binders.

Fast .

Turns brown in oil (on react ion to acidic compounds);

turns black in water-based media (on react ion to

sulphides). When ground in oil, tends to harden quickly

when packed into tubes.

Inexpensive, in pigment form only.

Replaced by more reliable pigments (e.g. cadmium

orange, irgazine orange).

�

Toxic, contains lead.

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631

PIGMENTS 77

TITANIUM ORANGE PBr 24

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity



Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

77310

Not tested.

Chrome t itanate orange, ironstone brown.

An ar t if icial mineral pigment . Cr-Sb-Ti, mixed phase

system.

Moderate (weak in mixtures with other colours).

Dull orange.

Good.

Found in some acrylic paint ranges but may also be

useful in the making of gouache colours, due to its

opacity.

Slow.

�

Available as dry pigment and in some paint ranges.

�

�

�

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631


REALGAR

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

�

Not tested.

Arabic name: Rahj al ghar �powder of the mine�.

Sulphide of arsenic, similar to orpiment , naturally

occurring in mineral form. Can also be prepared ar t if i-

cially. As2S2. Often found in nature in conjunct ion with

or alongside orpiment . Somet imes confused with red

lead, which is a similar colour.

Poor, due to crystalline st ructure.

Solid orange-red.

Opacity



Defects

Availability/Cost

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

Good.

Often found in egg tempera paint ings, somet imes

admixed with blues to make greenish shades.

�

�

Expensive.

�

�

Toxic, contains arsenic.

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631

PIGMENTS 79

RED PIGMENTS

STUDIO RED PR 3

Colour Index

Number

ASTM/ BWS Rat ing

Common Names

Composit ion and

Origin

Tint ing St rength

Shade

Opacity



Defects

Availability/Cost

12120

BWS 7

Helio red, lit hol red, scarlet lake*, imitat ion vermilion,

monoazo red, hansa red, toluidine red.

Synthet ic organic pigment (based on organic dyestuff).

Int roduced early 1900s.

Good, alt hough cheaper grades may be premixed with

extender which gives a more subdued effect .

Variety of shades: mid-red to deep red, part icularly

shades close to vermilion.

As pure pigment , t ransparent : when admixed with

extender, less so.

�

Slow.

�

Often used in place of cadmium reds, or as subst itute

for vermilion, especially in cheaper paint ranges.

Comments

Special Note

Health & Safety

Informat ion

When mixed st rongly with white, prone to fading.


Scarlet lake is an old colour name, referr ing to the

preparat ion of alizarin crimson with vermilion, or

vermilion with natural madder lake or carmine (as

commonly used in 18 th and 19th century port rait

paint ing pract ice).

�

B

9A3852A-9

7C

E-4

181-B

E41-D

71C

6F8B

5631

the artist's handbook - the artists handbook - by pip seymour

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