the association endorsement and consumers’ intention to purchase

The association endorsement andconsumers' intention to purchaseRennae DaneshvaryAssistant Director of the Center for Business and Economic Research,University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA

R. Keith SchwerDirector of the Center for Business and Economic Research,University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA

Keywords Consumer marketing, Consumer behaviour, Brands, Sponsorship, Advertising

Abstract Many studies have investigated the impact of celebrity endorsers on consumers'purchase intention. None, however, has studied the effects of an association endorsement.This research examined the effect of the Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association's(PRCA) endorsement of products on consumers' purchase intentions. Survey data werecollected from 1,456 respondents attending six rodeos across the USA. Binary logitregression revealed that individuals who attended rodeo frequently and those with lessthan a college degree were the most likely to accept the association endorsement. Thefindings are explained within the social influence framework.

Endorsers of products or brands (sponsorship advertising) take on many

forms including identifiable people, unidentifiables (e.g. typical consumers),

corporations or organization, and inanimate figures (e.g. cartoon characters)

(Stout and Moon, 1990). Recently, the public's attention has focused on

endorsements of identifiable people, more often referred to as celebrities.

The preference for celebrities has been accompanied by large fee structures

for endorsements reaching $45 million in 1998 for Michael Jordan, $25

million for Tiger Woods, $17 million for Grant Hill, and $10 million for

Shaquille O'Neal (Spiegel, 1998).

Not surprisingly, facets of sponsorship advertising have been investigated in

the past decade, such as:

(1) the effect of sponsorship on consumer behavior (Lafferty and Goldsmith,

1999; Ohanian, 1991; Tripp et al., 1994);

(2) reasons for corporate sponsorship (Marshall and Cook, 1992);

(3) the influence of experienced and similar endorsers on attitudes and

behavior (Feick and Higie, 1992); and

(4) the perceived congruency between the product and the endorser (Stout

and Moon, 1990; Till and Busler, 1998). Lacking, however, is research

which addresses association endorsement, in particular, its relationship

to purchase intention.

Endorsements by an association, to be sure, have led to the successful selling

of products. For example, the American Dental Association, after extensive

lobbying by a Procter & Gamble-assembled team, endorsed Crest toothpaste

in 1960. Two years later it was the best-selling toothpaste in America

(Longman, 1997). But stylistic findings fall short of systematic study. Thus,

a case study of consumer reaction to endorsements by an association offers

insights beyond stylistic facts.

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

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Many forms ofendorsement

Successful selling

JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING, VOL. 17 NO. 3 2000, pp. 203-213, # MCB UNIVERSITY PRESS, 0736-3761 203

An executive summary formanagers and executivereaders can be found at theend of this article

This study investigates the effect of the Professional Rodeo Cowboys

Association's (PRCA) endorsement of products on consumers' purchase

intentions. After reviewing literature in the next section, we describe our

model of purchase intention and its empirical implications. We then discuss

our data and present the empirical results. The conclusion follows.

Review of literatureSeveral studies have examined the effect of endorsers on consumer behavior.

Gardner and Shuman's (1986) study revealed that 53 percent of the

respondents made a purchase as a result of a sponsorship. Although the

sample size was small, chi-square tests indicated differences in purchasing

behavior by age and education. A larger percentage of individuals 50 years

of age and older and those with an income of $50,000 or more were more

likely to purchase a brand resulting from sponsorship than younger

individuals and those with lower incomes.

Ohanian (1991) in her investigation of the relationship of attractiveness,

trustworthiness, and expertise to intention to purchase found that only the

perceived expertise of a celebrity was a significant factor in predicting

purchase. Additionally, there were no significant differences between gender

and age of respondents on their intention to purchase.

Kamis (1989) investigated the effectiveness of print advertisements using

celebrity endorsers and both negative and positive claims of a home

computer (WYSE) on purchase intention. In the one-sided appeal (showing

only positive claims) respondents were provided favorable information on

seven product-specific characteristics. The two-sided appeal (showing both

positive and negative claims) provided the product-specific characteristics

along with the claim `̀ Although we may not be the best known computer

company, our reputation is growing'' (Kamis, 1989, p. 38). The results

showed that the two-sided appeal positively affected consumers' intention to

purchase the computer.

Respondents in Kahle and Homer's study (1985) were more likely to

purchase an Edge razor after seeing an attractive celebrity in a magazine

advertisement than an unattractive celebrity. However, they were less likely

to purchase the product after viewing a likeable celebrity than an unlikeable

one. Women were more likely to buy the razor than were men.

The experimental study by Tripp et al. (1994) showed that the number of

exposures to a celebrity advertisement negatively influenced consumers'

intention to purchase.

The existing studies have been successful in manipulating sponsorship

advertisements to assess purchase intention. Few studies, however, have also

examined the effect of socioeconomic characteristics. Those which have

only looked at a limited number of characteristics.

Theories on the effectiveness of endorsersThe identification process of social influence has been used by researchers to

explain the effectiveness of celebrity endorsers (Basil, 1996; Friedman and

Friedman, 1979). This theory suggests that a person is more likely to adopt

an attitude or behavior of another person or a group if he/she identifies with

the person (Kelman, 1961). Friedman and Friedman (1979), using the

identification process, theorized that celebrities would be more effective in

endorsing products that `̀ demonstrate the presence or lack of good taste''

(p. 64). Indeed, they found that print advertisements for promoting products

Effect on consumerbehavior

Negative effect

Social influence

204 JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING, VOL. 17 NO. 3 2000

high in psychological and/or social risk featuring a celebrity were evaluated

more favorably than those using an expert or a typical consumer; and that the

celebrity was more effective in getting consumers to buy the product.

The internalization process of social influence occurs `̀ when an individual

accepts influence because the induced behavior is congruent with his value

system'' (Kelman, 1961, p. 65). An individual accepts the influence because it

provides a solution to a problem. Important to the acceptance of influence is the

credibility of the source of influence. If a source is perceived to be credible, a

consumer will accept the influence (information) as accurate and use it. It is

accepted because it is `̀ demanded'' by one's own values (Kelman, 1961). Thus,

an endorsement of a product by a credible source may influence purchase

behavior.

Friedman and Friedman (1979), using the internalization process, posited that

consumers were more likely to purchase complex and/or expensive products

which were endorsed by experts rather than by typical consumers. Their

hypothesis was supported. Using the same theory, Lafferty and Goldsmith

(1999) proposed that respondents were more likely to purchase a product when

corporate credibility was perceived as high rather than low; and purchase

intention was more likely when endorser credibility was high rather when it was

low. Their findings confirmed that high corporate credibility positively

influenced purchase intention, but that high endorser credibility was

insignificant.

Consumers are more likely to adopt behavior advocated by an association

(group) if they identify with the group (identification). Furthermore, if they

perceive the source (association) as credible and as an expert in the products

which it endorses, consumers are likely to purchase the product

(internalization). Thus, we expect identification and internalization processes

of social influence will affect behavior change, resulting in increased

purchases from endorsements by the association.

Case study: PRCAThe Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association (PRCA) is the largest rodeo-

sanctioning body in the world. At its inception in 1936 it was known as the

Cowboys Turtle Association, formed after a group of cowboys planned to

boycott a rodeo at Boston Garden unless their entry fees were added to the

prize money (PRCA, 1998). The adoption of `̀ turtles'' reflected the cowboys'

slowness in organizing and their ability to stick their necks out (PRCA, 1998).

Today the association boasts about 10,000 members encompassing competing

contestants, stock contractors, judges and contract personnel. The PRCA

awards about $2.85 million in prize moneys (PRCA, 1998). Its purpose is to

ensure that high standards are maintained in the rodeo industry.

Like many other organization, the PRCA promotes itself, adapting to new

opportunities such as the Internet. It offers information on the competing

cowboys, rodeo schedule, animal welfare, PRCA store, sponsors, and

publications. The PRCA is an influential organization well-known to rodeo

fans. Nine companies are official sponsors of the PRCA:

(1) Crown Royal from the House of Seagram;

(2) Dodge;

(3) Wrangler;

(4) Resistol;

Internalization process

Credible source

Influential organization

JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING, VOL. 17 NO. 3 2000 205

(5) Coors;

(6) Justin Boot Co.;

(7) Cope Skoal;

(8) Coca-Cola; and

(9) Colt's Manufacturing Company.

MethodologyOur study uses survey findings. The questionnaire addressed rodeo fans'

interests in rodeo and rodeo events, their satisfaction with the rodeo arena,

their buying habits, their transportation and accommodation requirements

while in the host cities, and their ownership of western apparel. In addition,

socioeconomic questions including education, age, gender, occupation, and

household income were included.

A binary question was used to assess association-sponsor effectiveness:

Would you be more inclined to purchase a product if it were endorsed by the

PRCA? To measure affiliation with the PRCA, fans were asked how often

they attend rodeo each year: very often (ten or more times), often (six to nine

times), sometimes (one to five times), and once every other year.

Three thousand questionnaires were distributed by Professional Rodeo

Cowboy Association (PRCA) officials at six rodeos. The six rodeos along

with the number of completed surveys from each (in parentheses) were

Ellensburg, Washington Rodeo (n = 870); the Pikes Peak or Bust Rodeo

(n = 346); the Dodge National Circuit Finals Rodeo (n = 558); the National

Finals Rodeo (n = 378); the National Western Stock Show and Rodeo

(n = 252); and the Dixie National Rodeo (n = 106). As an incentive to

complete the survey, the PCRA sponsored a drawing for accommodations

and tickets for the 1998 National Finals Rodeo. A total of 2,513 surveys were

returned, of which 1,456 (1,057 cases without missing values) were used in

the analyses.

ModelThe literature points to purchase intentions in an environment of association

endorsements depending on consumers identifying with the association and

its purpose and on the socioeconomic profile of consumers. Thus, we

formulate an estimating equation in reduced form as:

PURCHASE INTENTION = f (often, income, gender, occupation, age, education)

The greater the interaction with a group or an association, the greater the

likelihood of individuals affiliating with the group and becoming

knowledgeable about the group. As such, we predict that rodeo fans who

attend rodeo frequently will be more inclined to purchase a product endorsed

by the PRCA than those who attend less frequently. OFTEN1 (attend very

often), OFTEN2 (attend often), and OFTEN3 (attend sometimes) are measures

of awareness of the association. See Table I for a description of the variables.

A negative relationship is expected between education and intention to

purchase. Individuals with higher levels of education should be less

influenced by any form of advertising than those with less education. The

five dummy education variables are included.

In line with Kahle and Homer's (1985) findings we predict that women rather

than men will be likely purchasers of PRCA-endorsed products. Three apparel

companies are official sponsors of the PRCA; thus, if the PRCA were to

Binary question

Greater interaction


endorse apparel, the endorsements would be for Wrangler apparel, Justin

Boots, and Resistol hats. Furthermore, females are more likely to purchase

apparel for the family than are males. The variable MALE is added to the

model.

We measure the effect of income on purchase intention by using five dummy

income variables. Higher income households are expected to purchase

association-endorsed products, as suggested by the literature. Similarly,

based on previous research, we posit that a positive relationship will exist

between age, measured as a continuous variable, and purchase.

Lastly, the model predicts a positive relationship between employment in a

ranching/farming/agriculture occupation and intention to purchase, assuming

that a working historical relationship exists between ranching and rodeos.

Seven dummy variables represent a broad range of occupations.

ResultsThe summary findings show that 59 percent of the respondents were inclined

to buy a product if it were endorsed by the PRCA. The majority (51.6 percent)

of respondents attend rodeo `̀ sometimes,'' 21.9 percent attend `̀ very often,''

15.1 percent attend `̀ often,'' and 11.4 percent attend `̀ once every other year.''

Table II presents summary characteristics of the respondents.

We employed a binary logistic regression to assess purchase intention. The

findings are presented in Table III. As expected, frequency of rodeo attendance

was a significant predictor of purchase intention. The positive and highly

significant coefficients on the three OFTEN variables suggest that the probability

of purchasing a PRCA-endorsed product increases with rodeo attendance.

Three education variables were significant predictors of purchase intention

(EDUC1, EDUC2, and EDUC3). The positive and significant coefficients

Variable Description

Purchase (dependent

variable) 1 = inclined to purchase a PRCA-endorsed product

Often1 1 = if attend rodeo very often (ten or more times a year)

Often2 1 = if attend rodeo often (six to nine times a year)

Often3 1 = if attend rodeo sometimes (one to five times a year)

Age Age of respondent

Gender 1 = if male

Inc1 1 = if income is $19,999 or less

Inc2 1 = if income is $20,000-34,999

Inc3 1 = if income is $35,000-49,999

Inc4 1 = if income is $50,000-74,999

Inc5 1 = if income is $75,000-99,999

Occ1 1 = if employed in the military

Occ2 1 = if homemaker

Occ3 1 = if employed in professional/managerial occupation

Occ4 1 = if employed in sales occupation

Occ5 1 = if employed in services occupation

Occ6 1 = if employed in secretarial/clerical occupation

Occ7 1 = if employed in technical/trades occupation

Educ1 1 = if some high school

Educ2 1 = if completed high school

Educ3 1 = if some college

Educ4 1 = completed college

Educ5 1 = if some graduate college

Table I. Description of variables

Characteristics ofrespondents


imply that individuals with less than a college degree were the most likely to

be influenced by association sponsorship.

Contrary to Kahle and Homer's study (1985), gender was not a significant

predictor of purchase intention. The differences in the type of sponsorship

(celebrity versus association) and the product endorsed (razor versus a

PRCA-endorsed product) may account for the discrepant findings.

The partial derivatives also revealed a similar pattern of significant coefficients,

revealing estimates of purchase intention with respect to the mean values of the

independent variables. See Table IV for the estimates of the marginal effects.

ConclusionThis case study investigates factors which influence the likelihood of

purchasing an association-endorsed product using surveys completed at six

rodeos. The findings support the hypothesis that frequency of rodeo

attendance will positively affect purchase intention resulting from

respondents' identification with the association and their perception of its

credibility. Individuals who attend rodeo very often, often, and sometimes

are more inclined to be influenced by a PRCA endorsement than individuals

who attend every other year. From this finding, we can infer that association

endorsement is most effective when consumers have the opportunity to

interact with the association. Thus, our empirical findings are in agreement

with the social influence framework.

Individuals with lower levels of education are more impressionable to

association endorsements than individuals with a college education.

Characteristic Percentage of mean

Age 46.4

Occupation

Armed forces 3.5

Homemaker 8.6

Professional/managerial 34.0

Sales 6.7

Services 8.9

Secretarial/clerical 6.7

Technical trades 17.2

Ranch/agricultural/farming 14.4

Total household income

$19,999 or less 8.7

$20,000-34,999 17.7

$35,000-49,999 20.0

$50,000-74,999 30.3

$75,000-99,999 12.4

$100,000 or more 10.9

Gender

Male 48.2

Female 51.8

Education

Some high school 5.4

Completed high school 26.5

Some college 34.4

Completed college 18.8

Some graduate college 5.2

Completed graduate school 9.7

Table II. Summary characteristics of respondents

Similar pattern


Ideally, education provides individuals with analytical skills allowing them

to decipher information from several sources prior to making a purchasing

decision, making them less likely to purchase a product based on one

source.

Knowing what products the PRCA would endorse and if the association

would be paid for their endorsement would have provided for a richer data

set. If in fact the PRCA does endorse products in the future, research which

examines the effectiveness of the endorsements and factors which influence

purchase intentions would be an appropriate follow-up to this study.

Furthermore, studies of endorsements from other organizations would

broaden the base of findings.

Managerial implicationsAt first blush, there is no reason to believe that the effectiveness of an

association product endorsement should differ significantly from a celebrity

product endorsement. To be sure, Till and Busler (1998) suggested that an

endorser/product match appeared to be lacking in the Kate Jackson for

Lincoln-Mercury endorsement; but Cindy Crawford for Revlon was a natural

fit. Their research showed that an endorser's expertise is more important than

Variable Coefficients t-valuesa

Constant ±1.422 3.558***

Often1 1.932 8.648***

Often2 1.452 6.394***

Often3 0.817 4.338***

Inc1 0.438 1.523

Inc2 0.230 1.039

Inc3 0.266 1.248

Inc4 0.194 0.976

Inc5 ±0.382 0.166

Age ±0.002 0.371

Gender 0.095 0.742

Educ1 1.135 3.003**

Educ2 0.644 2.873**

Educ3 0.712 3.373**

Educ4 0.335 1.523

Educ5 ±0.000 0.001

Occ1 0.081 0.219

Occ2 0.116 0.434

Occ3 0.147 0.747

Occ4 ±0.031 0.112

Occ5 ±0.024 0.098

Occ6 ±0.179 0.631

Occ7 0.278 1.306

Chi-squared 150.414

df 22

Log likelihood ±908.079

Significance level 0.000

Notes: at-values are in parentheses; ** significant at the 0.05 level; *** significant atthe 0.01 level

Table III. Binary logistic regression results for purchase intention

Expertise is more important


physical attractiveness in affecting attitude toward an endorsed brand. An

endorser's expertise, whether an association, a celebrity, or an expert

influences purchase behavior and/or attitude toward the brand, positively or

negatively. Ideally, a natural fit or congruency (or what is sometimes

referred to as the match-up hypothesis (Kamins, 1990)) should exist between

an association and a product. The PRCA's endorsement of western jeans,

hats, or boots seems like a natural fit. Their endorsement of Nike, on the

other hand, would be appear to be less of a natural match. Thus, associations

must carefully consider their match-up with a product as should companies

consider their match-up with an association.

References

Basil, M.D. (1996), `̀ Identification as a mediator of celebrity effects'', Journal of

Broadcasting & Electronic Media, Vol. 40, Fall, pp. 478-95.

Feick, L. and Higie, R.A. (1992), `̀ The effects of preference heterogeneity and source

characteristics on ad processing and judgements about endorsers'', Journal of Advertising,

Vol. 21 No. 2, pp. 9-24.

Friedman, H.H. and Friedman, L. (1979), `̀ Endorser effectiveness by product type'', Journal of

Advertising Research, Vol. 19 No. 5, pp. 63-71.

Gardner, M.P. and Shuman, P.J. (1986), `̀ Sponsorship: an important component of the

promotions mix'', Journal of Advertising, Vol. 16 No. 1, pp. 11-17.

Kahle, L.R. and Homer, P.M. (1985), `̀ Physical attractiveness of the celebrity endorser: a social

adaptation perspective'', Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 11, March, pp. 954-61.

Variable Coefficients t-valuesa

Constant ±0.340 3.536***

Often1 0.462 0.666***

Often2 0.347 6.381***

Often3 0.195 4.326***

Inc1 0.105 1.524

Inc2 0.055 1.039

Inc3 0.064 1.248

Inc4 0.046 0.977

Inc5 ±0.009 0.166

Age ±0.000 0.371

Gender 0.023 0.742

Educ1 0.271 3.005***

Educ2 0.154 2.872**

Educ3 0.170 3.372

Educ4 0.080 1.523

Educ5 ±0.000 0.001

Occ1 0.019 0.219

Occ2 0.028 0.434

Occ3 0.035 0.747

Occ4 ±0.007 0.112

Occ5 ±0.006 0.098

Occ6 ±0.043 0.631

Occ7 0.067 1.306

Notes: at-values are in parentheses; ** significant at the 0.05 level; *** significant atthe 0.01 level

Table IV. Partial derivatives of regression model


Kamis, M.A. (1989), `̀ Celebrity and non-celebrity advertising in a two-sided context'', Journal

of Advertising Research, Vol. 18, pp. 34-42.

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when beauty may be only skin deep'', Journal of Advertising, Vol. 19 No. 1, pp. 4-13.

Kelman, H.C. (1961), `̀ Processes of opinion change'', Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 25,

pp. 57-78.

Lafferty, B.A. and Goldsmith, R.E. (1999), `̀ Corporate credibility's role in consumers'

attitudes and purchase intentions when a high versus a low credibility endorser is used in

the ad'', Journal of Business Research, Vol. 44, pp. 109-16.

Longman, P.J. (1997), `̀ Endorsements for sale'', US News & World Report, Vol. 123 No. 8, 1

September, p. 11.

Marshall, D.W. and Cook, G. (1992), `̀ The corporate (sports) sponsor'', International Journal

of Advertising, Vol. 11, pp. 307-24.

Ohanian, R. (1991), `̀ The impact of celebrity spokespersons' perceived image on consumers'

intention to purchase'', Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 31, February/March, pp. 46-54.

Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association (1998), Online file: <http://www.sanctum.com/

rodeo/prca.htm>.

Spiegel, P. (1998), `̀ Challenging the big boys'', Forbes, 14 December, p. 188.

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Vol. 20, March, pp. 535-47.

&


Executive summary and implications for managers andexecutives

Association endorsements ± look for mutual benefitsAdvertisers have used celebrity endorsement for as long as advertising has

existed. The fact of associating your product with a well-known individual

acts to increase the positive view of the consumer (or at least that is the

theory). Not only does the endorsement represent a third party's use of the

product but that person is a role model.

The risks of celebrity endorsement are well documented ± it tends to

compromise an advertising strategy since the celebrity can become, de

facto, the strategy. And the celebrity may lose their public appeal or do

something that undermines the endorsement.

Daneshvary and Schwer examine a different form of endorsement from the

use of celebrities ± endorsement by an association. In their example

endorsements by the Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association (PRCA) are

studied to assess whether they are effective in influencing consumer

purchase behaviour.

In broad terms we find that endorsement does work ± consumers do respond

to association `̀ sponsorship'' of a product in the same positive way that they

respond to an endorsement of a product by a celebrity. The main constraint

on the effectiveness of such an endorsement is the extent to which the

consumer associates with the endorsing body and the degree to which those

consumers see the product advertised as connected to the activities of that

endorsing body.

Consumer involvement with the endorsing association is also important.

Daneshvary and Schwer find that consumers who attend rodeo events

regularly are more influenced by the PRCA's endorsement when compared

to infrequent rodeo spectators. Although the study here sought respondents

that attended rodeo events, we can assume ± quite reasonably ± that

occasional rodeo spectators will be more like those who don't watch rodeos.

Indeed, it would be sensible to assume that the influence of the PRCA on

non-spectators is further reduced compared to occasional spectators.

Which association should you seek out as a sponsor?The question for managers ± assuming the decision to seek endorsement from

an association is taken ± is the choice of such a body. In some cases there

may be little or no choice, while in other cases the choice might be

considerable.

The first area for managers to examine is the size and influence of the

sponsoring association. In the case of the PRCA we are dealing with a

substantial and important body within the sport of rodeo. Yet we should also

consider whether non-supporters of the sport have a neutral or negative view

of the sport. If the view of non-supporters is that rodeo is a sport for rednecks

who like falling off horses then the endorsement may `̀ turn off'' some of

those non-supporters.

If non-supporters are the largest part of the market then we have to question

whether the association endorsement is appropriate. However, the opposite

situation ± where supporters of, in this case, rodeo are a very significant

element of the total market ± suggests clear benefits from association

endorsement. Moreover, as Daneshvary and Schwer remark,


This summary has beenprovided to allow managersand executives a rapidappreciation of the contentof this article. Those with aparticular interest in thetopic covered may then readthe article in toto to takeadvantage of the morecomprehensive descriptionof the research undertakenand its results to get the fullbenefit of the materialpresent

`̀ . . . association endorsement is most effective when consumers have the

opportunity to interact with the association.''

The second important element in the choice of endorsing association is the

relevance of the product or service to that association and its members. We

know the celebrity endorsement is most effective when the celebrity is closely

associated in the consumer's mind with the product. Simple attractiveness is

insufficient since `̀ . . . an endorser's expertise is more important than

physical attractiveness in affecting attitude toward an endorsed brand.''

Put in the simplest of terms ± and I suspect this is more significant for

association endorsement than celebrity endorsement ± you need to choose an

endorser that really uses your product and where that use is a reflection of

professional expertise. A top model endorsing make-up is good. A football

player endorsing soap powder less good.

The same goes for associations ± the PRCA endorsing jeans, boots, saddles

or even 4x4 vehicles seems sensible. But products with lower levels of

association with rodeo may not gain from the association.

What about the association? What's in it for them?The potential benefits from endorsement for the brand owner are clear ± so

long as the links are genuine and match links in the consumer's mind. But the

endorsing association should also consider the effects of sponsorship. It's

tempting to see the money on offer and accept the deal ± the finances of many

associations being what they are, the money will always appeal. But, in

accepting a sponsorship deal, an association must assess the possibility of

negative effects.

A restaurant I know has walls covered with old advertisements. These ads are

an education in how our attitudes to advertising have changed especially in the

treatment of women and ethnic minorities. One of these old ads proclaims that

`̀ The Kings of Sport Smoke Chesterfield'' under a picture of leading US

sportsmen smoking. Today such a promotion seems incongruous and it is safe

to say that our leading modern sportsmen would not endorse a cigarette brand.

While this is a stark example of the potential pitfalls with endorsement it

serves to illustrate the point. An association must be concerned with its

professional image before it seeks income from endorsements. And it is not

just the type of products being endorsed but the extent to which the

association endorses products.

Consumers might take a jaundiced view of an association that scatters its

support to products willy-nilly. At the same time a link with a brand that has

a strong positive image with consumers can act to improve public

perceptions and awareness of the association. By playing a part in the actual

message sent to consumers an association can use the power of somebody

else's advertising to strengthen their own brand.

There is no doubt that endorsements can produce benefits for the brand

supported and the supporting association or individual. But both the brand

owner and the association need to be clear about the objectives of the

endorsement, the risks associated with that endorsement and the promotional

needs of both parties to the deal.

(A preÂcis of the article `̀ The association endorsement and consumers'

intention to purchase''. Supplied by Marketing Consultants for MCBUniversity Press.)


the association endorsement and consumers’ intention to purchase

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