the authentic person as ideal for the late ming dynasty

OriginalPaperUDC[133.5:221.3]:61(510)“15/16”ReceivedJanuary7th,2013

Leslie de VriesUniversityofWestminster,EASTmedicine,RoomN3.110,CoplandBuilding115,NewCavendishStreet,

UK–[email protected]

The Authentic Person as Ideal for the Late Ming Dynasty Physician

Daoist Inner Alchemy in Zhang Jiebin’s Commentary on the Huangdi neijing1

AbstractAt the end of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), Daoist inner alchemy had a significant influence on the medical theories of some of the most prominent scholar physicians in Jiangnan China. In this article, I zoom in on Zhang Jiebin’s (1563–1640) commentary on the Huangdi neijing (Inner Classic of the Yellow Emperor), the foundational text of Chinese medicine. In the first chapter of this text, four exemplary types of human beings are described. I analyse how Zhang Jiebin elaborates on one of them, the Authentic Person (zhenren). Abundantly referring to inner alchemical sources, his focus is on the essential constituents of the body: essence (jing), qi, and spirit (shen). I further show how Zhang emphasizes strong connections between medicine and inner alchemy in a discussion on concrete practices, which could not only dispel disorders but also lead to the Daoist ideal of becoming a zhenren.

KeywordsZhangJiebin,Chinesemedicine,Mingdynasty,inneralchemy,qi,soteriology

Introduction

JosephNeedham,thegreathistorianofChinesescience,consideredDaoismtobe themaincatalyst for thedevelopmentofscience inChina.HestatedthatDaoists (daojia), “whose speculations about, and insight into,Nature,fullyequaledpre-AristotelianGreekthought,[lie]atthebasisofallChinesescience.”2NathanSivinstronglydisagreeswiththispointofview,andarguesthatNeedhamhadmisinterpretedtheterm“Daoist.”AccordingtoSivin,thereisnoevidencethatthemajorityofimportantfiguresinthehistoryofscience,includingphysicians,wereconnectedtoDaoism.3

1

MygratitudegoestoBartDessein,ElisabethHsu, andDanVercammenwho commentedon previous versions of this article. I alsowishtothankthereviewersandtheguestedi-torofthisspecialissue,IvanaBuljan,fortheircorrectionsandsuggestions.

2

JosephNeedham,Science and Civilisation in China, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-versityPress,1956),1.

3

Nathan Sivin, “On the Word ‘Taoist’ as aSourceofPerplexity:WithSpecialReferenceto theRelations of Science andReligion inTraditionalChina,”History of Religions 17,no. 3–4 (1978); andNathan Sivin, “Taoismand Science,” inMedicine, Philosophy and Religion in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections(Aldershot:Ashgate,1995).

SYNTHESISPHILOSOPHICA57(1/2014)pp.(63–82)

L.deVries,TheAuthenticPersonasIdealfortheLateMingDynastyPhysician64

Asthismaybe,DaoismundeniablyinfluencedChinesescience.Inthemedi-caltraditionforinstance,thisinfluenceisapparentinthefirsttwochaptersof theSuwen (PlainQuestions, hereafter SW)part of theHuangdi neijing(InnerClassicof theYellowEmperor), themost important textofChinesemedicine.4Theexplanationsonlifestyleanddiseasepreventioninthesechap-tersshowremarkableparallelswithideasonlongevityfoundinearlyDaoisttexts.5Yet,theInner ClassicisnotshapedbyDaoistthoughtonly.AccordingtoPaulUnschuld,mostpartsofthetextshouldratherbeunderstoodintheeclecticConfucian-LegalistcontextoftheHandynasty,thetimeinwhichthemajorityofthetextlayersoftheInner Classicwerewritten.6

HowdidDaoisminlatertimesinfluenceChinesemedicine?Areimportantstages in thedevelopmentofDaoism represented inmedicine? Inhis pre-liminarystudyonthelinksbetweenDaoismandmedicineinthelateMing(1368–1644)–earlyQing(1644–1911)period,PeterEngelfrietarguesthatwheretheremighthavebeentangiblelinksbetweenthetwoinearliertimes,thiswasmuchlesstrueinthelateimperialperiod.Inhisopinion,certainlythelinksbetweenDaoismandelitemedicinearedisputable.Engelfrietevenassumesthatthegradualdisappearanceofacupuncture–themaintherapeuticdevisereferred to in the Inner Classic –inelitemedicineduring theMingdynastywasduetothefactthatneedlingwasatthattimemainlypracticedbyDaoistphysicians,who“wereconsideredvulgarbylearneddoctors.”7TheDaoistconnectionsofmedicinewereforgottenbytheseelitephysicians,or“theyhadbeensubsumedunderlearnedtraditionsinsuchamannerthattheywere identifiedmorewith theConfucian tradition thanwith theTaoist tra-dition.”8About longevity techniques, traditionallyclosely related toDaoistpractices,Engelfrietremarks:

“Whathaddevelopedintoaheterogeneouscollectionofspiritualandbodilyexercises,tendedtobenolongerassociatedwithTaoisminthefirstplace.TheywereratherviewedinaneclecticwayandcateredtothewidespreadpassiontosynthesizetheThreeTeachings.”9

ElitephysiciansofthelateMing–earlyQingperiodaresupposedtohavebeenfirstofallsyncreticNeo-Confucians.10ZhangJiebin(1563–1640),un-doubtedlyoneofthemostinfluentialphysiciansofhistimes,wasresponsi-blefor“themostcomprehensiveattempttoconformmedicinetothewholesystemofNeo-Confuciancosmology.”11OneoftheNeo-ConfucianconceptsheandotherlateMingphysiciansreferredtoinordertounderstandthefunc-tioningof thehumanbodywas theSupremeUltimate (taiji).Although theSupremeUltimateoriginatedfromDaoism,ithadbecomethecornerstoneofNeo-Confuciancosmology.12EngelfrietsaysaboutsyncreticattemptsmadebyphysicianssuchasZhangJiebinthat:

“Wheresyncreticattemptsweremade,eventhoughmanywereconsciousofthefactthatsuchconceptsalsoappeared inTaoism, itwereNeo-Confucianstandardswhich formed thepointof departure.Thus, in the samewayNeo-Confucianism incorporatedmanyTaoist andBud-dhistelements,medicinerenderedNeo-ConfucianwhatoriginallymighthavehadstrongTaoistroots.”13

Likewise,thehumanbodyinthetextsoftheselateMing–earlyQingschol-arlyphysiciansshouldberegardedas“aNeo-ConfucianbodyratherthanaTaoistone.”14

Chinesescholarsgenerallyexpressanotheropinion.GaiJianmin,forexample,pointsoutthestronginteractionbetweenmedicineandDaoismfromtheearli-esttillmoderntimes.15AlsosomeWesternscholarsacknowledgeinfluencesofDaoist inneralchemy(neidan)onmedicaldoctrine in theSongdynasty



andlater.CharlotteFurth,forinstance,refersextensivelytoinneralchemicalinfluencesonMingmedicine,andon theworksof the syncreticphysicianYuanHuang(1533–1606)inparticular,inherimpressivestudyongenderinChinesemedicalhistory.16But,didDaoistinneralchemyalsohaveaninflu-enceonthemedicalwritingsofthegreatlateMingNeo-ConfucianphysicianZhangJiebin?And,ifso,howdidherenderitNeo-Confucian?OneofZhangJiebin’scelebratedtextsistheLeijing(ClassicinCategories,162417). In thiswork,Zhangsystematically rearranged thecontentsof theentireInner Classicintotwelvecategories.18Zhang’srearrangementstillex-

4

Thetextus receptus oftheInner Classiccon-sistsoftwoparts:SuwenandLingshu(Spir-itualPivot,hereafterLS),eachcontaining81chapters.The standard editionof theSuwenused today dates from the 11th century. Fora study of the history of the Suwen and itscontents, see Paul U. Unschuld, Huang Di nei jing su wen: Nature, Knowledge, Imagery in an Ancient Chinese Medical Text (Berke-ley,LosAngelesandLondon:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2003);foratranslation,seePaulU.UnschuldandHermanTessenow, incollaborationwithZhengJinsheng,Huang Di nei jing su wen: An Annotated Translation of Huang Di’s Inner Classic – Basic Questions.2 vols (Berkeley, LosAngeles andLondon:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2011).

5

PaulU.Unschuld,Medicine in China: A Hi-story of Ideas (Berkeley, Los Angeles andLondon:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1985),106–108.

6

Ibid.

7

Peter Engelfriet, “Linked Faiths, DivergentPaths?SomeRemarksonTaoismandMedi-cineinLateMingandEarlyQingChina,”inLinked Faiths: Essays on Chinese Religions and Traditional Culture in Honour of Kristofer Schipper,ed.JanA.M.DeMeyerandPe-terM.Engelfriet(Leiden,Boston,andKöln:Brill,2000),262–265.

8

Ibid.,265.

9

Ibid.,259.

10

Forcriticalreflectionsontheuseoftheword“syncretic” in the context ofLateMingdy-nasty Three Teachings Unity, see TimothyBrook,“RethinkingSyncretism:TheUnityoftheThreeTeachingsandtheirJointWorshipinLate-ImperialChina,”Journal of Chinese Religionsno.21(1993),3–44.

11

Ibid.,261–262.

12

On the Daoist origins of taiji, see IsabelleRobinet,“ThePlaceandMeaningoftheNo-tion of Taiji in Taoist Sources Prior to theMingDynasty,”History of Religions29,no.4(1990).

13

Engelfriet,262.

14

Ibid., 260. On Zhu Zhenheng (1282–1358),theYuan dynasty physicianwho introducedZhou Dunyi’s Neo-Confucian taiji philoso-phy into medical discourse, see CharlotteFurth, “ThePhysicianasPhilosopherof theWay:ZhuZhenheng(1258–1358),”Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies66,no.2(2006).

15

Gai Jianmin, Daojiao yixue (Daoist Medi-cine) (Beijing:Zongjiaowenhuachubanshe,2001). Chinese scholars are either unawareofSivin’sstandardsordonottendtofollowtheminapplyingtheterm“Daoistphysician”(daoyi).(PersonalcommunicationwithKongLinghong, November 2007) Some even di-rectlyrelateZhangJiebintotheDaoisttradi-tion.See,forexample,ZhuDeming,Zhejiang yiyao shi (HistoryofMedicineandPharma-ceuticsinZhejiangProvince)(Beijing:Ren-minjunyichubanshe,1999),319.

16

CharlotteFurth,A Flourishing Yin: Gender in China’s Medical History, 960–1665. (Berke-ley,LosAngelesandLondon:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1999),187–206.

17

ThedatingofSong-MingtextsinthisarticlefollowsLiuShijue,ed.,Song Yuan Ming Qing yiji nianbiao (Time Chart of Song, Yuan,Ming,QingMedicalTexts)(Beijing:Renminweishengchubanshe,2005).

18

Thesetwelvecategoriesare:“PreservingLi-fe”(shesheng),“Yinyang”,“OrganClusters”(zangxiang), “Pulsations and Complexion”(maise), “Channels and Links” (jingluo),“Ramifications and Roots” (biaoben), “QiandFlavor”(qiwei),“DiscussingTreatment”(lunzhi), “Illnesses” (jibing), “Piercing withNeedles”(zhenci),“[Five]CirculatoryPhasesand [Six] Seasonal Influences” (yunqi), and



ertsaverystronginfluenceonthewayinwhichcontemporarytextbooksofTraditionalChineseMedicine(TCM)describingtheInner Classicarestruc-tured,asElisabethHsuhasshown.19Hiscommentsontheideason“nurtur-ing life” in the Inner Classic are found in the first category: “PreservingLife”(Shesheng).20Herein,almosttheentirecontentofSW1andSW2isgiven.Particularly, Zhang Jiebin’s comments on the concluding section of SW1areusefultoexaminehisappreciationofDaoistideas.AttheendofSW1,theYellowEmperor states that therewere four exemplary typesofhumanbeingsinformertimes:theAuthenticPerson(zhenren),theArrivingPerson(zhiren),theSagelyPerson(shengren),andtheVirtuousPerson(xianren).21TheAuthenticPersonandtheArrivingPersonclearlybelongtotherealmofearlyDaoistthought.TheyembodythehighestsoteriologicalidealsinearlyDaoist texts, suchas theZhuangzi and theHuainanzi.22Unlike theSagelyPersonandtheVirtuousPerson,whicharealsoidealtypesofhumanbeingsinnon-Daoisttexts,theAuthenticPersonandtheArrivingPersonarerestrictedtotheDaoisttraditiononly.AlthoughacleardistinctionismadebetweenthefourtypesintheInner Classic,theboundariesbetweentheseandotheridealtypesofpersonsarenotveryapparentinDaoisttexts.23SW1associatestheAuthenticPersonwithHighAntiquity(shanggu), theearliestphaseofcos-mogony.TheArrivingPerson,associatedwithMiddleAntiquity(zhonggu),is able to“return” (gui) to the stateof theAuthenticPerson.24TheSagelyPersonandtheVirtuousPerson,livinginlatertimes,embodyidealsoflifecultivationthatareregardedinferiortothatoftheAuthenticPersonandtheArrivingPerson.SincethehighestidealofcultivationinSW1isrelatedtotheAuthenticPerson,itisnocoincidencethatthefirstchapteroftheInner Classicistitled:“EssayonHeavenlyAuthenticityinHighAntiquity”(Shanggu tianzhen lun).InlaterDaoism,andespeciallyininneralchemy(neidan),becominganAu-thenticPersonremainsthehighestsoteriologicalaspirationfortheadept.Ac-cordingtoFabrizioPregadioandLowellSkar“xiuzhen‘cultivatingperfec-tion’[is]acommonsynonymforneidan practicesinimperialtimes.”25Theyfurtherstate:

“Thetermneidananditssynonymjindanrefertothreethings:1.acoherentbodyoforalandwrittenteachings;2.regimensofpracticesrelatedtotheseteachings;and3.aninnerstatereal-ized through thesepractices.Reaching this statederives fromgeneratingandnourishing theperfectedorrealizedone’s(zhenren)‘holyembryo’(shengtai).”26

AlsointheMingdynasty,reachingthestateoftheAuthenticPersonwasthehighestachievablegoalforthepractitionerofinneralchemy.But,whatinter-estsmeinthisarticleishowZhangJiebincommentsonthedescriptionoftheAuthenticPersonintheInner Classic.DidthisdescriptionhaveimplicationsforhisunderstandingofmedicineordidheconsideritmerelytobeaDaoistembellishmentinthetext?DidZhangtrytoneglecttheDaoistconnotationsandadaptthecontentsofSW1toaNeo-Confuciandiscourseordidhe,onthecontrary,acknowledgethestrongconnectionsbetweenDaoismandmedicine,andwashisreadingofthissectioninformedbytheinneralchemicalloredis-seminatedamongtheliteraticlassoftheJiangnanregion,theregionwherehewasbornandwherehewasactive?27Beforeansweringthesequestions,IwillfirsthaveacloserlookattheimportanceofthelastsectionofSW1itselfandatthedescriptionoftheAuthenticPersoninthehistoryofChinesemedicineuntilZhangJiebin’stimes.



1. The four exemplary types of human beings in Chinese medical history

PaulUnschuldhassummarizedtheessentialideasonlifestyleandpreventioninthefirsttwochaptersoftheInner Classicasfollows:“Peopleinthedistantpasthadbeenabletolivethroughtheentirelifespanallottedtothembyheavenandearth.Thereasonsgivenmakeasmuchsensetodayastheydidthen,ifonedisre-gardsquiteafewadditionalriskfactorsthathavecometothreatenhumanlifeinthemeantime.

“Congruences”(huitong).ComparewithEli-sabethHsu,“Zangxiang intheCanon of CategoriesandTendencies towardsaBody-Cen-tred Traditional Chinese Medicine,” Ziran kexueshi yanjue19,no.2(2000),169.

19

ElisabethHsu,The Transmission of Chinese Medicine (Cambridge:CambridgeUnversityPress, 1999), 189–206; and Elisabeth Hsu,“Zangxiang in the Canon of Categories,”168–72.

20

This first chapter ismoved to the very endof the1980iesTCMtextbooksexaminedbyElisabethHsu.Sheconcludesthatmajordif-ferencesbetween lateMingandpresent-dayreadingsoftheInner Classicareduetoapar-adigmaticshift.Cosmologicalthinkingoftheearlyseventeenthcenturyhasmadeplacefora materialistic (body-centered) intellectualframework.Thismight, inheropinion, alsoexplain the diminished attention on healthcultivation in contemporaryTCM textbooksandclassroomteaching.AlthoughHsu’sob-servationsseemtobevalidforearlytwenty-firstcenturyTCMaswell,notall textbooksput the contents onhealth cultivation in theverylastchapter.CompareforexamplewithWangQingqi,ed.,Neijing xuandu (SelectedReadings form the Inner Classic) (Beijing:Zhongguozhongyichubanshe,2003),27–37.

21

ThesectiontowhichIreferhereandbelowis found in Huangdi neijing suwen (BasicQuestionsoftheInnerClassicoftheYellowEmperor)(Beijing:Zhongyigujichubanshe,1997),2.Thereisnostandardtranslationforthese four types of humanbeings intoEng-lish.AlternativetranslationsareforexampleTrueMan/Person,GenuinePerson,RealPer-son, Perfected for zhenren; Utmost Person,Arrived Person for zhiren; Sage, Saint forshengren;andWorthyforxianren.

22

On early Daoist soteriology, see ThomasMichael, The Pristine Dao: Metaphysics in Early Daoist Discourse (Albany:StateUni-versityofNewYorkPress,2005),95–141.

23

Besides the four types mentioned in SW1, many more types of humans feature inZhuangzi (shenren, tianren, daoren, daren,

etc.).TheonlyDaoist textwhichhas a list-ing of types of humans that bears some re-semblancewithSW1 isWenzi, in theTangdynasty canonized as Tongxuan zhenjing.Compare with Wenzi, Tongxuan zhenjing(AuthenticClassicofConnectingwithMys-tery)(DZ746),7:14a-b.Foraverydifferentlistofexemplarybeings related to stagesofcultivation,seeDongxuan lingbao dingguan jing zhu (Book of Intent Contemplation oftheDongxuanLingbaoCanon,withaCom-mentary)(DZ400),7a-bandSheyang zhenzhong fang(MethodsofthePillowBookonConserving andNourishingLife), attributedtoSunSimiao,inYunji qiqian(CloudyBook-casewithSevenLabels)(DZ1032),33:13b-14b.OnstagesinDaoistcultivation,seealsoYangYuhui,Daojiao renxue yanjiu (ResearchontheStudyoftheHumaninDaoism)(Bei-jing: Renmin chubanshe, 2004), 142–145.Here and below, I use the abbreviation DZreferringtoworksintheZhengtong Daozang(DaoistCanonoftheZhengtongReign).Textnumber is after K. M. Schipper, Concordance du Tao Tsang, Paris: École Françaised’Extrême-Orient,1975.

24

InhisstudyonearlyDaoistmetaphysics,Tho-masMichaelexplainszhi (toarrive,utmost)asaquasi-synonymofzhen(whichhetranslatesas“genuine”):“‘Genuine’describesthebodyinwhich those components called ‘Heaven’havetransformedinunionwiththeDao.An-othertermthatisusedinavirtuallyidenticalsense is zhi, literally ‘to arrive’ or ‘arrival’,and it signifies the arrival or attainment ofbodilygenuinenessassomethingachievedbythecultivationofthebody.”Michael,126.

25

Fabrizio Pregadio and Lowell Skar, “InnerAlchemy (neidan),” in Daoism Handbook,ed. Livia Kohn (Leiden, Boston, and Köln:Brill,2000),478.

26

Ibid.,481.

27

Zhang Jiebinwasborn inShanyin (present-day Shaoxing). On the spread of neidanamong literati in theYuan andMingperiodintheJiangnanregion,seePregadioandSkar,472.ForanaccountontheinfluencesofinneralchemyonMingliterati,seeLiuTs’un-yan,



Basically,readerswereadvisedthatalifestyleinaccordancewiththerhythmoftheseasons,aswellasmoderationinaction,thought,andfeeling,includingeating,drinking,andsexuality,guaranteedstrengthuntilaninevitableend.Thetextdoesnotexplicitlystate,however,whetherapersoncanoroccasionallyisboundtofallilldespiteperfectinghisorherlifestyle.”28

TheseideasonlifestyleandpreventionareinamostapparentwayconnectedtoearlyDaoisminthelastsectionofSW1.TheYellowEmperorconcludesSW1withadescriptionofhowfourtypesofhumanbeingsinteractwiththespatialandtemporalenvironment(Heaven-and-Earth,yinyang,thefoursea-sons,theeightwinds,etc.);howtheyfunctioninthesocialworld;andhowthey nurture themain internal constituents of the body: essence (jing),qi,spirit(shen),andtheouter,physicalform.TheAuthenticPersonholdsthewholecosmosinhishandsandequalsHea-ven-and-Earth,whiletheArrivingPerson,theSagelyPerson,andtheVirtu-ousPersonareratherinharmonywith,intunewith,orfollowtheprinciplesoftimeandspace(i.e.themacro-cosmos)inwhichtheylive.TheAuthenticPersonandtheArrivingPersonarenotactinginthesocialworldofordinaryhumans,inwhichtheSagelyPersonandtheVirtuousPersonarestillactive.Itshouldbenoted,however,thattheSagelyPerson,whoismostlyreferredtoastherolemodelinotherpartsoftheInner Classic,29isnotaffectedbytheharmfulinfluencesofthehumanworld.Aboutthemainconstituentswithinthebody,SW1saysthattheAuthenticPersonbreathes essence andqi, andpreserveshis spirit.Externally,whichresultsinabodythatappearstobeone.AlsofortheArrivingPersonandtheSagelyPersonessence,qi,andspiritareessential.TheArrivingPersongath-ersessenceandcompleteshisspirit.TheSagelyPersondoesnotexhausthisbodyandmindbydispersingessenceandspirit.NothingissaidinthiscontextabouttheVirtuousPerson,who,however,hastheambitiontofollowthewaysofHighAntiquityandwhotriestoobservethelawsofthecosmos.Thebehaviorofthefourtypes(interactionwiththemacro-cosmoswithoutthebodyandnurturingoftheessentialingredientsofthemicro-cosmoswithin)furtherhasaneffectonthelengthoflifespan.ThelifeoftheAuthenticPersonfallstogetherwithHeaven-and-Earth,andisendless.HecompletelylivesalifeoftheWay(dao sheng).TheactionsundertakentoreturntothestateoftheAuthenticPersonby theArrivingPerson result insuperhumanabilities(wandering freely through theworld, seeing and hearing beyond the eightfar-ends)andasubstantial increase in lifespan.About theSagelyPersonissaidthathecanreachanageofonehundredyears,whichisconsideredastheideallengthofahumanlife.AlthoughtheVirtuousPersonalsoincreaseshislifespanbyfollowingtheexampleofHighAntiquityofunitingwiththeWay,heonlygainsalimitedincrease.Theidealsoflifecultivation,asembodiedbythesefourtypesofhumanbe-ings,couldberegardedasanessentialfeatureofChinesemedicine,sincetheyarefoundinthetwoopeningchaptersoftheInner Classic.However,thesefirsttwochapterswerenotalwaysoccupyingthismostprominentpositioninthetext.AccordingtotheannotationsoftheeleventhcenturyeditorsoftheSW,WangBing(8thC.)shiftedthemtothefrontofthetext.30

Moreover,thesectiononthefourtypesofhumanbeingsinSW1seemstohavehadnotangible influenceonother transmittedtextsdatingbefore theSongdynasty.Althoughsomemedieval textsquote from thecontentsnowfoundinSW1andSW2,noneofthesetextsmentionsthefour.TheDaoistphysicianSunSimiao(581–682),for instance,quotes largerpartsofSW1andSW2inthechapteron“NourishingHumanNature”(Yangxing)ofhis



famousBeiji qianjin yaofang(EssentialPrescriptionsWorthaThousandGoldPiecesinCasesofUrgency),31butanyreferencetothelastsectionofSW1islacking.32SincetheclassificationinfourtypesofhumanbeingsinSW1isnotattestedinotherearlyandmedievalmedicalandreligious/philosophi-calwritings,thissectionmightevennotbeincludedineditionsoftheInner ClassicdatingbeforetheTangdynasty.ItispossiblethatsomepartsoftheInner ClassicwereonlyinsertedinthetextlongaftertheTang.33Yet,WangBing’sdirectreferencestotheKangcangzi(MasterKangcang),animportantDaoistphilosophicaltextoftheTangdynasty,inhiscommentssuggestthatthesectiononthefourtypesofhumanbeingswaspartoftheTangdynastyeditionoftheSW.34

Thefirstphysicianwhoclearlyreferredtothesectiononthefourtypesofhu-manbeingswasLiuWansu(ca.1120–1200)intheJindynasty.InhisSuwen bingji qiyi baoming ji (CollectiononProtectingLife according toDiseaseMechanismsandQiAppropriateness in thePlain Questions,1186),hede-

“TaoistSelf-CultivationinMingThought,”inSelf and Society in Ming Thought, ed.Wm.Theodore de Bary (NewYork and London:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1970).

28

Unschuld,Huang Di nei jing su wen,198–199.

29

Apart from SW 1, theAuthentic Person isonlymentioned in twootherchaptersof theInner Classic:SW13andSW68.TheSagelyPerson, incontrast, features in twentychap-tersoftheInner Classic.Inthreeofthem,theSagelyPerson is even associatedwithHighAntiquity(i.e.shanggu shengren):SW1(ear-liersection),SW5,andSW14.

30

LinYietal.,ed.,Chongguang bu zhuHuangdi neijing suwen(PlainQuestionsoftheInnerClassicoftheYellowEmperor,BroadlySup-plementedandAnnotated)(Beijing:Xueyuanchubanshe, 2004), 1. Before the edition at-tributedtoWangBing,thefirstchapterswereon prognostication about the outcome of adisease.InPaulUnschuld’sopinion, theris-ingofstatusofthephysicianinTangsocietytriggered the replacement of these chaptersonprognostication to a less important placeinthetext.Furthermore,WangBing’sinclina-tionstoDaoistthoughtmighthavemotivatedhimtopromoteideasonself-cultivationtothemost prominent position. Unschuld, Huang Di nei jing su wen,45–46,48.

31

SunSimiao,Beiji qianjin yaofang(EssentialPrescriptionsWorthaThousandGoldPiecesin Cases of Urgency), in Yaowang qianjin fang (Essential PrescriptionsWorth aThou-sandGold Pieces of theKing ofMedicine)(Beijing:Huaxiachunbanshe,2004),463–464.AlthoughSunSimiaodoesnotrefertothede-scriptionoftheAuthenticPersoninSW1,herelates theAuthenticPerson toDaoist prac-ticesonotherplacesofhischapteronnour-

ishinghumannature.Ibid.,466,470.OntherelationbetweentheDaoistpracticeofbreathretentionandbecominganAuthenticPerson,seealsoinfra.SunSimiaohimselfisknownbythehonorificnameAuthenticPersonSun(SunZhenren).

32

OthermedievaltextsthatquoteSW1andSW2,butnotthesectiononthefourhumans,arethe Daoist Yangxing yanming lu (DZ 838),attributed to Sun Simiao or Tao Hongjing,andHuangfuMi’s Jiayi jing (ABClassic).Searchesinthedigitaltextcollectionofmedi-caltextsZhonghua yidian(EncyclopaediaofTraditional Chinese Medicine). (Changsha:Hunandianziyinxiangchubanshe,2006)andtheelectronicversionoftheWenyuange Sikuquanshu (Imperial Library,Wenyuan Pavil-ion Edition). (Taibei: Shangwu yinshuguan,1983–1986, hereafterWYG SKQS) did notrevealanyotherresults.

33

CatherineDespeux,“TheSystemoftheFiveCirculatoryPhasesandtheSixSeasonalInflu-ences(wuyun liuqi):ASourceofInnovationinMedicineundertheSong(960–1279),”in Innovation in Chinese Medicine, ed. Elisa-bethHsu(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2001),129.

34

Although later commentators of the SW in-cluded parts of Wang Bing’s commentary,theydidnotmentiontheKangcangzi.Kangcangzi was canonized asDongling zhenjing(AuthenticClassicofPenetrating theNumi-nous) (DZ 669). For more information onKangcangzianditsrelevanceinTangDaoism,see Ursula-Angelika Cedzich, “Donglingzhenjing,” in The Taoist Canon: A Historical Companion to the Daozang,ed.KristoferSchipper and Franciscus Verellen (Chicagoand London: University of Chicago Press,2004),302–303.



scribestheidealoftheAuthenticPersoninalmostanidenticalwayasisdoneinSW1.Theelaborationoncultivationpractices,whichfollowsthisdescrip-tionoftheAuthenticPerson,bearsstrongresemblanceswithSong-Jininneralchemicallore.35Exceptforanofficial textbookoftheSouthernSong,nootherreferencetotheAuthenticPersoninSW1isfoundinanyotherimpor-tanttransmittedmedicaltextdatingbeforetheMingdynasty.36

AfterthecommentatedSWeditionattributedtoWangBing,mostotherim-portantcommentariesthathavebeentransmittedtillourtimesonlydatefromtheendofthesixteenthcentury.ThelateMingcommentariesontheSWthataremostlyreferredtointextbooksofTCM(TraditionalChineseMedicine)andstudiesonChinesemedicalliteraturearetheseofMaShi(15th–16thC.),WuKun(1552–1618),ZhangJiebin,andLiZhongzi(1588–1655).37Intheircomments, these physicians again explain the section describing the fourtypesofhumanbeingsinSW1.ThissectionisgivenalotofattentiontointheworksofZhangJiebinandLiZhongziinparticular.Intheremainingpartsof this article, Iwill focusonZhang Jiebin’s explanationof theAuthenticPersonin“AbsorptionofLife,”thefirstcategoryinLeijing.38

2. Zhang Jiebin and the Authentic Person

2.1. Structure and contents of Zhang’s comments on the Authentic Person in SW 1

Thethirdsubchapterof“AbsorptionofLife”istitled:“InantiquitythereweretheAuthenticPerson, theArrivingPerson, theSagelyPerson,and theVir-tuousPerson. (Guyouzhenren,zhiren, shengren,xianren)”Herein,ZhangJiebingivescommentsontheentiretextofthelastsectionofSW1.ThestyleofthesecommentsisanaloguetoallhisothercommentsinLeijing.Zhang’scommentsaremostlyshorterincomparisontothoseattributedtoWangBingoftheTangdynasty.Ontheotherhand,thedifficultyofthelanguageoftheInner ClassicwasahardburdentoovercomefortheMingdynastyreader.ThisundoubtedlymotivatedZhanginprovidingmanymoreexplanationsonmeaningandpronunciationofindividualwordsthanWangdid.Zhangalsotookpreviouscommentaries,includingthatofWang,intoaccount,somethinghehasincommonwithotherMingdynastycommentators,suchasMaShiandWuKun.MostcharacterizingforZhang’scomments,however,arehisuseofcrossreferencestootherpartsofLeijingandhisratherlongessayisticelaborationsonmainideasintheInner Classic,attachedtosomeofthecom-ments.ThetextofSW1describingtheAuthenticPersonisbrokenupinthreepas-sages,almostinthesamewayasWangBingdid.39Thefirstpassagereadsasfollows:

“TheYellowEmperorsaid:‘IheardthattherewastheAuthenticPersoninHighAntiquity.HeheldHeaven-and-Earthinhishands,andgraspedyinyang.’”40

Zhang’scommentisrathershort.LikeWuKun,Zhangstatesthat“authentic-ity”refersto“heavenlyauthenticity”,andthattheAuthenticPerson“doesnothavetodependoncultivationpractices”.41Thisisfollowedbyanownaccent,inspiredbyNeo-Confucianmetaphysics:

“HisheartisidenticaltotheSupremeUltimate(xin tong taiji).Hispowerisinagreementwiththe twosymbols (de qi liangyi).Hence,hecanmake thecreationsand transformations spinaround,andharmonizeyinyang.This iswhat ismeantby‘heavinginhishands’(ti qie)and‘grasping’(ba wo).”42



ThesecondphraseofthedescriptionoftheAuthenticPersoninSW1reads:

“Hebreathes[huxi:ex-andinhaling]essenceandqi.Standingonhisown,hesafeguardshisspirit.Hismusclesandflesh[theouterbody]arelikeone.”43

Hereafter,Zhang’scommentdivertsfromallpreviouscommentators:

“Byexhaling,hemakescontactwithHeaven.Therefore,heconnectswithqi.Byinhaling,hemakescontactwithEarth.Therefore,heconnectswithessence.44PossessingtheWay,heispre-servedbyhimself.Hence,heisabletostandonhisown.Hisspiritdoesnotdriftoutside.Hence,‘hesafeguardshisspirit.’Whenthespiritissafeguardedinternallyandtheformiscompletedexternally,body(shen)andmind(xin)arebothunitedwiththeWay.Hence,‘hismusclesand

35

Liu Wansu, Suwen bingji qiyi baoming ji(Collection on Protecting Life according toDisease Mechanisms and Qi Appropriate-ness in thePlain Questions) (Beijing: Ren-min weisheng chubanshe, 2005), 3–4. SeeGaiJianmin,164–166.FormoreinformationonLiuWansu,seeJuttaRall,Die vier grossen Medizinschulen der Mongolenzeit: Stand und Entwicklung der Chinesischen Medizin in der Chin und YüanZeit (Wiesbaden:SteinerVerlag,1970),38–52.OnLiuWansuasfounderofpost-Songmedicallineages,seeWuYiyi,“AMedicalLineofManyMasters:AProsopographicalStudyofLiuWansuandHisDisciplesfromtheJintotheEarlyMing,”Chinese Science 11 (1993–94). On the al-chemical connections between LiuWansu’sideas onmedicine and alchemy, seeAngelaKi-che Leung, “Medical Learning from theSong to theMing,” inThe Song-Yuan-Ming Transition in Chinese History,ed.PaulJakovSmith and Richard von Glahn (Cambridge:HarvardUniversityAsiaCenter,2003),463,n.26.

36

For the Authentic Person of SW 1 in theSouthern Song textbook, seeTaiyi ju zhuke chengwen ge (Composition Models for theVariousDepartmentsoftheImperialBureauofMedicine),inWYGSKQS,2:12a.Search-es Zhonghua yidian and the electronic ver-sionofWYGSKQSyieldednoresultsontheAuthenticManasdescribedinSW1inotherpre-Mingtexts.

37

Fortextbooks,seeforexampleYanLilanandGuZhishan,eds.,Zhongyi wenxian xue(TheStudy of Chinese Medical Texts) (Beijing:Zhongguozhongyiyaochubanshe,2002),19andWangQingqi,222;forstudies,seeforex-ampleUnschuld,Huang Di nei jing su wen,66–69.UnschulddoesnotrefertoLiZhongzi.Formodern editions of these commentariessee:MaShi,Huangdi neijing suwen zhuzheng fawei(PlainQuestionsoftheInnerClassicoftheYellowEmperor, commented, validated,anditssubtletieselucidated)(Beijing:Xuey-uanchubanshe,2003);WuKun,Huangdi nejing suwen Wu zhu (Wu’sCommentaryonthe

BasicQuestionsof theInnerClassicofYel-lowEmperor)(Beijing:Xueyuanchubanshe,2001);ZhangJiebin, Leijing(ClassicinCate-gories)(Beijing:Xueyuanchubanshe,2005);andLiZhongzi,Neijing zhiyao(KnowingtheEssentialsoftheInnerClassic),inLi Zhongzi yixue quanshu(TheCompleteMedicalWorksofLiZhongzi)(Beijing:Zhongguozhongyi-yaochubanshe,1998).

38

IwillfocusonLiZhongziismuchdetailinaforthcomingpublication.

39

Compare with Lin Yi, Chongguang buzhuHuangdi neijing suwen,8–9.

40

AsquotedinZhangJiebin,20.ComparemytranslationofthepassagesinSW1describingtheAuthentic Person with Unschuld,Medicine in China,279–280.

41

Ibid.ComparewithWuKun,4.

42

ZhangJiebin,5.

43

Ibid.,6.

44

ThisphraseisalmostidenticallyfoundafteraquoteofYeWenshuinLeijing fuyi(AppendixtotheClassicinCategories).SeeZhangJie-bin,2052.ThequoteofYeWenshuisinfacttakenfromhiscommentonZhangBoduan’s(984–1082)Wuzhen pian (Pieces onUnder-standingAuthenticity), included in Xiuzhen shishu(TenBooksonRestoringAuthenticity)(DZ263),26:23a.ThephraseonbreathinginconnectionwiththerootsofHeavenandEarthis,however,notincludedinYe’scommentonWuzhen pian. Because the above phrase isincludedinYe’squoteinthemoderneditionofLeijingthatIused,itspunctuationismis-taken.Moreover, both quote and phrase arefoundinChenZhixu(1289–?)’sShangyangzi jindan dayao(MasterShangyang’sGreatEs-sentialsoftheGoldenCinnabar)(DZ1067),3:5a-b. Zhang probably used Shangyangzi jindan dayaoashismainsource.Seeinfra.



flesharelikeone.’Thisispreciselywhatismeantwith‘formandspiritarecompleted’inthefirstsubchapter.”45

ZhangcontinuesbyreferringtotheDaoisttradition:

“Whatthissectionemphasizesarethreewords:essence,qi,andspirit.OnlyDaoists(daojia)explainthemindetail.”46

Here,ZhanggoesbeyondamereNeo-Confucianunderstandingofthetext.HehighlightsthatthemainconstituentsofthebodyinthemostthoroughwayarediscussedbyDaoists.Zhangfurtherelaboratesonthispointinalongex cursusattachedtohiscom-ment.Herein,heincludesanextensivelistofquotationstoillustratetheimpor-tanceofessence,qi,andspiritinrelationtocultivationpractices.47Thequoteschosen, except those from theHuainanzi,FangYang, andLiGao’smedicaltext,areallcloselyrelatedtoinneralchemy.ZhangJiebinseemstohavebeenespeciallyinspiredbytheTaixi jing(ClassiconEmbryonicBreathing),48ZhangBoduan’sYuqing jinsi qinghua biwen jinbao neilian danjue(AlchemicalFormu-laefortheInnerPurificationoftheGoldTreasurefromtheSecretDocumentsintheGoldenBoxoftheJadePurityofQinghua),49andChenZhixu’sShangyangzi jindan dayao.50Moreover,threeoftheotherquotesinZhangJiebin’slistalsofeatureinJindan dayao,whichsuggeststhatJindan dayaowasthesourcetextfromwhichZhangJiebintookthesethreequotes.51Afterthelistwithquotes,Zhangpointsouttheimportanceofqi,relatedtobothPre-Heaven(xiantian)andPost-Heaven(houtian),againillustratedbyreferringtovarioustexts.

Table 1. SourcesofZhangJiebin’sconsiderationoftheimportanceofessence,qi, andspiritinrelationtocultivationpractices

Source (author and/or text) Explanation

– BaiJuyi(772–846) [inHuainanzi]52– FangYang53

Thenourishingofqi should follow in-andexhaling.(yang qi dang cong hu xi)

– CaoWenyi,Lingyuan dadao ge. [inJindan dayao]– ZhangXujing,Sanshi dai Tianshi Xujing zhenren yulu[inJindan dayao]

Safeguardthespirittonourishqi.(shou shen yi yang qi)

– Huainanzi Tranquilitycannourishthespirit.(jing ke yang shen)

– ChenZhixu,Jindan dayao Essence and qi are rooted in each other. (jing qi zhi hu gen)

– Qi mitu[inJindan dayao] Thesexualintercourseofkanandli.(kan li zhi jiao gou)

– LüYan,jujue(poemintruncatedverse)54 Thewayofrestoringauthenticityisfoundinessence,qiandspirit.(xiu zhen zhi dao zai yu jing qi shen)

– Taixi jingandappended Taixi ming Thewayofnourishinglifeisfoundinpreservingthespiritandnourishingqi.(yang sheng zhi dao zai hu cun shen yang qi)

– ZhangBoduan,Yuqing jisi qinghua miwen jinbao neilian danjue

The preservation of spirit depends on the heart, andmaking the heart tranquil depends on the eyes. (cun shen zai xin, jing xin zai mu)

– Ibid. Forprimordialessence,primordialqi,andprimordialspiritlookforessence,qi,andspiritatthebeginningsof the transformation of life. (yuanjing yuanqi yuanshen zhe qiu jing qi shen yu hua sheng zhi chu )

– LiGao,Piwei lun(Essaysonthe Spleen-Stomach)

Thewayofnourishing thebodytakes thenourishingofqiasitsroot.(yang shen zhi dao yi yang qi wei ben)



ThelastpassageontheAuthenticPersoninSW1relateswhatwassaidintheprevioustwopassagestohislifespan.

“Therefore,itispossibleforhislifespantoexhaustHeaven-and-Earth,andtobewithoutatimeofending.ThisiswhatismeantbylivingbytheWay.”

Zhangcomments:

“‘Exhausting’(bi)means‘ending’(jin).Thebodyof theAuthenticPersonisunitedwith theWay.Therefore, he is born because he comes afterHeaven-and-Earth, but finds his originsatthebeginningofHeaven-and-Earth.HetransformsbecauseofwhatisbeforeHeaven-and-Earth,butseekstoendwithHeaven-and-Earth.Theformleaves,buttheheart(xin)remains.Qidisperses,butthespiritispreserved.Hence,hislifespancanexhaustHeaven-and-Earth.ThisiscompletelylivingbytheWay.”55

45

ZhangJiebin,5.Thephraseofthefirstsub-chapterreferstotheresultoflivingalifestyleassociatedwiththepeopleofHighAntiquity.Inthefirstsubchapter, thesepersonsarenotcalledAuthenticPersons,butjust“peopleinHighAntiquity”(shanggu zhi ren).SeeZhangJiebin,4.

46

Ibid.,6.

47

First, he refers to a source, (“… says:”,…yue). This is followed by the actual quote,and concluded by a short explanation (“thisexplains…”,ci yan … ye).InTable1,refer-encestothequotesZhangusedandhisownconcludingexplanationscanbefound.

48

TheTaixi jingisaveryshorttextonrespira-tory techniques, probably dating from theTang dynasty.As a separate text, it can befoundasGaoshang Yuhuang taixi jing(Clas-sic on Embryonic Breathing of the JadeEmperoronHigh)(DZ14).TogetherwithacommentaryandtheappendedTaixi ming(In-scriptiononEmbryonicBreathing),itcanbefoundasTaixi jing zhu(ClassiconEmbryonicBreathing, with a Commentary) (DZ 130).TheTaixi jingisalsoincludedinYunji qiqian,60:26a-28b.SeealsoFarzeenBaldrian-Hus-sein,“Taixijingzhu,”inSchipperandVerel-len, The Taoist Canon, 366–367. The Taixi ming, which is also appended to the Taixi jinginZhangJiebin’slist,equatesembryonicbreathing(taixi)withinneralchemy(neidan).Taixi jing zhu,2a.

49

DZ240.

50

Intheremainingpartsofthetextandannota-tions,Iuseitsshorttitle:Jindan dayao.

51

The first two quotes come from two differ-ent poems that have the same title:Dadao ge (Song of the Great Dao). The first of

these quotes is from the Northern Song fe-male Daoist Cao Wenyi’s Lingyuan dadao ge(SongoftheGreatDaooftheNuminousSource)(ZW160),1b;thesecondisfoundin30thgenerationHeavenlyMastersZhangXu-jing’s(1092–1126),Sanshi dai Tianshi Xujing zhenren yulu(RecordedSayingsoftheThirti-ethHeavenlyMasterAuthenticLordXujing)(DZ1249),3:1a.BothquotesalsofeatureinthesamepassageofJindan dayao,4:7a.Thequote fromQi mitu (SecretDiagramsof theToken) is found in Jindan dayao, 5:4a. Qi mituprobably refers toDa huandan qi mitu(SecretDiagramsontheTokenfortheGreatReverting to Cinnabar), a text included inYunji qiqian, 72:1a-32b. However, the con-tentsofthequoteofQi mituusedbyZhangJiebindonot feature in the text included inYunji qiqian,andare tomyknowledgeonlyfoundinJindan dayao.

52

Huainanzi (Master of Huainan), in Guoxuezhenglishe,comp.,Zhuzi jicheng(GrandCom-pendium ofVarious PhilosophicalMasters),8 vols. (Shanghai: Zhonghua shuju, 1954),7:353–354.

53

Iwas unable to identifyFangYang and thequotedpassage.

54

AlsoknownasLüDongbin,andacknowled-gedaspatriarchbybothSouthernandNorth-ern lineageof inneralchemy.FarzeenBald-rian-Hussein,“LüDongbin,”inEncyclopedia of Taoism,ed.FabrizioPregadio(LondonandNewYork:Routledge, 2008), 712–714. Seealso,PaulR.Katz, Images of the Immortal: The Cult of Lü Dongbin at the Palace of Eternal Joy (Honolulu: University of Hawai’iPress,1999),52–93.Forthepoem,see Quan Tang shi (Complete Poems of the Tang),comp. PengDingqiu et al. (Taipei: Hongyeshudian,1977),2426.

55

ZhangJiebin,8.



ZhangJiebin’scommentsonthedescriptionoftheArrivingPerson,theSage-lyPerson,andtheVirtuousPersonareshort,andcanbecomparedinstylewiththoseonthefirstandthirdpassagesdescribingtheAuthenticPerson.Tosumup,mostofZhangJiebin’sattentiongoestotheDaoistexplanationsoftheessentialingredientsofthebody(essence,qi,andspirit)referredtointhesecondpassagedescribingtheAuthenticPerson.

2.2. Pre-Heavenly qi

Althoughessence,qi,andspiritareallimportant,qiisthepointofdeparture.ThelastquoteinTable1isnottakenfromaDaoistsource,butisfromtheJin dynasty physicianLiGao (1180–1251). In “Admonishment on SavingWords” (Shengyan zhen)at theendofhis famousPiwei lun (Essayon theSpleen-Stomach,1249),Listressesthatqiistherootofcultivatingthebody.“Qiistheancestorofspirit.Essenceisthechildofqi.Qiistherootandstemofessenceandspirit.Howgreatindeed!Gatherqitoaccomplishessence.Gatheressencetocompletespirit.Itshouldbeclearandtranquil.ControlitbytheWay(yu zhi yi dao),andyouwillbecomeaHeavenlyPerson(tianren).SomeonewhopossessestheWaycandothis.WhatkindofmanamI?Itisonlyappropriatetosavemywords.Thatisall!”56

InZhangJiebin’smedicaldoctrine,however,thereisanimportantdifferencewithLiGao’sexplanationofqi.Zhangdistinguishestwomodesofqi,some-thinghehasincommonwithotherlateMingphysicianssuchasSunYikui(1522–1619),ZhaoXianke(16th–17thC.),andLiZhongzi.ForZhang,thereis fundamentaldifferencebetweenPre-Heavenlyqi (xiantianqi) andPost-Heavenlyqi(houtian qi).57AccordingtoZhang,thedifferencebetweenthesetwostatesofqicanbeexplainedasfollows:“XiantianistheqioftheAuthenticOne(zhenyi zhi qi).Itisqitransformedoutofemptiness.Thus,qitransformsintoform.Thisqicomesfromemptynothingness(ci qi zi xuwu zhong lai).HoutianistheqiofBloodandqi(xueqi zhi qi).Itisqitransformedoutofgrains.Thus,formtransformsintoqi.Thisqicomesfromadjustingandabsorbing(ci qi zi tiaoshe zhong lai).”58

Asubtleinterplaythusexistsbetweenqiand form(xing).InZhang’sopin-ion, form isexactly the sameasessence (jing). It is “what isproducedbytheHeavenlyOne”(tianyi suo sheng),andassuch“theancestorofwhathasform”(you xing zhi zu).59Hence,essenceisnotonlytheproductofxiantian qi,itisalsothestartingpointofeverythingthatexistsinthe(houtian)cos-mos.ThisisfurtherillustratedbyreferencestotheLonghu jing(ClassicoftheDragonandTiger)60andtwochaptersoftheInner Classic.61Finally,Zhangsummarizeshisideasontherelationbetweenessenceandqiinthexiantianandhoutianstaterespectivelyasfollows:“Qiofxiantianisqi transformingintoessence.Qiofhoutianisessencetransformingintoqi.Essence and qi originate frommutual production.When essence andqi are abundant, spiritflourishesspontaneously(shen zi wang).”62

Table 2.RelationofessenceandqiindifferentstatesofqiaccordingtoZhangJiebin

state of qi origin of qi relation essence-qixiantian emptiness qiessencehoutian grains essenceqi

Theintroductionofxiantianintomainstreamphilosophicalthinkingisattrib-utedtoShaoYong(1012–1077)intheSongdynasty.Accordingtotradition,



thelearningofPre-Heaven(xiantianxue)wastransmittedtoShaoYongbythesemi-legendaryDaoistmasterChenTuan.63Xiantian,whichreferstotheformlessstatebeforethecosmositselfexisted,isliketaijioneofthoseNeo-ConfucianconceptsthatoriginatedintheDaoisttradition.64InShaoYong’swritingsxiantian isassociatedwiththe“methodoftheheart”(xinfa)65andwithdiagrammaticcharts:

“Thestudyofxiantianisthemethodoftheheart.Hence,thediagrams(tu)arisefromitscenter.Themyriadtransformationsandmyriadthingsarebornfromtheheart.”66

Althoughxiantian,especiallyinrelationtodiagrammaticcharts,wouldplayanimportantroleintheNeo-ConfucianorthodoxysystematizedbyZhuXi(1130–1200),AlainArraulthasshownthatthespecificdiagrammaticorder-ing associatedwith xiantian cannot be attested in ShaoYong’swritings.67Neither should the importanceof theconceptxiantianbeoverestimated inShaoYong’sphilosophy.

“L’expression xiantian n’apparaît que dans les ultimes chapitres du Jirang ji, autrement ditdans lesdernières annéesdeShao.Par ailleurs, ses relations lesplusprochesne l’évoquentqu’incidemment.”68

WhileNeo-Confuciansmainly referred toxiantian in thecontextof adia-grammaticorderingoftri-andhexagram,xiantianbecameevenmorecom-monlyused in later inneralchemical texts,whichofcoursealsomadeuse

56

AsquotedinIbid.,7.ComparewithLiGao,Piwei lun (Treatise on the Spleen-Stomach)(Beijingweisheng chubanshe, 2005), 96.LiGaodoesnotrefernottotheAuthenticPer-son,buttotheHeavenlyPerson(tianren).

57

Thisdistinctionbetweenxiantianandhoutianisnotfoundinpre-Mingmedicaltexts.XiantiandoesfeatureinSW69,SW70,andSW71,asatermusedinthecontextofclimaticconditions.SeeXieGuan,ed.,Zhongyi dacidian(GreatDictionaryofChineseMedicine)(1921;repr.,Beijing:Shangwuyinshuaguan,2004),969.

58

ZhangJiebin,7–8.

59

ZhangJiebin,8.

60

Animportantalchemicalclassic,DZ996.

61

SW5andLS10.

62

ZhangJiebin,8.Onthemutualinterdepend-enceof jing andqi, seealso thequote fromJindan dayao inTable 1. Iwill refer to es-sence andqi in relation to spirit in thenextsection.

63

OnChenTuan, seeLiviaKnaul,Leben und Legende des Ch’en T’uan(Berne:PeterLang,1981).

64

Robinet,“ThePlaceandMeaningoftheNo-tion of Taiji in Taoist Sources Prior to theMing Dynasty,” 385; François Louis, “TheGenesisofanIcon:TheTaiji Diagram’sEarlyHistory,”Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies63,no.1(2003):162.

65

Alain Arrault, “Les diagrammes de ShaoYong (1012–1077):Qui les avus?”Études chinoises19,no.1–2(2000):77–78.SeealsoDonJ.Wyatt“ShaoYungandtheNumber,”inSung Dynasty Uses of the I Ching,ed.Kid-derSmithetal.(Princeton:PrincetonUniver-sityPress,1990),127.

66

ShaoYong,Huangji jingshi shu(BookofthePassingofAgesof theAugustUltimate), inWYGSKQS,13:34b.SeealsoDonJ.Wyattwho explains: “For Shao, xiantian learning,ifnotthediagramitself,appearstohavehaditslocusinthehumanmind,whichitselfwasbelievedtoexistevenbeforeHeaven’sforma-tion.”DonJ.Wyatt,The Recluse of Loyang: Shao Yung and the Moral Evolution of Early Sung thought(Honolulu:UniversityofHawai’iPress,1996),205.

67

OnlythepositionofqianintheSouth,kunintheNorth,liintheEast,andkan intheWestisreferredtobyShaoYong.Arrault,“Lesdia-grammesdeShaoYong(1012–1077),”79.

68

Ibid.,77.



of thesediagrams.69For inneralchemists,suchasChenZhixuof theYuandynasty,thedistinctionbetweentwomodesofqiisfundamental.InChen’sopinion,inneralchemyisnotaboutesotericlanguage,butabout“theineffa-ble,all-embracing,immanent,andtranscendentalqiof‘FormerHeaven,’”ashighlightedinhisprefacetoJindan dayao.70TheresemblancebetweenChenZhixu’sexplanationsonxiantian qiand houtian qiandthoseofZhangJiebinarestriking.Compare,forinstance,thefollowingphrasesofJindan dayao,withtheabovequotestakenfromZhangJiebin’scomments:

“Now,IwillexplainqithatcomesafterHeaven-and-Earth(hou tiandi zhi qi).Thisqiispro-ducedbygrains.Therefore,it[thecompositionofthecharacterforqi]comesfrom‘vapor’and‘rice.’71Thestomachreceivesthegrains,andproducesqi.72

…

Only,theqiofthePre-HeavenlyAuthenticOnecanberefinedtoletitrevertintocinnabar.Thisiscomingfromemptynothingness.”73

Table 3. ComparisonofexplanationsofdifferentstatesofqiinChenZhixu’s Shangyangzi jindan dayaoandZhangJiebin’sLeijing

state of qi Jindan dayao Leijingxiantian qi of the Pre-Heavenly Authentic

One can be refined to let it revertintocinnabar.Itcomesfromemptynothingness.

qioftheAuthenticOne.Itisqitransformedoutofemptiness.

houtian qithatcomesafterHeaven-and-Ear-th.Thisqiisproducedbygrains.

qiofBloodandqi.Itisqitrans-formedoutofgrains.

InJindan dayaoalsotherelationbetweenqiandessence/formisexplained.Theproductionofessenceoutofqiisanessentialpartoftheontogenyofthehumanbeing,andiscomparedwiththefamouscosmogonyintheforty-sec-ondchapteroftheDaode jing:“Whatiscontinuation(shun)?Oneproducestwo.Twoproducesthree.ThreeproducestheMyr-iadThings.74Thus,emptiness(xu)transformsintospirit.Spirittransformsintoqi.Qi transformsintoessence.Essencetransformsintoform.And,formcompletesthehumanbeing.”75

Inalchemicalpracticesthereturntotheprimordialstateofthecosmos(xiantian) isessential.Therefore, thealchemist inverses(ni) thenormalorder(shun)ofcosmogony:“Whatisinversion?TheMyriadThingscontainthethree.Thethreereturntothetwo.Thetworeturntotheone.ThosewhoknowthisWayconcordthespirit(yi shen)andsafeguardtheform(shou xing).Theynourishtheformandrefineessence.Theyaccumulateessenceandtransformitintoqi.Theyrefineqianduniteitwithspirit.Theyrefinespiritandmakeitreturntoempti-ness.Whengoldencinnabar(jindan) is thencompleted,itdependsonlyonthatonethingofbeforeHeaven-and-Earth(xian tiandi zhi yi wu)!”76

EvenifwestillmightarguethatZhangJiebinshouldbeplacedinthecon-textofNeo-Confucianism,aftercomparingZhangJiebin’sideasonxiantian-houtianqiandthoseofChenZhixuinJindan dayao,itisveryapparentthatZhangowesalottotheinneralchemicalexplanationsofChen.Suchdetailedexplanationsonthedifferencesbetweenxiantianandhoutianqi,asfoundinthemedicalandtheinneralchemicaltext,areabsentinorthodoxNeo-Con-fucianwritings.77Thecircleisfullnow.Accordingtotradition,ChenTuantransmitted xiantian xue to ShaoYong.AlthoughZhuXi consideredShaoYong’sideastobetooDaoisttoincludehimintotheorthodoxtransmission



oftheWay,attheendoftheMingdynasty,physicianssuchasZhangJiebinwerereachingbacktoalchemicaltextsforexplainingtheessenceofqiandthedifferencebetweenitsxiantianandhoutianstate.

3. Cultivation practices

Inthelastpartofthisarticle,IwillhaveacloserlookatZhangJiebin’sexpla-nationsofcultivationpracticesthemselves,andwheretothesepracticesmightlead.AscanbeseeninTable1,Zhangmakesadistinctionbetweentheprac-ticeofrestoringauthenticity(xiuzhen zhi dao)andthepracticeofnourishinglife (yangsheng zhi fa). In theMing dynasty, restoring authenticity shouldbeplaced in thecontextofDaoist inneralchemy.This is illustratedby theinclusionofsomeversestakenfromapoemattributedtoLüYan,patriarchofbothSouthernandNorthernlineagesofinneralchemy.Ontheotherhand,inexplainingthepracticeofnourishinglife,whichismoreneutralandnotnec-essarilyrelatedtoinneralchemy,Zhangalsoquotesabasictextofinneral-chemy:theentireTaixi jingwiththeappendedTaixi ming.Thus,inhisexpla-nationoftheimportanceofessence,qi,and spiritinrelationtobothxiuzhenandyangsheng,theconnectionswithinneralchemyarehighlighted.78

However,practicesrelatedtoessence,qi,andspiritarecertainlynotexclu-sivelyfoundininneralchemy.TheyoriginatedinearlyChinaandpre-datein-neralchemyassuch.79Forexample,thecontentofthetextofBaiJuyi(772–846)towhichZhangrefersexplainingthebreathingtechniquespracticedbytwolegendaryimmortals,WangQiaoandRedPine(ChiSong),canalreadybefoundintheHuainanzi.Alsothequotewhichexplainsthat“themethodto

69

Ibid.,77–79,82–83andAlainArrault,Shao Yong (1012–1077), poète et cosmologue(Paris:CollègedeFrance,InstitutdeHautesÉtudesChinoises,2002),282–286.Onxiantianandhoutianintheinneralchemicalcon-text,seealsoIsabelleRobinet,“OriginalCon-tributions ofNeidan toTaoismandChineseThought,” inTaoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques, ed.LiviaKohn (AnnArbor:TheCenterforChineseStudies.UniversityofMichigan,1989),323–324;andPregadioandSkar,484–485.

70

FarzeenBaldrian-Hussein,“Shangyangzijin-dan dayao,” in Schipper and Verellen, The Taoist Canon,1180.

71

This is an etymological explanation of thecharacterqi(氣).Thecharacterdepictswhatissaidintheprevioussentence.Vapor(qi气)risingupaftercookingrice(mi米).Or,inamoremedicalview:thegrainsenterthestom-ach,wheretheyareprocessed.Qiprocessedofthegrainsrisesuptothelungs,fromwhereitdiffusedoverthewholebody.

72

Jindan dayao,3:5a.

73

Ibid.,3:7b.

74

Daode jing,chapter42.

75

Ibid.,4:7b.

76

Jindan dayao,4:7b.Oncontinuationandin-version,seePregadioandSkar,485.

77

Compare for example with the writings ofZhuXi,whodidalsowriteacommentaryontheZhouyi cantong qi(TokenfortheAgree-mentof theThreeAccording to theBook of Changes),abasictextofinneralchemy.Thiscommentary, however, “offers a cosmologi-cal interpretation of the Cantong qi whichdownplays its alchemical import.” PregadioandSkar,474.

78

OnlywhenZhangexplainsthewayofnour-ishing thebody/self (yang shen zhi dao),hereferstoLiGao’smedicalPiwei lun.

79

Fabrizio Pregadio and Lowell Skar call theperiodbefore theTangdynasty the “embry-onic phase” of inner alchemy. They situate“earlyneidan”intheTang.“Matureneidan”starts only in the late Tang. Pregadio andSkar,465.



cultivatethespiritistranquility”istakenfromtheHuainanzi.80Whatismorespecificforlatertextsofinneralchemy,andnotfoundinearlyDaoisttexts,isforinstancetheideaoftheintercoursebetweenthetrigramskan(water, )andli(fire, )intheexplanationofthequotetakenfromtheQi mitu.81

ZhangJiebinfurtherdistinguishesthepracticeofessence,qi,andspiritintoxing(innernature)andming (life)training,asisdoneinthetwomaininneralchemicaltraditions.82Practicesrelatedtospiritareregardedasxingtraining,whilethoserelatedtoessenceandqiareregardedasmingtraining.Neverthe-less,essence,qi,andspirit(or:mingandxing)formanunbreakablebond,andcanneverbeseparated.83ZhangJiebinexplains:

“Althoughspiritisproducedoutofessenceandqi,itisalso[thething]bywhichessenceandspiritarecontrolledanddriven,andistheruleroftheirapplications(yunyong zhi zhu).Itisthespiritthatislocatedinourhearts.Ifthesethree[essence,qi,andspirit]areunitedasone,itcanbecalledtheWay!”84

Attheendofhiscommentonessence,qi,andspiritinrelationtotheAuthenticPerson,Zhanggivesanintroductorypracticeaid.Hecountersthewidespreadopinionthatrestricting(sexual)desires(jin yu)wassufficienttonourishlife.“They[peopleinhistime]donotknowthatwhenthereisanaberrantmovement(wang dong)oftheheart,qiisdispersedbyfollowingtheheart.Whenqiisdispersedinsteadofgathered,essenceisexpelledandqiislost.”85

Hereafter,hereferstotheBuddhistSishi’er zhang jing(SūtrainForty-twoSections):

“Cuttingoffsexualdesires(duan yin)isnotasgoodascuttingofftheheart.Theheartistheofficialthatdoestheefforts(gong cao).Ifyouareabletostoptheoneincharge,thefollowerswillallceasetheirirregularities(xie).Whentheheartisnothalted,whatbenefitsdoesithavetocutoffsexualdesires?”86

Morespecificpracticesarefoundintheforty-firstsubchapterofthecategory“CirculatoryPhasesandSeasonalInfluences”(Yunqi)towhichZhanggivesacross-reference.InthatsubchapterwefindapassageoftheapocryphalSW72,87 inwhich“breathretention”(bi qi)88and“swallowingthefluidofqi”(yan qi jin)arementionedasamethodthatcanbepracticedinthecaseofanenduringkidneydisorder.89ZhangJiebinfirstpointsoutthatthisisamethodof“nourishingqiandmakingessencereturn”(yang qi huan jing).Byswal-lowingsalivatherootsoflifecanbereinforced.Or,asisstatedinanoldcom-menttowhichZhangrefers:

“Daoistsalchemists(xianjia)swallowqi.Theylettheroaringintheirbellyarriveundertheum-bilicus.Theqiofthechild(zi qi)seestheprimordialqiofthemother(mu yuanqi).Hence,thisiscalled‘turningbacktotherootandrevertingtotheorigin’(fanben huanyuan).”90

Inaddition,Zhangattachesalongexplanation,titled“MethodofGuidingandPulling”(Daoyin fa).91Again,hehighlights the importanceofessenceandqiastherootoflife(ming)andspiritasthecontrolleroflife(xing).Healsoprovidesthreebreathingexercisesthatcanserveasintroductorymethods.92Zhangfurtherexplainshowandwhentheseexercisescanbepracticed,andwhatresultscanbeexpected:

“Whenthewholebodyiscompletely[like]theWay(yi shen jie dao),whatobstruction(zhi)willtherestillbe?Afterithasbecomemostsubtlebypracticingforalongtime,thenithonestlydoesnotstopbydispellingdiseases!”93

Moredetailsontheresultsaregiveninaquoteofthe“MethodofBreathRe-tention”(Biqi fa)attributedtothelegendaryfigurePengzu,whosupposedly



livedeighthundredyearsandisassociatedwithlongevitytechniques.Resultsofpracticingthistechniquearedescribedasfollows:

“When a goose feather is put on the nose, it does notmove anymore during three hundredbreathings.Theearshavenothingtheyhear,theeyeshavenothingtheysee,andthemindhasnothingitthinksof.Coldandheatcannotenter.Waspsandscorpionscannotstingtheirpoison.Onelivesonehundredsixtyyears,andisnearingthestateoftheAuthenticPerson(lin yu zhenren).”94

80

Huainanzi, inGuoxuezhenglishe,Zhuzi jic-heng,7:23.

81

Ontheuseofthesetrigramsininneralchemy,seeRobinet,“OriginalContributionsofNeidan toTaoismandChineseThought,” 312–314.Robinethascharacterizedtextsofinneralchemyasfollows:“1.aconcernfortrainingthemindasmuchasthebody,withthemen-talaspectusuallypredominant;2.atendencytosynthesizevariousTaoistcurrents,certainBuddhist speculations, and specific Confu-cianlinesofthought;3.referencestotheYijing;and4.referencestochemicalpractices.”Ibid.,300.Theuseof tri-andhexagramsoftheBook of Changes in inner alchemygoesbacktoZhouyi cantong qi,attributedtoWeiBoyangoftheHandynasty.However,there-ceivedversionoftheZhouyi cantong qidatesfrom the Tang dynasty and marks the shiftfromexternalalchemy(waidan) to inneral-chemy.FabrizioPregadio,“TheEarlyHistoryoftheZhouyi cantong qi.”Journal of Chinese Religions30(2003).

82

Xing and ming are used in Quanzhen andNanzong,butnot in theZhong-Lütradition,theoldesttraditionofinneralchemy.Robinet,“OriginalContributionsofNeidan toTaoismandChineseThought,”306.

83

Dualcultivationofinnernatureandlife(xingming shuangxiu) was important in both theSouthern lineage of Zhang Boduan and theYuandynastyformofinneralchemyofChenZhixu.OndualcultivationofxingmingintheSouthern lineage of inner alchemy, see DanK.J.Vercammen, “Bedenkingen bij de xingming formule van de Zuidelijke InnerlijkeAlchemie (Thoughts on the xingming For-mula of Southern InnerAlchemy),” inFood for Thought: de essentie van de Chinese cultuur, ed. Dan K.J. Vercammen (Antwerpen:BelgischeTaoïstischeAssociatie,2001).Dualcultivationofxingming,asexplainedbyChenZhixu,alsoinfluencedMingdynastyinneral-chemists,suchasLuXixing.SeePierre-HenrydeBruyn,“DaoismintheMing(1368–1644),”inKohn,Daoism Handbook,608.

84

Zhang Jiebin, 8. Compare also with Ibid.,1141.

85

Ibid.,8.ThesesentencescanalmostverbatimbefoundinJindan dayao,3:6a,whichagainprovesthecloseaffinitybetweenZhangJie-bin’sideasonessence,qi,andspiritandthoseexpressedinJindan dayao.

86

QuotedasinZhangJiebin,8.ComparewithTaishô shinshu daizôkyô 784, 723b:28–29.OnSishi’er zhang jing,seeErikZürcher,The Buddhist Conquest of China: The Spread and Adaptation of Buddhism in Early Medieval China,3rded.(Leiden:Brill,2007),29–30.

87

ThecontentsofSW72and73areattributedtoLiuWenshu(11thC.).Despeux,“TheSys-tem of the Five Circulatory Phases and theSixSeasonalInfluences,”133.

88

SeeCatherineDespeux,“BreathRetention,”in Pregadio, Encyclopedia of Taoism, 234–235. On techniques of breath retention asmentioned in theBaopuzi andSunSimiao’sBeiji qianjin yaofang,seesupra.

89

ZhangJiebin,1411.

90

Ibid.

91

Daoyincanbeliterallytranslatedas“guidingandpulling”andusually refers to“gymnas-tics”.Ondaoyinasgymnastics,seeCatherineDespeux, “Gymnastics: The Ancient Tradi-tion,” in Kohn,Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques. Here, Zhang Jiebin usesdaoyintodenoterespiratorytechniques.

92

These exercises are: “Mr. Jiang’s Pieces onRegulatingQi”(Jiangshi Tiaoqi pian),“Mr.Su’s Formula on Nourishing Life” (Sushi Yangsheng jue),andAuthenticManLi’sFor-mulainThirty-sixCharactersonProlongingLife (Li Zhenren Changsheng shiliu zi jue).ZhangJiebin,1411–1414.

93

Ibid.,1414.

94

As in ibid.ComparewithSunSimiao,Beiji qianjin yaofang, 470, in which Pengzu’smethodisalsodescribed.



ForZhangJiebin,becominganAuthenticPersonwasthusagenuineambition,andshouldbeseeninthecontextofinneralchemy.Zhangpointsoutthattheobscureterminologyusedininneralchemicaltextsbasicallyreferstomakingqiraiseup(ti qi),breathing(huxi),thefluids(jinye),etc.95Althoughtherearemanynamesandpractices,accordingtoZhangthereisonebasicprinciple:“whatgoesoutislessthanwhatenters”(chu shao ru duo).96ThisprinciplealreadyoccursintextsastheBaopuzi,andrelatestoembryonicbreathing.97ThepurposeofthisbreathingexerciseintheBaopuzi,whichpredatesmatureinneralchemy,wasalso“generatingandnourishingtheperfectedorrealizedone’s(zhenren)‘holyembryo’(shengtai).”98

It couldbe argued thatmostof thepractices towhichZhang Jiebin refersareonlyintroductorymeans,andshouldnotberegardedasinneralchemy.Asthismaybe,itisundeniablethatinZhang’sopinionmedicineandinneralchemy(referredtoasxiandao)arecloselyrelatedtoeachother.Or,tousehiswords:

“Thewayofmedicineconnectswiththewayofimmortality(yidao tong xiandao).Thisismostimportant.Whenyouhearthis,youshouldnotregardittobeaheresy,orthatItellthisasajoke.”99

Conclusion

It is impossible to prove that Zhang Jiebin himself practicedDaoist inneralchemy.Hewasa“(Neo-)Confucian,”orrathera“scholar”,physician(ruyi)inthefirstplace.Asaphysician,thereligiousaspirationsofthepractitionerofinneralchemywereprobablynothisfirstpreoccupation.Zhanglivedintheworldofordinaryhumanbeingsandpracticedthevirtuousprofessionofmedicine.Nevertheless,heacknowledgedtheimportanceofDaoismespeciallyinhiscommentsdealingwithprinciplesofcultivatingalongandhealthylife. HisreferencestoDaoismareundeniablynotjustsomeembellishmentsinthetext.Thisbecomesclearwhenanalyzinghiscommentonthesecondpassagede-scribing theAuthenticPersonat the endofSW1.First,Zhang Jiebinhadthoroughly readmain inneralchemical texts.Hehighlights the importanceoftextssuchastheTaixi jing,Jindan dayao,worksbyZhangBoduan,etc.,to explain essence, qi, and spirit. Second, Zhang’s understanding of xiantian qi ismore profound and elaborate than in “orthodox”Neo-Confucianwritings,andbearsstrongresemblanceswith ideasexpressed in textssuchastheJindan dayao.Third,ZhangJiebinreferstospecificexercises.Theseexercisesarenotjusthealthpreventivetechniques.AlthoughthetechniquesdescribedintheLeijingareonlyintroductorymeans, theydonotonlyaimatdispellingdiseasebutalsoleadtothesoteriologicalgoalofbecominganAuthenticPerson.ForZhangJiebin,medicineandDaoismwerenodivergentpaths.IfaphysicianattheendoftheMingdynastywantedtofullyunderstandthemainingredientsoflifeitself,hehad,inZhangJiebin’sopinionatleast,totakeaccountofDaoistinneralchemicalexplanationsandpractices.



Leslie de Vries

Autentični čovjek kao ideal za liječnika u razdoblju kasne dinastije MingDaoistička unutarnja alkemija u Zhang Jiebinovom komentaru Huangdi neijing

SažetakKrajem razdoblja dinastije Ming (1368.–1644.) daoistička unutarnja alkemija imala je značajan utjecaj na medicinske teorije nekih od najistaknutijih liječnika u kineskoj pokrajini Jiangnan. Ovaj se članak fokusira na Zhang Jiebinove (1563.–1640.) komentare Huangdineijing(Unutarnji klasik žutoga cara), temeljnog teksta kineske medicine. U prvome poglavlju navedenog teksta dan je opis četiri uzorna tipa čovjeka. Analizira se Zhang Jiebinovo razmatranje jednog od tih tipova, autentičnog čovjeka (zhenren). Obilato se oslanjajući na izvore unutarnje alkemije, Zhang se fokusira na bitne konstituente tijela: bit (jing), qi i duh (shen). Nadalje se pokazuje kako Zhang naglašava snažne veze između medicine i unutarnje alkemije u raspravi o konkretnim praksama, koje ne samo da uklanjaju poremećaje nego također vode do daoističkog ideala postajanja zhenrenom.

Ključne riječiZhangJiebin,kineskamedicina,dinastijaMing,unutarnjaalkemija,qi,soteriologija

Leslie de Vries

Der authentische Mensch als Ideal für den Arzt der späten Ming-DynastieDaoistische innere Alchemie in Zhang Jiebins Kommentar zu Huangdi neijing

ZusammenfassungGegen Ende der Ming-Dynastie (1368–1644) übte die daoistische innere Alchemie einen erheblichen Einfluss auf die medizinischen Theorien einiger der prominentesten gelehrten Ärzte im chinesischen Gebiet Jiangnan aus. In diesem Artikel richte ich meine Aufmerksamkeit auf Zhang Jiebins (1563–1640) Kommentar zu Huangdineijing (Innerer Klassiker des Gelben Kaisers), dem grundlegenden Text der chinesischen Medizin. Im ersten Kapitel des erwähnten Textes werden vier beispielhafte Typen von Menschen geschildert. Ich analysiere Zhang Jiebins Ausführung eines von denen, des authentischen Menschen (zhenren). Sich reichlich an die inneren alchemistischen Quellen lehnend legt er seinen Schwerpunkt auf die wesentliche Bestandteile des Körpers: Essenz (jing), qi und Geist (shen). Ferner zeige ich, wie Zhang starke Verbindungen zwischen Medizin und der inneren Alchemie in einer Diskussion über konkrete Praktiken betont, die nicht nur Störungen abbauen, sondern überdies zum daoistischen Ideal des zhenrenWerdens führen könnten.

SchlüsselwörterZhangJiebin,chinesischeMedizin,Ming-Dynastie,innereAlchemie,qi,Soteriologie

95

Inaddition,Zhangalsoreferstosexualprac-tices (Yunü zhi shu). On inner alchemy andsexualpractices,seeDouglasWile,Art of the Bedchamber: The Chinese Sexual Yoga Classics Including Women’s Solo Meditation Texts(Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,1992).

96

ZhangJiebin,1414.

97

Baopuzimentionsthisprincipleinreverseor-der(“whatentersismorethanwhatgoesout”ru duo chu shao)inthecontextofembryonicbreathing.Qi(air)isinhaledthroughthenose,andthenclosedoff(bi).Afterhavingcounted

tillonehundred-twenty(atbeginnerlevel),theairisgentlybreathedoutthroughthemouth.As in the citation of “Pengzu’s Method ofBreathRetention”above,alsoagoosefeath-er is mentioned. This goose feather makes“whatgoesoutislessthanwhatenters”visu-allyclear:“Itshouldbethatagoosefeatherplaced on top of mouth and nose does notmovewhilebreathingout(tu qi).”GeHong,Baopuzi (MasterwhoEmbracesSimplicity),Guoxuezhenglishe, Zhuzi jicheng,8:33.

98

Cf.fn.26.

99

ZhangJiebin,1414.



Leslie de Vries

L’homme authentique en tant que médecin idéal dans la période tardive de la dynastie Ming

Alchimie taoïste interne de Zhang Jiebin dans le commentaire du Huangdi neijing

RésuméÀ la fin de la dynastie Ming (1368–1644) l’alchimie interne taoïste exerçait une influence significative sur les théories médicales de médecins renommés de la province chinoise de Jiangnan. Cet article se concentre sur les commentaires du Huangdineijing(Classique interne de l’empire Jaune) de Zhang Jiebin, texte fondateur de la médecine chinoise. Dans le premier chapitre de ce texte quatre types d’hommes exemplaires sont décrits. L’analyse porte sur l’élaboration de Zhang Jiebin de l’un des quatre types d’hommes, l’homme authentique (zhenren). Se référant de manière abondante aux sources de l’alchimie interne, Zhang se concentre sur ses constituants essentiels : l’essence (jing), le qi, et l’esprit (shen). Plus loin, l’article montre comment Zhang souligne les relations fortes entre la médecine et l’alchimie interne dans les discussions sur les pratiques concrètes, qui non seulement suppriment les désordres, mais mènent également à l’idéal taoïste du devenir zhenren.

Mots-clésZhangJiebin,médecinechinoise,dynastieMing,alchimieinterne,qi,sotériologie