The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers

The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers

Editor-in-Chief

Thomas Hockey

Senior Editors

Virginia TrimbleThomas R. Williams

Editors

Katherine BracherRichard A. JarrellJordan D. Marché, IIF. Jamil Ragep

Associate Editor

JoAnn Palmeri

Assistant Editor

Marvin Bolt

Dr. Thomas HockeyProfessor of AstronomyUniversity of Northern IowaDepartment of Earth ScienceOffice: Latham 112Cedar FallsIA 50614USA

ISBN 13: 978-0-387-31022-0The electronic version of the whole set will be available under ISBN-13: 978-0-387-30400-7.The print and electronic bundle of the whole set will be available under ISBN-13: 978-0-387-33628-2.

© 2007 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.

All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC., 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodo-logy now known or hereafter developed is forbidden.The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights.

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To my teachers

Aldrich SyversonJoseph Freimeyer

Connie MitchellJohn Miller

Paul CokePeggy Hudson

Irwin ShapiroJohn LewisReta Beebe

Herbert BeebeWilliam Eamon

Clyde Tombaugh

Preface

Like that of any human activity, the history of astronomy has been played out under the influence of myriad cultural, institutional, political, sociological, technological, and natural forces. Any history that focuses only on the greatest participants in a field likely misses a great deal of interest and historical value. Inasmuch as astronomy is undertaken by and for human beings, therefore, its history cannot be limited to the lives and achievements of a narrow group.

Here we analyze the lives of people who, in our view, produced some substantial contribution to the field of astronomy, were involved in some important astronomical event, or were in some other manner important to the discipline. In doing so we do not discount the work of countless other journeyman astronomers without whom the science would not have progressed as it has.

ScopeBiographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers [BEA] entries presented here do not pretend to illuminate all aspects of a given person’s vita. More-over, some figures included are better known for their enterprises outside of astronomy. In these situations, their astronomical contributions are emphasized.

For many of our entries, the length is limited to something substantially less than 1,000 words due to the lack of available information. There is, of course, an inclination to write a great deal more about persons for whom there is a significant literature already available, e. g., Copernicus, Kepler, Newton, William Herschel, or Einstein. Many such individuals are covered in other standard resources, and we have not felt compelled to repeat all that is already published in those cases. In fact, we look at our entries as a guide to recent scholarship and a brief summary of the important facts about the lives involved. On the other hand, two-thirds of the entries in this encyclopedia are about individuals for whom there is no readily available standard source. In those cases, the length of the article may be longer than might be expected in comparison with those of better known astronomers, and reflects the fact that an entry offers the first (and perhaps only) easily available information about the astronomer involved: It is not difficult to find sources on “Greats” such as Galileo Galilei; however, it is hard to find information on Galilei’s acolyte, Mario Guiducci.

Citations within the text have been avoided to enhance readability. Nearly all articles end with a list of selected references. The reader is thus presented with opportunities for further research; no article is intended to be a dead end. Toward that end, if we do not provide additional resources for an entry, the subject will be cross-referenced within other articles for which we do provide selected references.

In compiling the selected references, we have tried to include difficult-to-identify secondary sources. At the same time we have largely excluded standard reference works and include only some of the latest canonical works covering the best-known figures in astronomy.

The BEA documents individuals born from Antiquity to approximately mid–1918. Subjects may be living or dead. While some ancient figures have become legendary, we have tried to avoid clearly mythological ones. For example, while the royal Chinese astronomers Ho and Hsi (supposedly third millennium BCE) appear in nearly every history of eclipses, they warrant no entry here.

This terminal birth date assures that the subjects written about have completed most of their careers, and that sufficient time likely has elapsed since their featured accomplishments that a historical perspective on their work is possible. Note that almost all of our subjects began their careers before the watershed transformation of astronomy brought about by the events of World War II. It is also true that the number of astronomers significantly increased after this time. Our youngest subject is Gérard de Vaucouleurs; our oldest is Homer.

Inclusion ParametersOur entry selection embraces a broad definition of the word “astronomer.” In modern science, little differentiation is made between the words “astronomy” and “astrophysics”; we do not use such a distinction here. For example, our definition includes astrometrists, cosmolo-gists, and planetologists. These three fields were considered separate and self-contained for most of human history. Cosmology, especially, requires the inclusion of many philosophers and theologians.

Early astronomers often also were astrologers. If they performed astronomical pursuits in addition to simple divination, we include them. Likewise, no distinction is made between the professional and the contributing amateur.

With the exception of a few important cases, instrument makers are included only if they pursued astronomical work with their instru-ments. Surveyors and cartographers are included if their study of the stars went beyond mere reference for terrestrial mapmaking. Lastly, a select group of authors, editors of astronomical journals, founders of astronomical societies, observatory builders and directors, astronomy historians, and patrons of astronomy are included.

A common pitfall in the history of science is to make the story of a discipline appear to be a single ladder ascending toward modern theory. Instead, it is a tree with many branches, only some of which have led to our current understanding of the Universe. Indeed, seemingly dead branches may become reanimated later in time. And branches may merge as ideas once considered unrelated are brought together. A better metaphor may be a vine, one with many grafts.

Scientists who contributed theories no longer held salient, or who made observations now considered suspect, nonetheless are included on our list if their effort was considered scientifically useful in its time, and the basis for further inquiry. At the same time, scientists whose ideas or techniques are now considered prescient, but who were unrecognized in their lifetimes, may appear as well.

The contributions of persons selected for entries in this work were weighed in the context of their times. Thus, while a contribution made by a medieval scholar might seem small by today’s standards, it was significant for its era. We are especially proud of our inclusion of “non-western” figures who often have been given little treatment in histories of astronomy. Finally, we have included numerous entries of fewer than 100 words, some just a sentence or two, to introduce their names and place them in context within the broader vistas of astronomy.

Construction of the subject list was done by the editor-in-chief in consultation with the content editors. Well-known historian of astronomy Owen Gingerich generously volunteered his time to comment upon draft lists. Still, while an earnest attempt was made to make an objective selection of our more than 1,500 entries, responsibility for omissions must rest with the editor-in-chief. Most vulnerable to omission were those born in the last century.

Project StaffingAuthor solicitation was done by the editor-in-chief. Many of the shortest entries were crafted by the editor-in-chief; some but not most of these short entries were paraphrased from an unpublished typescript draft titled Biographical Dictionary of Astronomers, originally prepared by the historian Hector C. Macpherson in 1940. The standardized format of the articles was arrived at by consensus among the editors. Senior editor Thomas R. Williams’s Author Guidelines proved indispensable.

Editors were invited to join the project by the editor-in-chief. This editorial board includes, more-or-less equally, individuals who entered history-of-astronomy scholarship with a background either in history of science or in astronomy. (Some have both.) Unlike many encyclopedists, we did not use our editorial role to eradicate the individual writing styles of the authors.

Each content editor was assigned a thematic editorial responsibility, though all were called upon, at one time or another, to edit articles outside of this specialty. The assignments were as follows:

Classical and Medieval Astronomers—Katherine BracherRenaissance and Enlightenment Astronomers—Richard A. JarrellNineteenth Century Astronomers—Marvin BoltTwentieth Century Astronomers/Astrophysicists—Virginia TrimbleAstronomers of the Islamic World—Jamil RagepNonvocational Astronomers—Thomas R. WilliamsAstronomy Popularizers—Jordan D. Marché, IIAll content editors also contributed articles to the BEA. JoAnn Palmeri edited the vital references for all entries. Additionally she served

as our illustrations editor.For errata information, e-mail us at HOCKEY@UNI.EDU

Thomas HockeyOctober 2005

Prefaceviii

Acknowledgments

The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers [BEA] is above all the product of its authors. These 410 contributors hail from 40 different countries. Nearly every article is an original piece of scholarship. In some cases, scholars about whom entries were written were themselves gracious enough to write articles for us on other subjects.

At the heart of this 6-year project has been its board of editors. Contrary to what the narrow definition of this job title might imply, these people have been actively providing aid, comfort, and advice to the project, since its inception. As to their editorial contribution specifically, this was often far greater, and more time consuming, than is commonly assumed.

The BEA was the idea of Peter Binfield (then Business Development at Kluwer). Dr. Binfield’s assistant, Ms. Livia Iebba, also provided support “above and beyond.” Dr. Harry Blom, Springer’s Senior Editor for Astronomy and Astrophysics, traveled many kilometers to meet with the BEA editorial board and lend support on the long road to publication.

Usually unsung in a project of this nature are those individuals who did not write for us, but instead recommended other willing and qualified authors. Brevity permits me only two examples: Eva Isaksson of the University of Helsinki and Kevin Krisciunas of the Cerro Tololo Interamerican Observatory.

Brenda G. Corbin at the United States Naval Observatory kindly provided us with a manuscript copy of Hector Copland MacPherson’s Biographical Dictionary of Astronomers (1940), which was never published. We hope that its use in assembling the BEA is similar to what Dr. MacPherson had wished to achieve. Many, though not most, of the shortest entries in the BEA were paraphrased from MacPherson’s work.

Certain scholars consulted with us on astronomers of specific nationalities. We appreciate the assistance of Alexander A. Gurshtein (astronomers of the former USSR), Suzanne Débarbat (Francophone astronomers), Helge Kragh (Scandinavian astronomers), Robert Van Gent (Dutch), A. Vagiswari (Indian astronomers), Kevin D. Pang (Chinese astronomers), Jochi Shigeru (East Asian astronomers), and Rudi Paul Lindner (Byzantine astronomers).

The bibliographies of recent works in the history of astronomy published by Ruth Freitag (Library of Congress) were enormously useful. So was the Finding List of Obituary Notes of Astronomers (1900–1997) prepared by Hilmar Dürbeck and Beatrix Ott, with contributions by Wolfgang Dick. The Astrophysics Data System of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration was frequently accessed.

The effort of Daniel W. E. Green, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics and International Astronomical Union Center for Astronomical Telegrams, assured that the proper use of new International Astronomical Union comet and minor-planet nomenclatures was maintained.

H. Miller’s Thryomanes font facilitated communicating Arabic text between editors. Yuliana Ivakh helped the editor-in-chief with Cyrillic.Kari Aunan handled thousands of letters during the author-solicitation process. Wesley Even created and maintained the spreadsheet, so

necessary for keeping track of the data and long lists generated by the project. Rachel Wiekhorst operated the document scanner. Jeff Guntren prepared the Table of Contents. I am proud to say that all did so while being undergraduate students at the University of Northern Iowa.

Ruby Hockey undertook the cumbersome filing process.“Thank you” to the members of the Department of Earth Science, University of Northern Iowa [UNI], especially Lois Jerke. I relied on

their infrastructure and good humor greatly. Generous, too, was the support of Dean Kichoon Yang, UNI College of Natural Sciences. Linda Berneking of the UNI Donald O. Rod Library, Interlibrary Loan, also deserves special mention.

Editor Marvin Bolt would like to thank the Adler Planetarium and Astronomy Museum and the Program in the History and Philosophy of Science at the University of Notre Dame for research support.

Editor Katherine Bracher would like to acknowledge the advice and support of Cynthia W. Shelmerdine, Professor of Classics at the University of Texas at Austin.

Editor Jordan D. Marché, II thanks the Department of Astronomy at the University of Wisconsin-Madison for its strong support, and especially the Woodman Astronomical Library. Concurrently, he acknowledges the other libraries of the University of Wisconsin-Madison system and the Wisconsin State Historical Society Library.

Editor Jamil Ragep wishes to acknowledge Sally P. Ragep for editorial work behind the scenes and also Julio Samsó for help with Anda-lusian/North African astronomers.

Editor Virginia Trimble wishes to acknowledge the assistance of Leon Mestel, George Herbig, Meinhard Mayer, Harry Lustig, M. G. Rodriguez, Adriaan Blaauw, and Dimitri Klimushkin.

Editor Thomas R. Williams would like to acknowledge Peter Hingley, librarian of the Royal Astronomical Society, and Richard McKim, as well as the staff of Fondren Library at Rice University for their assistance.

The editorial board is grateful for the aid received from the many other scholars and librarians, too many to list here, who assisted with facts, citations, and general comments on individual entries. This public support is echoed by officers of the International Astronomical Union Commission 41 (History of Astronomy)/Inter-Union Commission for History of Astronomy, Ileana Chinnici and Wayne Orchiston, who, in the ICHA Newsletter #3 (2002), wrote regarding the Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomy: “While the formation of the ICHA came too late for it to be an active participant in the planning phase, we are happy to report that the ICHA Organizing Committee has given the project its whole-hearted support…”

Foreword

In the past four decades, the history of astronomy and cosmology has grown into a professional research area, complete with a journal ( Journal for the History of Astronomy), sessions devoted to the subject at annual meetings of professional societies, and regular meetings of its own, such as the biennial meetings at the University of Notre Dame. Indeed, the field contains subspecialties, such as archaeoastronomy, that hold regular meetings of their own and have journals.

Astronomy is unique in several respects. First, although the research front in all sciences moves ever faster, constantly increasing the dis-tance between the practitioner and the subject’s history, in astronomy the time dimension plays a crucial role in current research (as opposed to, for instance, chemistry), and this means that past data, e. g., of eclipse or sunspot observations, continue to play a role in astronomical research. The historian of astronomy is often the intermediary between the astronomer and these data, especially for earlier periods. Second, among the exact sciences, astronomy is the only field in which amateurs continue to play an active, if supporting, role: In a number of cases professional astronomers rely on the services of the amateurs, and many of the services delivered by these amateurs are very professional indeed. But the lines demarking astronomers from historians and professionals from amateurs are not cut–and-dried. There are museum curators and planetarium educators who are amateurs astronomers or do highly professional research on historical periods, and there are professional astronomers who have an abiding interest in the history of their field for various reasons. And lest we forget, there are very large numbers of readers and television viewers with a passive interest in the history of astronomy for whom the human dimension of the quest to understand the heavens is crucial.

Many of the standard histories of astronomy date from the 1930s and 1950s. But these single-volume histories, which once served both as teaching tools and reference works, have become obsolete in the past few decades. More recent single-volume histories of astronomy can serve only as teaching tools and works of general interest. There has, thus, been a growing need for reference works that cover the results of research into the history of astronomy published in the past half century. Recently, two encyclopedias have been published, History of Astronomy: an Encyclopedia, edited by John Lankford, and Encyclopedia of Cosmology, edited by Norriss S. Hetherington. Concepts and issues are central in these works. The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers is a reference work that focuses on individuals; it adds the human dimension without which no science, or its history, can come to life.

Albert van HeldenUtrecht, September 2005

Contributors

Victor K. AbalakinPulkovo Observatory

Mohammed AbattouyFez University

Leonard B. AbbeyIndependent Scholar

Helmut A. AbtKitt Peak National Observatory

Narahari AcharUniversity of Memphis

Meltem AkbasIstanbul University

Durruty Jesús de Alba MartinezUniversidad de Guadalajara

Roberto de Andrade MartinsUniversidade da Campinas

S. M. Razaullah AnsariAligarh Muslim University

Adam Jared AptIndependent Scholar

Stuart AtkinsonIndependent Scholar

David AubinUniversité Pierre-et-Marie Curie

Salim AydüzFatih University

Ennio BadolatiUniversità delgi Studi del Molise

Mohammad BagheriEncyclopaedia Islamica Foundation

Yuri V. BalashovUniversity of Georgia

Sallie BaliunasHarvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics

Alan BaragonaVirginia Military Institute

Edward BaronUniversity of Oklahoma

Raymonde BarthalotObservatoire de la Cote d’Azur

Alan H. BattenNational Research Council (Canada)

Richard BaumIndependent Scholar

Anthony F. BeaversUniversity of Evansville

Herbert BeebeNew Mexico State University

Martin BeechUniversity of Regina

Ari BelenkiyHebrew University

Trudy E. BellIndependent Scholar

Isaac BenguiguiUniversitat Geneva

J. Len BerggrenSimon Fraser University

Giuseppe BezzaIndependent Scholar

Charlotte BiggMax-Planck-Institut für Wissenschafts Geschichte

Albert BijaouiObservatoire de Nice

Adriaan BlaauwRijksuniversiteit Groningen

Nicolaas BloembergenHarvard University

Thomas J. BogdanUniversity of Colorado

Karl-Heinz BohmUniversity of Washington

Marvin BoltAdler Planetarium

Patrick J. BonerUniversity of Florida

Fabrizio BònoliBerrera Osservatorio

Alan J. BowdenLiverpool Museum

Alan C. BowenPrinceton University

Katherine BracherWhitman College

xiv Contributors

Raffaello BragaIndependent Scholar

Ronald BrashearChemical Heritage Foundation

Sonja BrentjesAga Khan University

Peter BroughtonIndependent Scholar

C. Brown-SyedWayne State University

Mary T. BrückUniversity of Edinburgh

Charles BurnettWarburg Institute

Paul L. ButzerRheinisch-Westfalische Technische Hochschule

Chris K. CaldwellUniversity of Tennessee

Emilia CalvoUniversitad de Barcelona

Gary L. CameronIowa State University

Nicholas CampionBath Spa University College

Juan CasanovasVatican Observatory

Josep CasullerasUniversitad de Barcelona

Patrick A. CattIndependent Scholar

Roger CayrelObservatoire de Paris

Davide CenadelliOsservatorio di Brera

Michelle Chapront-TouzéObservatoire de Paris

Paul CharbonneauUniversity of Colorado

François CharetteLudwig-Maximilian University

Ileana ChinniciPalermo Osservatorio

J. S. R. ChisholmUniversity of Kent

Grant ChristieAukland Observatory

George W. ClarkSmithsonian Institution

Donald D. ClaytonClemson University

Mercè ComesUniversitad de Barcelona

Glen M. CooperBrigham Young University

Brenda G. CorbinUnited States Naval Observatory

Alan D. CorréUniversity of Wisconsin

Paul CouteauObservatoire de Nice

George V. CoyneVatican Observatory

Mary CroarkenUniversity of Warwick

Michael J. CroweUniversity of Notre Dame

David CunningNorthern Illinois University

Clifford J. CunninghamStar Lab Press

Martijn P. CuypersUniversiteit Leiden

Alex DalgarnoHarvard University

Dennis DanielsonUniversity of British Columbia

A. Clive DavenhallUniversity of Edinburgh

Suzanne DébarbatObservatoire de Paris

Robert K. DeKoskyUniversity of Kansas

Deng KehuiInner Mongolian Normal University

David DeVorkinSmithsonian Institution

Jozef T. DevreeseUniversiteit Antwerpen

David W. DewhirstCambridge University

Gregg DeYoungAmerican University in Cairo

xvContributors

Alnoor DhananiInstitute of Ismaili Studies

Dimitris DialetisUniversity of Athens

Steven J. DickNational Aeronautics and Space Administration (USA)

Richard R. DidickIndependent Scholar

Thomas A. DobbinsIndependent Scholar

John W. DocktorIndependent Scholar

Audouin DollfusObservatoire de Paris

Emmanuel DormyInstitute de Physique du Globe de Paris

Matthew F. DowdUniversity of Notre Dame

Ellen Tan DrakeIndependent Scholar

Simone DumontObservatoire de Meudon

Wolcott B. Dunham, Jr.Fund for Astrophysics Research, Incorporated

Storm DunlopSussex University

Sven DupréUniversiteit Ghent

Ian T. DurhamUniversity of Saint Andrews

Suvendra Nath DuttaHarvard University

James DyeNorthern Illinois University

Frank K. EdmondsonIndiana University

Philip EdwardsInstitute of Space and Astronautical Science (UK)

Yuri N. EfremovMoscow State University

Alv EgelandUniversitet Oslo

Arthur J. EhlmannTexas Christian University

Ian ElliottDunsink Observatory

David S. EvansUniversity of Texas

Glenn S. EverettStonehill College

Peter S. ExcellUniversity of Bradford

Carl-Gunne FälthammarAlfvénlaboratoriet

İhsan FazlıoğluIstanbul University

Fernando B. FigueiredoInstituto Politécnico de Tomar

Maurice A. FinocchiaroUniversity of Nevada

Ronald FlorenceIndependent Scholar

Miquel ForcadaUniversitad de Barcelona

Kenneth W. FordNational Aeronautics and Space Administration (USA)

Malcolm R. ForsterUniversity of Wisconsin

Michael FosmirePurdue University

Harmut FrommertIndependent Scholar

Michael FrostIndependent Scholar

Patrick FuentesIndependent Scholar

George GaleUniversity of Misourri

Karl GalleUniversität Göttingen

Robert A. GarfinkleIndependent Scholar

Leonardo GariboldiUniversità delgi Studi di Milan

Roy H. GarstangUniversity of Colorado

Stephen GaukrogerUniversity of Sydney

Steven J. GibsonArecibo Observatory

Henry L. GiclasLowell Observatory

xvi Contributors

Adam GillesObservatoire de Lyon

Owen GingerichHarvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics

M. Colleen GinoDudley Observatory

Ian S. GlassSouth African Astronomical Observatory

André GodduStonehill College

Gunther GörzUniversität Erlangen-Nürnberg

Daniel W. E. GreenHarvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics

Solange GrillotObservatoire de Paris

Monique GrosObservatoire de Paris & Université Pierre-et-Marie Curie

Jiří GrygarAkademie Ved, Ceská Republika

Françoise le Guet TullyObservatoire de la Côte d’Azur

Alastair G. GunnUniversity of Manchester

Guo ShirongInner Mongolian Normal University

Alexander A. GurshteinRussian Academy of Sciences

Fathi HabashiLaval University

Peter HabisonKuffner Sternwarte

Margherita HackOsservatorio Trieste

Petr HadravaAkademie Ved, Ceská Republika

Alena HadravováAkademie Ved, Ceská Republika

Graham HallUniversity of Aberdeen

Fernand HallynUniversiteit Ghent

Jürgen HamelMuseum für Astronomie und Technikgeschichte (Germany)

Truls Lynn HansenUniversitet Tromsø

Katherine HaramundanisHewlett Packard Company

Behnaz HashemipourIsfahan University of Technology

Robert Alan HatchUniversity of Florida

Christian E. Hauer, Jr.Westminster College

John HearnshawUniversity of Canterbury

Klaus HentschelUniversität Göttingen

Dieter B. HerrmannIndependent Scholar

Norriss S. HetheringtonIndependent Scholar

Donald W. HillgerColorado State University

John HiltonUniversity of Natal

Alan W. HirshfeldUniversity of Massachusetts

Thomas HockeyUniversity of Northern Iowa

Laurent HodgesIowa State University

Dorrit HoffleitYale University

Julian HollandUniversity of Sydney

Gustav HolmbergLunds Universitet

Gerald HoltonHarvard University

Elliott HorchRensselaer Polytechnic Institute

Léo HouziauxAcadémie Royale (Belgium)

Mark HurnCambridge University

Robert J. HurryCalvert Marine Museum

Gary HussUniversity of Hawaii

Roger D. HutchinsOxford University

xviiContributors

Siek HyungBohyunsan Optical Astronomy Observatory

Saori IharaKochi University

Satoru IkeuchiNagoya University

Setsuro IkeyamaIndependent Scholar

Balthasar IndermühleIndependent Scholar

Francine JacksonUniversity of Rhode Island

Richard A. JarrellYork University

David JefferiesUniversity of Surrey

Derek JensenUniversity of California at San Diego

Mihkel JoeveerTartu Astrophuusika Observatoorium

J. Bryn JonesUniversity of Nottingham

Mustafa KaçarIstanbul University

Horst KantMax-Planck-Institut für Wissenschafts Geschichte

Hannu KarttunenIndependent Scholar

Katalin KèriJanus Ponnonius University

Paul T. KeyserCornell University

Elaheh KheirandishHarvard University

Kevin J. KilburnUniversity of Manchester

Stamatios KimigisJohns Hopkins University

David A. KingJohann Wolfgang Göthe Universität

Thomas D. KinmanKitt Peak National Observatory

Gyula KlimaFordham University

Thomas KlötiUniversität Bern

Gillian KnappUniversity of Washington

Oliver KnillHarvard University

Wolfgang KokottUniversität München

Daniel KolakWilliam Paterson University

Nicholas KollerstromUniversity College of London

Anne J. KoxUniversiteit Amsterdam

Yoshihide KozaiNational Astronomical Obervatory of Japan

Helge KraghUniversitet Aarhus

John KrausOhio State University

Henk KubbingaRijksuniversiteit Groningen

Suhasini KumarUniversity of Toledo

Paul KunitzschLudwig-Maximilian Universität

Takanori KusubaOsaka University

Alistair KwanUniversity of Melbourne

Claud H. LacyUniversity of Arkansas

Keith R. LafortuneUniversity of Notre Dame

Edgar LairdSouthwest Texas State University

Cindy LammensUniversiteit Ghent

Jérôme LamyObservatoire de Paris

Harry G. LangRochester Institute of Technology

Y. Tzvi LangermannBar Ilan University

James M. LattisUniversity of Wisconsin at Madison

Françoise LaunayObservatoire de Meudon

xviii Contributors

Raimo LehtiTekniska Högskolan

Jacques M. LévyObservatoire de Paris

Li DiInner Mongolian Normal University

Kurt LiffmanCommonwealth Science and Industrial Research Organization

(Australia)

Rudi Paul LindnerUniversity of Michigan

Jean-Pierre LuminetObservatoire de Paris

Gene M. LutzUniversity of Northern Iowa

Kirsten LutzIndependent Scholar

Brian LuzumUnited States Naval Observatory

Joseph F. MacDonnellHolycross University

H. Clark MadduxIndiana University at Kokomo

Jordan D. Marché, IIUniversity of Wisconsin at Madison

Theresa MarchéUniversity of Kutztown Pennsylvania

Tapio MarkkanenTekniska Högskolan

Brian G. MarsdenHarvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics

M. J. MartresObservatoire de Paris

Ursula B. MarvinHarvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics

Sergei MaslikovTomsk State University

Kenneth MayersUniversitet Bergen

Dennis D. McCarthyUnited States Naval Observatory

John McFarlandArmagh Observatory

Robert D. McGownIndependent Scholar

Donald J. McGrawUniversity of San Diego

John M. McMahonLemoyne College

Marjorie Steele MeinelNational Aeronautics and Space Administration (USA)

John MenziesSouth African Astronomical Observatory

Michael MeoIndependent Scholar

Raymond MercierIndependent Scholar

Mark D. MeyersonUnited States Naval Academy

Michael E. MickelsonDenison University

Jan MietelskiUniversitas Iagellonica Cracoviensis

Cirilo Flórez MiguelUniversitad de Salamanca

Eugene F. MiloneUniversity of Calgary

Kristian Peder MoesgaardSteno Museet

Patrick MooreBritish Broadcasting Company

Nidia Irene MorrellUniversidad Nacional de La Plata

James MorrisonUniversity of Waterloo

Robert MorrisonWhitman College

Adam MosleyCambridge University

George S. MumfordTufts University

Marco MuraraIndependent Scholar

Paul MurdinCambridge Institute of Astronomy

Negar NaderiEncyclopaedia Islamica Foundation

Victor Navarro-BrotónsUniversidad de Valencia

Davide NeriUniversità di Bologna

Claudia NetzIndependent Scholar

xixContributors

Christian NitschelmUniversiteit Antwerpen

Peter NockoldsIndependent Scholar

Marilyn Bailey OgilvieUniversity of Oklahoma

Takeshi OkaUniversity of Chicago

Timothy O’KeefeUniversity of Minnesota

Ednilson OliveiraUniversidade de Sao Paolo

Wayne OrchistonAnglo-Australian Observatory

JoAnn PalmeriUniversity of Oklahoma

Kevin D. PangCalifornia Institute of Technology

Jay M. PasachoffWilliams College

Naomi PasachoffIndependent Scholar

Stuart F. PawseyIndependent Scholar

Mariafortuna PietroluongoUniversità di Molise

Luisa PigattoOsservatorio Padova

Christof A. PlichtIndependent Scholar

Kim PlofkerUniversität Utrecht

Patrick PoitevinIndependent Scholar

Roser PuigUniversitad de Barcelona

F. Jamil RagepMcGill University

Sally P. RagepUniversity of Oklahoma

Steven L. RenshawKochi University

Michael RichUniversity of California at Los Angeles

Lutz Richter-BernburgUniversität Tübingen

Michael S. ReidyUniversity of Wisconsin

Peter RileyUniversity of Texas

Mònica RiusUniversitad de Barcelona

Leif J. RobinsonSky and Telescope

Nadia RobottiUniversità degli Studi di Genova

John RogersCambridge University

Stanislaw RokitaPlanetarium Wladyslawa Dziewulskiego

Philipp W. RosemanUniversity of Dallas

Eckehard RothenbergArchenhold-Sternwarte

Marc RothenbergSmithsonian Institution

Tamar M. RudavskyOhio State University

M. Eugene RuddUniversity of Nebraska

Steven RuskinUniversity of Notre Dame

David M. RustJohns Hopkins University

John J. SaccomanSeaton Hall University

K. SakuraiKanagawa University

Michael SaladygaAmerican Association of Variable Star Observers

Julio SamsóUniversitad de Barcelona

Voula SaridakisVirginia Technological University

Hüseyin SarıoğluIstanbul University

Ke Ve SarmaSSES Research Centre (India)

Gilbert E. SatterthwaiteImperial College (UK)

Peggy Huss SchallerCollections Research for Museums

xx Contributors

Petra G. SchmidlJohann Wolfgang Göthe Universität

Anneliese SchnellUniversität Wiena

Paul A. SchonsUniversity of Saint Thomas

Ronald A. SchornUniversity of Texas

Douglas ScottUniversity of British Columbia

Mary Woods ScottOhio State University

R. W. SharplesUniversity College of London

Stephen ShectmanCarnegie Observatories

William SheehanIndependent Scholar

Steven N. ShoreUniversità di Pisa

Edward SionVillanova University

Lucas SiorvanesKing’s College of London

Lorenzo SmerilloBiblioteca Nazionale Protocenobio Sublacense

Charles H. SmithWestern Kentucky University

Horace A. SmithMichigan State University

Laura Ackerman SmollerUniversity of Arkansas

Keith SnedegarUtah Valley State College

Stephen D. SnobelenUniversity of King’s College

Martin SolcUniverzita Karlova

Kerstin SpringsfeldRheinisch-Westfalische Technische Hochschule

Frieda A. StahlCalifornia State University at Los Angeles

Matthew StanleyIowa State University

Donn R. StarkeyIndependent Scholar

David StraussKalamazoo College

David J. SturdyUniversity of Ulster

Woodruff T. Sullivan, IIIUniversity of Washington

Raghini S. SureshKent State University

Jeff SuzukiBrooklyn College

László SzabadosKonkoly Obszervatórium

Richard J. TaibiIndependent Scholar

Hidemi TakahashiJohann Wolfgang Göthe Universität

Scott W. TeareMount Wilson Observatory

Pekka TeerikorpiTurku University

Antonio E. TenUniversidad de Valencia

Joseph S. TennSonoma State University

Antonella TestaUniversità di Milan

Christian TheisUniversität Kiel

William TobinUniversity of Canterbury

Hüseyin Gazi TopdemirAnkara University

Roberto TorrettiUniversity of Puerto Rico

Tim TrachetZenit

Virginia TrimbleUniversity of California at Irvine & Las Cumbres Observatory

Jean-Louis TrudelUniversité du Quebec

Giancarlo TruffaIndependent Scholar

Milcho TsvetkovBulgarian Academy of Sciences

Pasquale TucciUniversità di Milan

xxiContributors

Steven TurnerSmithsonian Institution

Arthur UpgrenWesleyan University

A. VagiṣwariIndian Institute of Astrophysics

Ezio VailatiSouthern Illinois University

David Valls-GabardObservatoire de Paris

Glen Van BrummelenBennington College

Benno van DalenJohann Wolfgang Göthe Universität

Guido Van den BergheUniversiteit Ghent

Petra Van der HeijdenUniversiteit Leiden

Frans van LunterenUniversiteit Utrecht

Steven M. van RoodeIndependent Scholar

Ilan VardiCalifornia Institute of Technology

Yatendra P. VarshniUniversity of Ottawa

Gerald P. VerbruggheRutgers University

Andreas VerdunUniversität Bern

Graziella VescoviniUniversità di Firenze

Živa VeselCentre National de la Recherche Scientifique (France)

Jan VondrákObservatória na Skalnatom Plese

Bert G. WachsmuthSeaton Hall University

Christoffel WaelkensUniversiteit Leuven

Craig B. WaffIndependent Scholar

Glenn A. WalshIndependent Scholar

Alun WardIndependent Scholar

Gary A. WegnerDartmouth College

Gerald WhiteIndependent Scholar

Raymond E. WhiteUniversity of Arizona

Patricia S. WhitesellUniversity of Michigan

Sven WidmalmUppsala Universitet

Roland WielenAstronomisches Rechen-Institut

Christian WildbergPrinceton University

Richard P. WildsIndependent Scholar

Thomas R. WilliamsRice University

Thomas Nelson WinterUniversity of Nebraska

Peter WlasukFlorida International University

Bernd WöbkeMax-Planck-Institut für Aeronomie

Lodewijk WoltjerObservatoire de Saint Michel

Shin YabushitaNara Sangyo University

Keiji YamamotoKyoto Sangyo University

Michio YanoKyoto Sangyo University

Hamid-Reza Giahi YazdiEncyclopaedia Islamica Foundation

Donald K. YeomansNational Aeronautics and Space Administration (USA)

Robinson M. YostIowa State University

Miloslav ZejdaPráce Hvezdárny a Planetária Mikuláše Koperníka

Endre ZsoldosKonkoly Obszervatórium

Table of Entries

�Abbās Wasīm EfendiAbbe, ClevelandAbbo of [Abbon de] FleuryAbbot, Charles GreeleyAbbott, Francis�Abd al-Wājid: Badr al-Dīn �Abd al-Wājid [Wāḥid] ibn

Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-ḤanafīAbetti, AntonioAbetti, GiorgioAbharī: Athīr al-Dīn al-Mufaḍḍal ibn �Umar ibn al-Mufaḍḍal al-

Samarqandī al-AbharīAbney, William de WiveleslieAbū al-Ṣalt: Umayya ibn �Abd al-�Azīz ibn Abī al-Ṣalt al-Dānī al-

Andalusī Albuzale

Abū al-�Uqūl: Abū al-�Uqūl Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad al-ṬabarīAbū Ma�shar Ja�far ibn Muḥammad ibn �Umar al-Balkhi

AlbumasarAcyuta PiṣāraṭiĀdami: Abū �Alī al-Ḥusayn ibn Muḥammad al-ĀdamiAdams, John CouchAdams, Walter SydneyAdel, ArthurAdelard of BathAdhémar, Joseph-AlphonseAeschylusAḥmad Mukhtār: Ghāzī Aḥmad Mukhtār PashaAinslie, Maurice AndersonAiry, George BiddellAitken, Robert GrantAlbert the Great

Albertus MagnusAlbrecht, SebastianAlcuin

AlchvineEalhwineFlaccus Albinus

Alden, Harold LeeAlexander, Arthur Francis O’DonelAlexander, StephenAlfonsi, PetrusAlfonso X

Alfonso el SabioAlfonso the LearnedAlfonso the Wise

Alfvén, Hannes Olof Gösta�Alī al-Muwaqqit: Muṣliḥ al-Dīn Muṣṭafā ibn �Alī al-Qusṭanṭīnī

al-Rūmī al-Ḥanafī al-Muwaqqit

�Alī ibn �īsā al-Asṭurlābī�Alī ibn Khalaf: Abū al-Ḥasan ibn Aḥmar al-Ṣaydalānī

�Alī ibn Khalaf ibn Aḥmar Akhīr [Akhiyar]Alighieri, DanteAllen, Clabon WalterAller, Lawrence HughAlvarez, Luis WalterAmājūr FamilyAmbartsumian, Victor AmazaspovitchAmici, Giovanni Battista�Ᾱmilī: Bahā al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Ḥusayn al-�ĀmilīAmmoniusAnaxagoras of ClazomenaeAnaximander of MiletusAnaximenes of MiletusAndalò di Negro of GenoaAnderson, Carl DavidAnderson, John AugustAnderson, Thomas DavidAndoyer, Marie-HenriAndré, M. CharlesÅngström, Anders JonasAnthelme, VoituretAntoniadi, Eugéne MichaelApian, Peter

Petrus ApianusApollonius of PergaAppleton, Edward VictorAquinas, ThomasArago, Dominique-François-JeanAratusArchelaus of AthensArchenhold, Friedrich SimonArchimedesArchytas of TarentumArgelander, Friedrich Wilhelm AugustArgoli, AndreaAristarchus of SamosAristotleAristyllusArrhenius, Svante AugustĀryabhaṭa I

Āryabhaṭa the ElderĀryabhaṭa II

Āryabhaṭa the YoungerAsada, Goryu

YasuakiAscham [Askham], Anthony

Names preceded by an article or preposition are alphabetized by the next word in the name.There are two exceptions: One is the Dutch “Van,” “Van de,” “Van den,” and “Van der.” Another is “Warren De La Rue” (alphabetized under D). (Arabic names are alphabetized under the shortened version of the name.)

xxiv Table of Entries

Ashbrook, JosephAshraf: al-Malik al-Ashraf (Mumahhid al-Dīn) �Umar ibn Yūsuf

ibn �Umar ibn �Alī ibn RasūlAston, Francis WilliamAtkinson, Robert d’EscourtAugustine of Hippo

Aurelianus AugustinusAutolycusAuwers, Arthur Julius Georg Friedrich vonAuzout, Adrien

Baade, Wilhelm Heinrich WalterBabcock, Harold DelosBabcock, Horace WelcomeBabinet, JacquesBache, Alexander DallasBackhouse, Thomas WilliamBacklund, Jöns OskarBacon, FrancisBacon, RogerBailey, Solon IrvingBaillaud, Edouard-BenjaminBailly, Jean-SylvainBaily, FrancisBainbridge, JohnBaize, Paul-Achille-ArielBaker, James GilbertBaldwin, Ralph BelknapBall, Robert StawellBalmer, Johann JakobBanachiewicz, Thaddeus JulianBanneker, BenjaminBanū MūsāBär, Nicholaus Reymers

Raimarus UrsusBarbier, DanielBarhebraeus: Gregory Abū al-Faraj

Grīḡōriyōs Bar �EḇrāyāGrīḡōriyōs Bar �Eḇroyo

Bar Ḥiyya: Abraham bar Ḥiyya SavasordaBarker, ThomasBarnard, Edward EmersonBarnothy, Jeno M.Barnothy Forro, MadeleineBarozzi, Francesco

Franciscus BarociusBarringer, Daniel MoreauBartholin, ErasmusBartholomaeus AnglicusBartsch, Jakob

BartschiusBates, David RobertBateson, Frank MaineBattānī: Abū �Abd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Jābir ibn Sinān al-Battānī

al-Ḥarrānī al-Ṣābi’Albategnius [Albatenius]

Baxendell, JosephBayer, Johann

Beals, Carlyle SmithBecquerel, Alexandre-EdmondBečvář, AntonínBedeBeer, WilhelmBehaim, Martin

Martin of BohemiaBelopolsky, Aristarkh ApollonovichBen Solomon: Judah ben Solomon ha-KohenBennot, Maude VeronaBenzenberg, Johann FriedrichBergstrand, ÖstenBerman, LouisBernard of Le Treille

Bernardus de TriliaBernoulli, DanielBernoulli, Jacob [Jacques, James]Bernoulli, Johann IIIBerossusBessel, Friedrich WilhelmBethe, Hans AlbrechtBevis [Bevans], JohnBeyer, MaxBhāskara IBhāskara IIBianchini, Francesco

Blanchinus, FranciscoBickerton, Alexander WilliamBiela, Wilhelm Freiherr vonBiermann, Ludwig Franz BenediktBigourdan, Camille GuillaumeBilly, Jacques deBiot, Edouard-ConstantBiot, Jean-BaptisteBirjandī: �Abd al-�Alī ibn Muḥammad ibn Ḥusayn al-BirjandīBirkeland, Kristian Olaf BernhardBirkhoff, George DavidBirmingham, JohnBirt, William RadcliffBīrūnī: Abū al-Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad al-BīrūnīBiṭrūjī: Nūr al-Dīn Abū Isḥāq [Abū Ja�far] Ibrāhīm ibn Yūsuf

al-BiṭrūjīAlpetragius

Bjerknes, Vilhelm Frimann KorenBlaauw, AdriaanBlackett, Patrick Maynard Stuart

Baron Blackett of ChelseaBlagg, Mary AdelaBlazhko, Sergei NikolaevichBliss, NathanielBobrovnikoff, Nicholas TheodoreBochart de Saron [Bochart-Saron], Jean-Baptiste-GaspardBode, Johann ElertBoëthius, Anicius Manlius Torquatus SeverinusBoguslawsky, Palon [Palm] Heinrich Ludwig vonBohlin, Karl Petrus TeodorBohr, Niels Henrik DavidBok, Bart Jan

xxvTable of Entries

Bond, George PhillipsBond, William CranchBorda, Jean-Charles deBorelli, Giovanni Francesco Antonio AlfonsoBoskovic, Rudjer [Roger] J.Boss, BenjaminBoss, LewisBouguer, PierreBoulliau, IsmaëlBour, EdmondBouvard, AlexisBowditch, NathanielBowen, Ira SpragueBower, Ernest ClareBoyer, CharlesBradley, JamesBradwardine, ThomasBrahe, Tycho [Tyge] OttsenBrahmaguptaBrandes, Heinrich WilhelmBrashear, John AlfredBredikhin, Fyodor AleksandrovichBredon, SimonBremiker, CarlBrenner, Leo

Gopčević, SpiridionBrinkley, JohnBrisbane, Thomas MakdougallBrooks, William RobertBrorsen, Theodor Johann Christian AmbdersBrouwer, DirkBrown, Ernest WilliamBrown, Robert Hanbury

Hanbury Brown, RobertBrück, Hermann AlexanderBrudzewski, Albertus de

Albertus Blar de BrudzewoAlbert Brudzewski

Bruhns, Karl [Carl] ChristianBrünnow, Franz Friedrich ErnstBruno, GiordanoBunsen, Robert Wilhelm EberhardBuot [Buhot], JacquesBurckhardt, Johann Karl [Jean-Charles]Bürgi, Jost [Joost, Jobst]Buridan, JohnBurnham, Sherburne WesleyBurrau, CarlBūzjānī: Abū al-Wafā’ Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad ibn Yaḥyā

al-BūzjānīByrd, Mary Emma

Cacciatore, NiccolòCalandrelli, GiuseppeCalandrelli, IgnazioCalcagnini, CelioCallippus of Cyzikus

Kãllippow

Campani, GiuseppeCampanus of NovaraCampbell, LeonCampbell, William WallaceCamus, Charles-Étienne-LouisCannon, Annie JumpCapella, Martianus (Felix) Mineus [Minneius, Minneus]Capra, BaldassarreCardano, GirolamoCarlini, FrancescoCarpenter, JamesCarrington, Richard ChristopherCassegrain, LaurentCassini de Thury, César-François

Cassini IIICassini, Giovanni Domenico [Jean-Dominique]

Cassini ICassini, Jacques

Cassini IICassini, Jean-Dominique

Cassini IVCassiodorus, Flavius Magnus AureliusCastelli, Benedetto (Antonio)Cauchy, Augustin-LouisCavalieri, Bonaventura (Francesco)Cavendish, HenryCayley, ArthurCeloria, GiovanniCelsius, AndersCerulli, VincenzoCesi, FedericoChacornac, JeanChalcidiusChallis, JamesChalonge, DanielChamberlin, Thomas ChrowderChandler, Seth Carlo, Jr.Chandrasekhar, SubrahmanyanChant, Clarence AugustusChapman, SydneyChappe d’Auteroche, Jean-BaptisteCharlier, Carl Vilhelm LudvigCharlois, AugusteChaucer, GeoffreyChauvenet, WilliamChemla-Lameche, Felix

Lamech, FelixChen KuiChen Zhuo

Ch’en ChoChiaramonti, ScipioneChioniades, Gregor [George]Chladni, Ernst Florens FriedrichCholgi: Maḥmūd Shāh Cholgi

Khaljī: Maḥmūd Shāh KhaljīChristiansen, Wilbur NormanChristie, William Henry MahoneyChristmann, Jacob

xxvi Table of Entries

Chrysippus of SoloiCicero, Marcus TulliusClairaut, Alexis-ClaudeClark FamilyClausen, ThomasClavius, ChristophClemence, Gerald MauriceCleomedesCleostratus of TenedosClerke, Agnes MaryCoblentz, William WeberCole, HumphreyComas Solá, JoséCommon, Andrew AinslieCompton, Arthur HollyComrie, Leslie JohnComstock, George CaryComte, Auguste (Isidore-Auguste-Marie-François-Xavier)Condamine, Charles-Marie de laConon of SamosCooper, Edward JoshuaCopeland, RalphCopernicus [Coppernig, Copernik], Nicolaus [Nicholas]

Koppernigk, Nicolaus [Nicholas]Cornu, Marie AlfredCosmas IndicopleustesCosserat, Eugène-Maurice-PierreCotes, RogerCouderc, PaulCousins, Alan William JamesCowell, Philip HerbertCowling, Thomas GeorgeCrabtree, WilliamCraig, JohnCritchfield, Charles LouisCroll, JamesCrommelin, Andrew Claude de la CheroisCrosthwait, JosephCuffey, JamesCunitz [Cunitia, Cunitiae], Maria

Kunicia, MariaCurtis, Heber DoustCurtiss, Ralph HamiltonCurtz, AlbertCysat, Johann Baptist

d’Agelet, Josephd’Ailly, Pierre

Petrus de AlliacoPeter of Ailli

d’Alembert [Dalembert], Jean-Le-Rondd’Arrest, Heinrich Louis [Ludwig]d’Aurillac, Gerbert

Pope Sylvester IId’Azambuja, LucienDaly, Reginald AldworthDamoiseau, Marie-Charles-Théodore deDanjon, André-LouisDanti, Egnatio

Rainaldi, Carlo PellegrinoDārandawī: Muḥammad ibn �Umar ibn �Uthmān al-Dārandawī

al-ḤanafīDarquier de Pellepoix, AntoineDarwin, George HowardDaśabalaDavis, Charles HenryDavis Locanthi, Dorothy N.

Locanthi, Dorothy N.Davis, Raymond Jr.Dawes, WilliamDawes, William RutterDawson, BernhardDe La Rue, WarrenDee, JohnDelambre, Jean-Baptiste-JosephDelaunay, Charles-EugèneDelisle, Joseph-NicolasDelporte, Eugène-JosephDembowski, Ercole [Hercules]Democritus of AbderaDenning, William FrederickDerham, WilliamDescartes, RenéDeslandres, Henri-AlexandreDeutsch, Armin JosephDick, ThomasDicke, Robert HenryDigges, LeonardDigges, ThomasDinakaraDingle, HerbertDiogenes of ApolloniaDionis du Séjour, Achille-PierreDionysius ExiguusDirac, Paul Adrien MauriceDivini, EustachioDixon, JeremiahDollond, JohnDollond, PeterDombr ovskij [Dombrovsky, Dombrovski],

Viktor AlekseyevichDonati, Giovan BattistaDonner, Anders SeverinDoppelmayer [Doppelmayr], Johann GabrielDoppler, Johann ChristianDörffel, Georg SamuelDôsitheus of PêlousionDouglass, Andrew EllicottDraper, HenryDraper, John WilliamDreyer, John Louis EmilDudits [Dudith, Duditus], András [Andreas]Dufay, JeanDugan, Raymond SmithDunash ibn TamimDuncan, John CharlesDunér, Nils ChristofferDungal of Saint Denis

xxviiTable of Entries

Dunham, Theodore, Jr.Dunthorne, RichardDürer, AlbrechtDymond, JosephDyson, Frank WatsonDziewulski, Wladyslaw

Easton, CornelisEckert, Wallace JohnEcphantusEddington, Arthur StanleyEdlén, BengtEichstad, Lorenz

Laurentius EichstadiusEimmart, George ChristophEinhardEinstein, AlbertElger, Thomas Gwyn EmpyElkin, William LewisEllerman, FerdinandEllery, Robert Lewis JohnEllicott, AndrewEllison, Mervyn ArchdallElvey, Christian ThomasEmden, RobertEmpedocles of AcragasEncke, Johann FranzEngel, Johannes

AngelusEngelhard, NicolausEnsor, George EdmundEphorusEpicurus of SamosEratosthenes of CyreneErro, Luis EnriqueEsclangon, Ernest-BenjaminEspin, Thomas Henry Espinall ComptonEuctemonEudemus of RhodesEudoxusEuler, LeonhardEutociusEvans, David StanleyEvans, John WainrightEvershed, JohnEvershed, Mary Acworth Orr

Fabricius, DavidFabricius, Johann

Goldsmid, JohannFabry, Marie-Paul-Auguste-CharlesFallows, FearonFārābī: Abū Naṣr Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad ibn

Tarkhān al-FārābīAlfarabius

Farghānī: Abū al-�Abbās Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī

Fārisī: Muḥammad ibn Abī Bakr al-FārisīFath, Edward Arthur

Fauth, Philipp Johann HeinrichFaye, HervéFazārī: Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-FazārīFederer, Charles Anthony, Jr.Feild, JohnFényi, Gyula

Finck, JuliusFerguson, JamesFernel, Jean-FrançoisFerraro, Vincenzo Consolato AntoninoFerrel, WilliamFesenkov, Vasilii GrigorevichFèvre, Jean leFiné, Oronce

Orontius FinaeusFinlay, William HenryFinsen, William S.Fisher, OsmondFisher, Willard JamesFitzGerald, George FrancisFixlmillner, PlacidusFizeau, Armand-Hippolyte-LouisFlammarion, Nicolas CamilleFlamsteed, JohnFlaugergues, HonoréFleming, Williamina Paton StevensFocas, John HenryFontana, FrancescoFontenelle, Bernard le Bovier [Bouyer] deForbush, Scott EllsworthFord, Clinton BankerFoucault, Jean-Bernard-LéonFouchy, Jean-Paul

Fouchy, Grandjean deFowler, AlfredFowler, Ralph HowardFowler, William AlfredFox, PhilipFracastoro, GirolamoFranklin-Adams, JohnFranks, William SadlerFranz, Julius Heinrich G.Fraunhofer, Joseph vonFreundlich, Erwin

Finlay-Freundlich, ErwinFriedman, HerbertFriedmann, Alexander AlexandrovichFrisi, PaoloFrisius, Gemma Reinerus

RegnerusFromondus, LibertusFrost, Edwin BrantFu AnFurness, Caroline EllenFusoris, Jean [Johanne]

Gaillot, Jean-Baptiste-AimableGalilei, GalileoGalle, Johann Gottfried

xxviii Table of Entries

Gallucci, Giovanni PaoloGambart, Jean-Félix-AdolpheGamow, George [Georgiy] (Antonovich)Gan DeGaṇeśaGaposchkin, Sergei [Sergej] IllarionovichGarfinkel, BorisGascoigne, WilliamGasparis, Annibale deGassendi, PierreGauss, Carl FriedrichGautier, Jean-AlfredGeddes, MurrayGeminusGemma, CorneliusGentil de la Galaisière, Guillaume-Joseph-Hyacinthe

Jean-Baptiste leGerard of Cremona

Gerardus CremonensisGerasimovich [Gerasimovič], Boris PetrovichGersonides: Levi ben GersonGilbert, Grove KarlGilbert [Gilberd], WilliamGildemeister, JohannGiles of Rome

Aegidius RomanusAegidius Colonna [Columna]

Gill, DavidGillis, James MelvilleGingrich, Curvin HenryGinzburg [Ginsberg], Vitaly LazarevichGiovanelli, Ronald GordonGlaisher, JamesGlaisher, James Whitbread LeeGodin, LouisGodwin, FrancisGökmen, Mehmed FatinGoldberg, LeoGoldschmidt, Hermann Chaim MeyerGoodacre, WalterGoodricke, JohnGore, John EllardGorton, SandfordGothard, Jenõ [Eugen] vonGould, Benjamin ApthorpGraham, GeorgeGrassi, HoratioGray, StephenGreaves, JohnGreaves, William Michael HerbertGreen, CharlesGreen, Nathaniel EverettGreenstein, Jesse LeonardGreenwood, NicholasGregoras, NicephorosGregory [Gregorie], DavidGregory, James

Gregory of ToursGrienberger, ChristopherGrigg, JohnGrimaldi, Francesco MariaGroombridge, StephenGrosseteste, RobertGrotrian, WalterGrubb, HowardGrubb, ThomasGruithuisen, Franz von PaulaGuiducci, MarioGuillemin, Amédée-VictorGuo Shoujing

Kuo Shou-chingGuthnick, PaulGyldén, Johan August Hugo

Haas, Walter HenryḤabash al-Ḥāsib: Abū Ja�far Aḥmad ibn �Abd Allāh al-MarwazīHadley, JohnHagen, Johann GeorgHagihara, YusukeHahn, Graf Friedrich vonHájek z Hájku, Tadeá

Thaddaeus Hageciusab Hayck, TadeáNemicus, TadeáAgecio, Tadeá

Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf ibn MaṭarHalbach, Edward AnthonyHale, George ElleryHall, AsaphHall, John ScovilleHalley, EdmondHalm, Jacob Karl ErnstHansen, Peter AndreasHansteen, ChristopherHarding, Carl LudwigHaridatta IHarkness, WilliamHaro Barraza, GuillermoHarper, William EdmundHarriot, ThomasHartmann, Johannes FranzHartwig, Carl Ernst AlbrechtHārūn al-RashīdHāshimī: �Alī ibn Sulaymān al-HāshimīHatanaka, TakeoHay, William ThomsonHeckmann, Otto Hermann LeopoldHegel, Georg Wilhelm FriedrichHeis, Edward [Eduard, Edouard]Helicon of CyzicusHeliodorus of AlexandriaHelmholtz, Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand vonHencke, Karl LudwigHenderson, Thomas

xxixTable of Entries

Henry, JosephHenry of Langenstein

Henry of Hesse the ElderHeinrich von Langenstein

Henry, Paul Pierre and Prosper-MathieuHenyey, Louis GeorgeHeraclides of Heraclea

Heraclides of PontusHeraclides Ponticus

Heraclitus of EphesusHeraclitus the RiddlerHeraclitus the Obscure

Herget, PaulHerman, RobertHermann the DalmatianHermann the Lame

Reichenau, Hermann vonHermannus Contractus

Herrick, EdwardHerschel, Alexander StewartHerschel, Caroline LucretiaHerschel, John (Jr.)Herschel, John Frederick WilliamHerschel, (Friedrich) William [Wilhelm]Hertzsprung, Ejnar [Einar]Herzberg, GerhardHesiodHess, Victor Franz [Francis]Hevel, Johannes

HeveliusHevelius, Catherina Elisabetha KoopmanHey, (James) StanleyHicetus

NicetusHiggs, George Daniel SuttonHildegard of Bingen-am-RhineHill, George WilliamHiltner, William AlbertHind, John RussellHinks, Arthur RobertHiorter, OlofHipparchus of NicaeaHippocrates of ChiosHirayama, KiyotsuguHire, Philippe de laHirst, George DentonHirzgarter, MatthiasHoek, MartinusHoffleit, Ellen DorritHoffmeister, CunoHogg, Frank ScottHolden, Edward SingletonHöll, Miksa

Hell, MaximilianHolmberg, ErikHolwarda, Johannes Phocylides [Fokkens]Homer

Honda, MinoruHonter, JohannesHooke, RobertHörbiger, HannsHorn d’Arturo, GuidoHornsby, ThomasHorrebow, ChristianHorrebow, Peder NielsenHorrocks [Horrox], JeremiahHough, George WashingtonHough, Sydney SamuelHoutermans, Friedrich GeorgHouzeau de Lehaie, Jean-Charles-Hippolyte-JosephHoyle, FredHubble, Edwin PowellHuggins, Margaret Lindsay MurrayHuggins, WilliamHulburt, Edward OlsonHumason, Milton LassellHumboldt, Alexander Friedrich Heinrich vonHumphreys, William JacksonḤusayn, Ḥasan and MuḥammadHussey, William JosephHuth, Johann Sigismund GottfriedHuygens, ChristiaanHypatiaHypsicles of Alexandria

Ibn Abī al-Fatḥ al-Ṣūfī: Shams al-Dīn Abū �Abd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Abī al-Fatḥ al-Ṣūfī

Abī al-Fatḥ al-ṢūfīIbn Abī al-Shukr: Muḥyī al-Milla wa-’l-Dīn Yaḥyā Abū �Abdallāh

ibn Muḥammad ibn Abī al-Shukr al-Maghribī al-Andalusī [al-Qurṭubī]

Abī al-ShukrIbn al-A�lam: �Alī ibn al-Ḥusayn Abū al-Qāsim al-�Alawī al-Sharīf

al-ḤusaynīIbn Bājja: Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Yaḥyā ibn al-Ṣā’igh al-Tujībī

al-Andalusī al-SaraqusṭīAvempaceBājja

Ibn al-Bannā’: Abū al-�Abbās Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn �Uthmān al-Azdī al-Marrākushī

al-Bannā’Ibn Bāṣo: Abū �Alī Al-Ḥusayn ibn Abī Ja�far Aḥmad ibn Yūsuf Ibn Bāṣo

BāṣoIbn Ezra: Abraham ibn �Ezra

EzraIbn al-Hā’im: Abū Muḥammad �Abd al-Ḥaqq al-Ghāfiqī al-Ishbīlī

al-Hā’imIbn al-Haytham: Abū �Alī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan

Alhazenal-Haytham

Ibn �Irāq: Abū Naṣr Manṣūr ibn �Alī ibn �Irāq�Irāq

Ibn Isḥāq: Abū al-�Abbās ibn Isḥāq al-Tamīmī al-TūnisīIsḥāq

xxx Table of Entries

Ibn al-Kammād: Abū Ja�far Aḥmad ibn Yūsuf ibn al-Kammādal-Kammād

Ibn Labbān, Kushyār: Kiyā Abū al-Ḥasan Kushyār ibn Labbān Bashahrī al-Jīlī (Gīlānī)

Labbān, KushyārIbn al-Majdī: Shihāb al-Dīn Abū al-�Abbās Aḥmad ibn Rajab ibn

Ṭaybughā al-Majdī al-Shāfi�īal-Majdī

Ibn Mu�ādh: Abū �Abd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Mu�ādh al-JayyānīMu�ādh

Ibn al-Raqqām: Abū �Abd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm ibn �Alī ibn Aḥmad ibn Yūsuf al-Mursī al-Andalusī al-Tūnisī al-Awsī ibn al-Raqqām

al-RaqqāmIbn Rushd: Abū l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad

ibn Rushd al-ḤafīdAverroesRushd

Ibn al-Ṣaffār: Abū al-Qāsim Aḥmad ibn �Abd Allāh ibn �Umar al-Ghāfiqī ibn al-Ṣaffār al-Andalusī

al-ṢaffārIbn Sahl: Abū Sa�d al-�Alā’ ibn Sahl

SahlIbn al-Ṣalāḥ: Najm al-Dīn Abū al-Futūḥ Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad

ibn al-Sarī Ibn al-Ṣalāḥal-Ṣalāḥ

Ibn al-Samḥ: Abū al-Qāsim Aṣbagh ibn Muḥammad ibn al-Samḥ al-Gharnāṭī

al-SamḥIbn al-Shāṭir: �Alā’ al-Dīn �Alī ibn Ibrāhīm

al-ShāṭirIbn Sid: Isaac ibn Sid

SidIbn Sīnā: Abū �Alī al-Ḥusayn ibn �Abdallāh ibn Sīnā

AvicennaSīnā

Ibn Ṭufayl: Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn �Abd al-Malik ibn Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad ibn Ṭufayl al-Qaysī

AbubacerṬufayl

Ibn Yūnus: Abū al-Ḥasan �Alī ibn �Abd al-Raḥmān ibn Aḥmad ibn Yūnus al-Ṣadafī

YūnusIbrāhīm ibn Sinān ibn Thābit ibn QurraIhle, AbrahamIngalls, Albert GrahamInnes, Robert Thorburn AytonIno, TadatakaIrwin, John Henry BarrowsIsfizārī: Abū Ḥātim al-Muẓaffar ibn Ismā�īl al-IsfizārīIsḥāq Ibn Ḥunayn: Abū Ya�qūb Isḥāq ibn Ḥunayn ibn Isḥāq

al-�IbādīIsidore of Seville

Isidorus Hispalensis

Jābir ibn Aflaḥ: Abū Muḥammad Jābir ibn AflaḥJacchia, Luigi GiuseppeJackson, JohnJacob ben Makhir ibn Tibbon

Don Profeit TibbonProfatius

Jagannātha SamrāṭJaghmīnī: Sharaf al-Dīn Maḥmūd ibn Muḥammad ibn �Umar

al-Jaghmīnī al-KhwārizmīJai Singh IIJansky, Karl GutheJanssen, Pierre Jules CésarJarry-Desloges, RenéJavelle, StéphaneJawharī: al-�Abbās ibn Sa�īd al-JawharīJeans, James HopwoodJeaurat, Edme-SébastienJeffreys, HaroldJenkins, Louise FreelandJia KuiJohn of Gmunden

Krafft, JohannJohn of Holywood

Johannes de SacroboscoSacrobosco

John of LignèresJohannes de Lineriis

John of [Juan de] MessinaJohn of Muris [Murs]

Jean de MeursJehan de MursJohannes de Muris

John [Danko] of SaxonyJohn of ToledoJohnson, Manuel JohnJonckheere, RobertJordan, Ernst PascualJoy, Alfred HarrisonJurjānī: �Alī ibn Muḥammad ibn �Ali al-Ḥusaynī al-Jurjānī

(al-Sayyid al-Sharīf)Jūzjānī: Abū �Ubayd �Abd al-Wāḥid ibn Muḥammad

al-JūzjānīJyeșţhadeva

Kaiser, Frederik [Frederick, Friedrich]Kaluza, Theodor Franz EduardKamāl al-Dīn al-Turkmānī: Kamāl al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad

ibn �Uthmān ibn Ibrāhīm ibn Muṣṭafā al-Māridīnī al-Turkmānī al-Ḥanafī

KamalākaraKankaKant, ImmanuelKapteyn, Jacobus CorneliusKāshī: Ghiyāth (al-Milla wa-) al-Dīn Jamshīd ibn Mas�ūd ibn

Maḥmūd al-Kāshī [al-Kāshānī]Kauffman, Nicolaus

Mercator, NicolausKeckermann, BartholomewKeeler, James EdwardKeenan, Philip ChildsKeill, JohnKempf, Paul Friedrich FerdinandKepler, Johannes

xxxiTable of Entries

Kerr, Frank JohnKeśavaKeyser, Pieter [Petrus] (Theodori) DirckszoonKhafrī: Shams al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad al-Khafrī

al-KāshīKhaikin, Semyon EmmanuilovichKhalīfazāde Ismā�īl: Khalīfazāde Çınarī Ismā�īl Efendi ibn MuṣṭafāKhalīlī: Shams al-Dīn Abū �Abdallāh Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad

al-KhalīlīKharaqī: Shams al-Dīn Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad

al-Kharaqī [al-Khiraqī]Khayyām: Ghiyāth al-Dīn Abū al-Fatḥ �Umar ibn Ibrāhīm

al-Khayyāmī al-NīshāpūrīOmar Khayyām

Khāzin: Abū Ja�far Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥusayn al-Khāzin al-Khurāsānī

Khāzinī: Abū al-Fatḥ �Abd al-Raḥmān al-Khāzinī (Abū Manṣūr �Abd al-Raḥmān, Abd al-Raḥmān Manṣūr)

Khujandī: Abū Maḥmūd Ḥāmid ibn al-Khiḍr al-KhujandīKhwārizmī: Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-KhwārizmīKidinnu [Kidin, Kidenas]Kienle, Hans GeorgKiepenheuer, Karl-OttoKiess, Carl ClarenceKimura, HisashiKindī: Abū Yūsuf Ya�qūb ibn Isḥāq al-KindīKing, William FrederickKirch, ChristfriedKirch, ChristineKirch, GottfriedKirch, Maria Margaretha WinkelmanKircher, AthanasiusKirchhoff, Gustav RobertKirkwood, DanielKlein, Hermann JosephKlein, Oskar BenjaminKlinkerfues, Ernst Friedrich WilhelmKlotz, Otto JuliusKlumpke Roberts, DorotheaKneller, Andreas

CellariusKnobel, Edward BallKnorre, Viktor CarlKobold, Hermann AlbertKöhler, Johann GottfriedKohlschütter, ArnoldKolhörster, Werner Heinrich Julius GustavKolmogorov, Andrei NikolaevichKonkoly Thege, Miklós [Nikolaus]Kopal, ZdenĕkKopff, AugustKordylewski, KazimierzKorff, Serge AlexanderKovalsky, Marian Albertovich

Voytekhovich, Marian AlbertovichKozyrev, Nikolai AlexandrovichKrebs, Nicholas

Nicholas CusanusNikolaus von Cusa

Nicholas of CusaKremer, Gerhard

Gerardus MercatorKreutz, Heinrich Carl FriedrichKrieger, Johann NepomukKron, Gerald EdwardKrüger, Karl Nicolaus AdalbertKūhī: Abū Sahl Wījan ibn Rustam [Wustam] al-Kūhī

[al-Qūhī]Kuiper, Gerard PeterKulik, Leonid AlexyevichKüstner, Karl Friedrich

La Caille [Lacaille], Nicolas-Louis deLacchini, Giovanni BattistaLacroute, PierreLagrange, Joseph Louis

Lagrangia, Giuseppe LodovicoLalande, Joseph-Jérôme

de la Lande, Joseph-JérômeLefrançois de la Lande, Joseph-Jérôme

LallaLallemand, AndréLambert, Johann Heinrich [Jean Henry]Lamont, John [Johann von]Lampland, Carl OttoLanczos, Cornelius

Löwy, KornelLane, Jonathan HomerLangley, Samuel PierpontLangren, Michael Florent van

LangrenusLansbergen, JacobLansbergen, PhilipLaplace, Pierre-Simon deLārī: Muṣliḥ al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Ṣalāḥ ibn Jalāl al-Sàdī

al-ʔIbādī al-Anṣārī al-LārīLarmor, JosephLassell, WilliamLau, Hans EmilLeadbetter, CharlesLeavitt, Henrietta SwanLebedev, Petr NikolaevichLeclerc, Georges-Louis

Comte de BuffonLedoux, PaulLe Doulcet, Philippe Gustave

Comte de PontécoulantLefrançois, Michel

Lefrançois de Lalande, MichelLegendre, Adrien-MarieLeibniz, Gottfried WilhelmLemaître, Georges Henri-Joseph-EdouardLeovitius, CyprianusLepaute, Nicole-Reine

Étable de la Brière, Nicole-ReineLescarbault, Edmond ModesteLeucippus of MiletusLeuschner, Armin Otto

Le Verrier, Urbain-Jean-JosephLexell, Anders JohanLi ChunfengLiais, Emmanuel-BenjaminLiddel, DuncanLin, Chia ChiaoLindblad, BertilLindemann, Adolf FriedrichLindsay, Eric MervynLipsky, Yuri NaumovichLittrow [Littroff], Johann Joseph (Edler) vonLittrow, Karl Ludwig vonLiu Zhuo [Ch’o]Lobachevsky, Nikolai IvanovichLocke, JohnLockyer, Joseph NormanLodge, Oliver JosephLohrmann, Wilhelm GotthelfLohse, Wilhelm Oswald

Lomonosov, Mikhail VasilievichLoomis, EliasLorentz, Hendrik AntoonLorenzoni, GiuseppeLovell, Alfred Charles BernardLowell, PercivalLower, WilliamLöwy, Maurice

Löwey, MoritzLoys de Chéseaux, Jean-PhilippeLubieniecki Stanislaw

Lubienitzley StanislasLucretius (Carus), TitusLudendorff, Friedrich Wilhelm HansLundmark, Knut EmilLuther, Karl Theodor RobertLuyten, Willem JacobLyot, BernardLyttleton, Raymond Arthur

If a name within the text appears in bold, there exists an entry on that astronomer elsewhere in the encyclopedia.

xxxii Table of Entries

Table of Entries

Maclaurin, ColinCailean MacLabhruinn

Maclear, ThomasMacrobius, Ambrosius (Theodosius)Mädler, Johann Heinrich vonMagini, Giovanni AntonioMahendra SāriMaimonides: Abā �Imrīn Māsī [Moses] ibn �Ubayd Allīh

[Maymān] al-QurāubūMairan, Jean-Jacques

Dortous de Mairan, Jean-JacquesMajrūāū: Abā al-Qīsim Maslama ibn A ī mad al-ḥ īsib al-Fara Ḥū

al-MajrūāūMakarandaMakemson, Maud WorcesterMaksutov, Dmitry DmitrievichMalapert, CharlesMalebranche, NicholasMalmquist, Karl GunnarMa’mān: Abā al- �Abbīs �Abdallīh ibn Hīrān al-RashūdManfredi, EustachioManilius [Manlius], Marcus

Mallius, MarcusMaraldi, Giacomo Filippo

Maraldi IMaraldi, Giovanni Domenico [Jean-Dominique]

Maraldi IIMarkarian, Beniamin EgishevichMarkgraf, GeorgMarkov, Andrei AndreevichMarkowitz, WilliamMarrīkushū: Sharaf al-Dūn Abā �Alū al-ḥ asan ibn �Alū ibn �Umar

al-MarrīkushūMarwarrādhū: Khīlid ibn �Abd al-Malik al-MarwarrādhūMīshī’allīh ibn Atharū (Sīriya)

MessahalaMaskelyne, NevilMason, CharlesMästlin [Möstlin], Michael

MoestlinusMöschlin, Michael

Mathurīnītha ĀarmanMaudith, JohnMaunder, Annie Scott Dill RussellMaunder, Edward WalterMaupertuis, Pierre-Louis Moreau deMaurolico, Francesco

Maury, Antonia Caetana De Paiva PereiraMaury, Matthew FontaineMaxwell, James ClerkMayall, Margaret WaltonMayall, Nicholas UlrichMayer, ChristianMayer, Johann TobiasMayer, Julius RobertMayr, Simon

MariusMcClean, FrankMcCrea, William HunterMcIntosh, Ronald AlexanderMcKellar, AndrewMcLaughlin, Dean BenjaminMcMath, Robert RaynoldsMcVittie, George CunliffeMéchain, Pierre-François-AndréMee, Arthur Butler PhillipsMegenberg, Konrad [Conrad] von

Chunradus de Monte PuellarumMellish, John EdwardMelotte, Philibert JacquesMenaechmusMenelaus of AlexandriaMenzel, Donald HowardMerrill, Paul WillardMersenne, MarinMessier, CharlesMetcalf, Joel HastingsMetochites [Metoxites], Theodore [Theodoros, Theoleptos]MetonMetrodorus of ChiosMichell, JohnMichelson, Albert AbrahamMiddlehurst, Barbara MaryMikhailov, Aleksandr AleksandrovichMilankovitch [MilankoviᾹ], MilutinMiller, John AnthonyMillikan, Robert AndrewsMillman, Peter MackenzieMilne, Edward ArthurMilton, JohnMineur, Henri PaulMinkowski, HermannMinkowski, Rudolph Leo BernhardMinnaert, Marcel Gilles Jozef

Names preceded by an article or preposition are alphabetized by the next word in the name.There are two exceptions: One is the Dutch “Van,” “Van de,” “Van den,” and “Van der.” Another is “Warren De La Rue” (alphabetized under D). (Arabic names are alphabetized under the shortened version of the name.)

xxiv Table of Entries

Mūram ōelebū: Maī mād ibn Quāb al-Dūn Muī ammad ibn Muī ammad ibn Māsī Qī Ḥūzīde

Mitchel, Ormsby MacKnightMitchell, MariaMizzū: Zayn al-Dūn [Shams al-Dūn] Abā �Abd Allīh Mu ī ammad

ibn Aī mad ibn �Abd al-Raī ūm al-Mizzū al-ḥ anafūMohler, Orren CuthbertMolesworth, Percy BraybrookeMoll, GerardMollweide, Karl BrandanMolyneux, SamuelMolyneux, WilliamMonck, William Henry StanleyMonnier, Pierre-Charles le

Lemonnier, Pierre-CharlesMonnig, Oscar EdwardMontanari, GeminianoMoore, Joseph HainesMoore-Sitterly, Charlotte EmmaMorgan, Augustus deMorgan, Herbert RolloMorgan, William WilsonMorin, Jean-BaptisteMorley, Edward WilliamsMorrison, PhilipMouchez, Ernest Amédée BarthélémyMoulton, Forest RayMouton, GabrielMrkos, AntonínMukai, GenshoMuler, Nicolaus

MuleriusMüller, Edith AliceMüller, Johann

RegiomontanusMüller, KarlMüller, Karl Hermann GustavMuñjīla

MañjulaMuñoz, Jerónimo

Naburianu [Naburianus, Nabû-ri-man-nu]Najm al-Dūn al-Miṣrū: Najm al-Dūn Abā �Abd Allīh Mu ī ammad

ibn Muī ammad ibn Ibrīhūm al-MiṣrūNapier, JohnNasawū: Abā al-ḥ asan �Alū ibn Aī mad al-NasawūNasmyth, James HallNasāālus: Muī ammad ibn �Abd Allīh

BasāālusNayrūzū: Abā al-�Abbīs al-Fa Ḥl ibn ḥ ītim al-NayrūzūNernst, Walther HermannNeugebauer, Otto E.Neumann, Carl GottfriedNevill [Neville], Edmund Neison

Neison, EdmundNewcomb, SimonNewton, Hubert Anson

Newton, IsaacNicholas of Lynn [Lynne]Nicholson, Seth BarnesNiesten, Jean Louis NicholasNietzsche, Friedrich WilhelmNightingale, Peter

Petrus (Philomena) de DaciaPetrus Dacus [Danus]

Nūlakaḍāha SomayījiNininger, Harvey HarlowNūsībārū: al-ḥ asan ibn Muī ammad ibn al-ḥ usayn

NiṢīm al-Dūn al-A�raj al-NūsībārūNishikawa, Joken

TadahideNordmann, CharlesNorton, William AugustusNorwood, RichardNovara, Domenico Maria da

Ploti FerrariensisNumerov [Noumeroff], Boris Vasil’evichNunes, PedroNušl, František

O’Connell, Daniel Joseph KellyOdierna [Hodierna], Giovanbatista [Giovan Battista, Giovanni

Battista]Oenopides of ChiosOffusius, JofrancusÖhman, K. YngveOlbers, Heinrich Wilhelm MatthiasOlcott, William TylerOlivier, Charles PollardOlmsted, DenisonOlym piodorus the Younger [the Platonist, the Neo-Platonist,

the Great]Oort, Jan HendrikÖpik, Ernst JuliusOppenheimer, J. RobertOppolzer, Egon Ritter vonOppolzer, Theodor Ritter vonOresme, NicoleOriani, BarnabaOsiander, AndreasOuthier, Réginald [Réginaud]Ovid

Ovidius Naso, PubliusPage, Thornton L.Palisa, JohannPalitzsch, JohannPalmer, MargarettaPannekoek, AntoniePapadopoulos, ChristosPappus of AlexandriaParamečvara of Vīāaččeri [Paramečvara I]Parenago, Pavel PetrovichParkhurst, Henry M.Parmenides of Elea

xxvTable of Entries

Parsons, LaurenceFourth Earl of Rosse

Parsons, WilliamThird Earl of Rosse

Pawsey, Joseph LadePayne-Gaposchkin [Payne], Cecilia Helena

Gaposchkin, Cecilia HelenaPayne, William WallacePearce, Joseph AlgernonPearson, WilliamPeary, Robert EdwinPease, Francis GladhelmPeek, Bertrand MeighPeirce, BenjaminPeiresc, Nicolas-Claude Fabri dePèlerin de Prusse

Preussen, Pilgrim Zeleschicz vonPeregrinus de Prussia

Peltier, Leslie CopusPeregrinus de Maricourt, PetrusPerepelkin, Yevgenij YakovlevichPéridier, Julien MariePerrin, Jean-BaptistePerrine, Charles DillonPerrotin, Henri-Joseph-AnastasePeters, Christian August FriedrichPeters, Christian Heinrich FriedrichPetit, PierrePettit, EdisonPeucer, CasparPeurbach [Peuerbach, Purbach], Georg vonPfund, August HermannPhillip of OpusPhillips, Theodore Evelyn ReecePhilolaus of CrotonPhiloponus, John

John the GrammarianJohn of Alexandria

Piazzi, GiuseppePicard, JeanPiccolomini, AlessandroPickering, Edward CharlesPickering, William HenryPigott, EdwardPingré, Alexandre-GuyPićmić, Paris MariePlana, Giovanni Antonio AmedeoPlancius, Petrus

Platevoet, PetrusPlanman, AndersPlaskett, Harry HemleyPlaskett, John StanleyPlatoPlaut, LukasPliny the Elder

Plinius SecundusPlummer, Henry Crozier KeatingPlutarch

Poczobut Marcin [Martin Poczobutt]Poe, Edgar AllanPogson, Norman RobertPoincaré, Jules-HenriPoisson, Siméon-DenisPond, JohnPons, Jean-LouisPopper, Daniel MagnesPoretsky, Platon SergeevichPorter, John GuyPorter, Russell WilliamsPosidoniusPouillet, Claude-Servais-Mathias-Marie-RolandPound, JamesPoynting, John HenryPrager, RichardPrentice, John Philip ManningPritchard, CharlesPritchett, Carr WallerProclusProctor, MaryProctor, Richard AnthonyProsperin, ErikPrzybylski, AntoniPtolemy

Claudius PtolemaiusPuiseux, Pierre-HenriPurcell, Edward MillsPythagoras

Qabūṣū: Abā al-Ṭaqr �Abd al-�Azūz ibn �Uthmīn ibn �Alū al-QabūṣūAlcabitius

Qī Ḥūzīde al-Rāmū: Ṭalī ī al-Dūn Māsī ibn Muī ammad ibn Maī mād al-Rāmū

Qīsim ibn Mu āarrif al-Qaāāīn: Abā Muī ammad Qīsim ibn Muāarrif ibn �Abd al-Raī mīn al-Qaāāīn al- ṭ ulayāulū al-Qurāubū al- Andalusū

Qaāāīn-i al-Marwazū: �Ayn al-Zamīn Abā �Alū ḥ asan ibn �Alū Qaāāīn [Qa āāīn] al-Marwazū

Qian LezhiQusāī ibn Lāqī al-Ba �labakkū

Costa ben LucaQuetelet, Lambert Adolphe JacquesQunawū: Muī ammad ibn al-Kītib Sūnīn al-QunawūQāshjū: Abā al-Qīsim �Alī’ al-Dūn �Alū ibn Muī ammadQushᾹi-zīde

Rīghavīnanda ĀarmanRamus, Peter [Petrus]

Ramée, Pierre de laRan-ganītha IRan-ganītha IIRankine, William John MacquornRanyard, Arthur CowperRauchfuss, Konrad

Cunradus DasypodiusRayet, Georges-Antoine-PonsRaymond of Marseilles

xxvi Table of Entries

Reber, GroteRecorde, RobertRede, WilliamRedman, Roderick OliverRegener, Erich Rudolph AlexanderRégis, Pierre-SylvainRegius, Hendrick

Henricus RegiusRoy, Hendrick de

Reinhold, ErasmusReinmuth, Karl WilhelmRenieri, VincenzioRespighi, LorenzoRheita, Antonius Maria Schyrleus de Schyrle [Schierl, Schürle]

Johann BurchardRheticus

Lauchen, Georg Joachim vonRho, GiacomoRicci, MatteoRiccioli, Giovanni BattistaRiccò, AnnibaleRichard of WallingfordRichaud, JeanRicher, JeanRiḤwīn al-Falakū: RiḤwīn Efendi ibn �Abdallīh

al-Razzīz al-FalakūRistenpart, Frederich WilhelmRitchey, George WillisRittenhouse, DavidRitter, Georg August DietrichRitter, Johann WilhelmRoach, Franklin EvansRoberts, Alexander WilliamRoberts, IsaacRobertson, Howard PercyRobinson, Thomas RomneyRoche, Édouard AlbertRoeslin, HelisaeusRoger of Hereford

Rogerus InfansRogerus Puer

Rohault, JacquesRömer [Roemer], Ole [Olaus]Rooke, LawrenceRosenberg, HansRosenberger, OttoRoss, Frank ElmoreRossi, Bruno BenedettoRossiter, Richard AlfredRothmann, ChristophRowland, Henry AugustusRudīnū: Abā �Abdallīh Mu ī ammad ibn Sulaymīn (Mu ī ammad)

al- Fīsū ibn ṭ īhir al-Rudīnū al-Sāsū al-Mīlikū [al- Maghribū]

Rümker, Christian Karl [Carl] LudwigRumovsky, Stepan YakovlevichRunge, Carl [Carle] David TolmeRussell, Henry ChamberlainRussell, Henry Norris

Russell, JohnRutherford, ErnestRutherfurd, Lewis MorrisRydberg, Johannes [Janee] Robert

Sabine, EdwardṬadr al-Sharū�a al-Thīnū: �Ubaydallīh ibn Mas �ād al- Maī bābū

al-Bukhīrū al-ḥ anafūSafford, Truman HenrySafronov, Viktor SergeyevichṬīghīnū: Abā ḥ īmid A ī mad ibn Muī ammad al-Ṭīghīnū

[al-Ṭaghīnū] al-AsāurlībūSaha, Meghnad N.Ṭī �id al-Andalusū: Abā al-Qīsim Ṭī �id ibn abū al-Walūd Aī mad

ibn �Abd al-Raī mīn ibn Mu ī ammad ibn Ṭī �id al-Taghlibū al-Qurāubū

St. John, Charles EdwardSalih ZekiSamarqandū: Shams al-Dūn Muī ammad ibn Ashraf al-ḥ usaynū

al-SamarqandūSamaw’al: Abā Naṣr Samaw’al ibn Yaī yī ibn �Abbīs al-Maghribū

al-AndalusūSampson, Ralph AllenSanad ibn �Alū: Abā al-ṭ ayyib Sanad ibn �Alū al-YahādūSanford, Roscoe FrankSantini, Giovanni-Sante-GasperoĀatīnandaSaunder, Samuel ArthurSaunders, Frederick AlbertSavary, FelixSavile, HenrySawyer Hogg, Helen Battles

Hogg, Helen BattlesSchaeberle [Schäberle] John [Johann] MartinSchalén, Carl Adam WilhelmSchall von Bell, Johann Adam

Tang-Jo-WangScheiner, ChristophScheiner, JuliusScheuchzer, Johann JakobSchiaparelli, Giovanni VirginioSchickard, WilhelmSchiller, JuliusSchjellerup, Hans Karl Frederik ChristianSchlesinger, FrankSchmidt, Bernhard VoldemarSchmidt, Johann Friedrich JuliusSchmidt, Otto IulevichSchöner, JohannesSchönfeld, EduardSchreck, Johann

TerrentiusTerrenz, JeanSchrödinger, Erwin

Schröter, Johann HieronymusSchüler, WolfgangSchumacher, Heinrich ChristianSchuster, ArthurSchwabe, Samuel Heinrich

xxviiTable of Entries

Schwarzschild, KarlSchwarzschild, MartinSchwassmann, Friedrich Karl ArnoldScot, MichaelScottus [Scotus] Eriugena, Johannes [John]Seares, Frederick HanleySecchi, (Pietro) AngeloSee, Thomas Jefferson JacksonSeeliger, Hugo vonSeleukus of SeleukeiaSenecaServiss, Garrett PutnamSeverin, Christian

LongomontanusSeverus Sebokht [Sebokt, Sebukht, Seboht]Seyfert, Carl KeenanShain [Shayn, Shajn], Grigory AbramovichShakerley, JeremyShams al-Dūn al-BukhīrūShane, Charles DonaldShapley, HarlowShapley, Martha

Betz, MarthaSharaf al-Dūn al-ṭ āsūSharonov, Vsevolod VasilievichSharp, AbrahamShi ShenShibukawa, HarumiShūrīzū: Quāb al-Dūn Maī mād ibn Mas �ād Muṣliī al-ShūrīzūShirwīnū: Fatī allīh ibn Abā Yazūd ibn �Abd al-�Azūz ibn Ibrīhūm

al-Shībarīnū al-Shirwīnū al-ShamīhūShizuki, TadaoShklovsky [Shklovskii, Shklovskij], Iosif SamuilovichSibā al-Mīridūnū: Muī ammad ibn Muī ammad ibn Aī mad Abā

�Abd Allīh Badr [Shams] al-Dūn al-Miṣrū al- Dimashqū

Siguenza y Góngora, Carlos (de)Sijzū: Abā Sa �ūd Aī mad ibn Muī ammad ibn �Abd al-Jalūl al-SijzūSilberstein, LudwikSilvester, Bernard

Bernardus SilvestrisSima Qian

Ssu-Ma Ch’ienSimplicius of CiliciaSitter, Willem deSizzi, FrancescoSkjellerup, John FrancisSlipher, Earl CarlSlipher, Vesto MelvinSlocum, FrederickSmart, William MarshallSmiley, Charles HughSmith, SinclairSmyth, Charles PiazziSmyth, William HenrySnel [Snell], Willebrord

SnelliusSnyder, HartlandSoldner, Johann Georg

Somerville, Mary Fairfax GriegSorby, Henry CliftonSosigenes of AlexandriaSouth, JamesSpencer Jones, HaroldSphujidhvajaSpitz, Armand NeustadterSpitzer, Lyman, Jr.Spörer, Friedrich Wilhelm GustavĀrūpatiStabius, JohannStark, JohannesSteavenson, William HerbertStebbins, JoelStephan, Jean-Marie-ÉdouardStern, OttoSternberg [Shternberg], Pavel KarlovichStetson, Harlan TrueStevin, SimonStewart, BalfourStewart, John QuincyStewart, MatthewStöffler, Johannes

StoeflerusStokes, George GabrielStokley, JamesStone, Edward JamesStone, OrmondStoney, George JohnstoneStorer, ArthurStörmer, Fredrik Carl MülertzStoyko, Nicolas

Stoiko-Radilenko, NicolasStrand, Kaj Aage GunnarStratton, Frederick John MarrianStreete, ThomasStrömberg, GustavStromgren, Bengt Georg DanielStrömgren, Svante ElisStroobant, Paul-HenriStruve, Friedrich Georg Wilhelm

Struve, Vasily YakovlevichStruve, Georg Otto HermannStruve, Gustav Wilhelm Ludwig

Struve, Ludwig OttovichStruve, Karl Hermann

Struve, Hermann OttovichStruve, OttoStruve, Otto Wilhelm

Struve, Otton VasilievichStukeley, WilliamSu Song

Su SungSuárez, BuenaventuraSuess, Hans EduardṬāfū: Abā al-ḥ usayn �Abd al-Raī mīn ibn �Umar al-ṬāfūSulaymīn ibn �Iṣma: Abā Dīwād Sulaymīn ibn �Iṣma

al-SamarqandūSundman, Karl Frithiof

xxviii Table of Entries

Suyāāū: Abā al-FaḤl �Abd al-Raī mīn Jalīl al-Dūn al-Suyā āūSwan, WilliamSwedenborg, EmanuelSwift, LewisSwings, Polydore [Pol] Ferdinand FelixSwope, Henrietta HillSynesius of Cyrene

ṭ aba rū: Abā Ja�far Muī ammad ibn Ayyāb al-ḥ īsib al- ṭ abarū

Tacchini, PietroTakahashi, YoshitokiTaqū al-Dūn Abā Bakr Muī ammad ibn Zayn al-Dūn Ma�rāf

al-Dimashqū al-ḥ anafūTarde, Jean

TardeusTaylor, Geoffrey IngramTebbutt, JohnTeller, Edward [Ede]Tempel, Ernst Wilhelm LeberechtTennant, James FrancisTerby, François Joseph CharlesTezkireci Köse IbrīhūmThībit ibn QurraThackeray, Andrew DavidThales of MiletusTheodosius of BithyniaTheon of AlexandriaTheon of SmyrnaTheophrastus

TyrtamusThiele, Thorvald NicolaiThollon, LouisThom, AlexanderThome, John [Juan] MaconThomson, George PagetThomson, William

Baron Kelvin of LargsLord Kelvin

Tikhov, Gavril AdrianovichTimocharisTisserand, François-FélixTitius [Tietz], Johann DanielTodd, CharlesTodd, David PeckTolman, Richard ChaceTombaugh, Clyde WilliamTorricelli, EvangelistaToscanelli dal Pozzo, PaoloTousey, RichardTriesnecker, Franz [Francis] de Paula vonTrouvelot, Étienne-LêopoldTrumpler, Robert JuliusTserasky [Tzeraskii], Vitol’d [Witold] Karlovich

Ceraski, Vitol’d [Witold] KarlovichTurner, Herbert Hall

ṭ āsū: Abā Ja �far Muī ammad ibn Muī ammad ibn al-ḥ asan Naṣūr al-Dūn al-ṭ āsū

Tuttle, Horace Parnell

�Ubaydū: Jalīl al-Dūn FaḤl Allīh al- �UbaydūUlugh Beg: Muī ammad ṭ araghīy ibn Shīhrukh ibn Tūmār

GārgīnUmawū: Abā �Alū al-ḥ asan ibn �Alū ibn Khalaf al-Umawū

al-Khatūb al-Umawū al-QurāubūUnsöld, Albrecht�UrḤū: Mu’ayyad (al-Milla wa-) al-Dūn (Mu’ayyad ibn Barūk

[Burayk]) al-’UrḤū (al-�śmirū al-Dimashqū)Urey, Harold Clayton�Uāīrid: �Uāīrid ibn Mu ī ammad al-ḥ īsib

Väisälä, YrjöVan Albada, Gale BrunoVan Allen, James AlfredVan Biesbroeck, Georges-AchilleVan de Kamp, Peter [Piet]Van de Sande Bakhuyzen [Bakhuysen], Hendrik Gerard

[Hendricus Gerardus]Van den Bos, Willem HendrikVan den Hove, Maarten

Martinus Hortensius [Ortensius]Van Maanen, AdriaanVan Rhijn, Pieter JohannesVarīhamihiraVaucouleurs, Gérard Henri deVerbiest, FerdinandVery, Frank WashingtonVespucci, AmerigoVico, Francesco deVinci, Leonardo daVirdung, JohannVirgil [Vergil]

Vergilius Maro, PubliusVitruvius, Marcus

Pollio, MarcusVogel, Hermann CarlVögelin, Johannes

VogelinusVogt, HeinrichVolkoff, George MichaelVorontsov-Veliaminov [-Velyaminov], Boris Aleksandrovich

Wībkanawū: Shams al-Munajjim [Shams al-Dūn] Muī ammad ibn �Alū Khwīja al-Wībkanawū [Wībaknawū]

Wachmann, Arno ArthurWalcher of MalvernWaldmeier, MaxWales, WilliamWalker, Arthur GeoffreyWalker, Sears CookWallace, Alfred Russel

xxixTable of Entries

Wallis, JohnWalther, Bernard [Bernhard]Wang XunWard, Isaac W.Ward, SethWargentin, Pehr WilhelmWassenius [Vassenius], BirgerWaterston, John JamesWatson, James CraigWatts, Chester BurleighWebb, Thomas WilliamWeigel, ErhardWeinek, László [Ladislaus]Weiss, EdmundWeizsäcker, Carl Friedrich vonWendelen, Govaart [Gottfried, Godefried]

Godefridus WendelinusWerner, JohannesWesselink, Adriaan JanWeyl, (Claus Hugo) HermannWharten, GeorgeWheeler, John ArchibaldWhewell, WilliamWhipple, Fred LawrenceWhiston, WilliamWhitehead, Alfred NorthWhitford, Albert EdwardWhiting, Sarah FrancesWhitrow, Gerald JamesWid manstätten, Aloys [Alois]

Joseph Franz Xaver vonWildt, RupertWilhelm IV

Landgrave of Hessen-KasselWilkins, Hugh PercivalWilkins, JohnWilliam of [Guillaume de] Conches

Guilelmus de ConchisWilliam of MoerbekeWilliam of [Guillaume de] Saint-CloudWilliams, Arthur StanleyWilliams, Evan GwynWilsing, Johannes Moritz DanielWilson, Albert GeorgeWilson, AlexanderWilson, Herbert CouperWilson, Latimer JamesWilson, Olin Chaddock, Jr.Wilson, Ralph ElmerWing, VincentWinlock, JosephWinnecke, Friedrich August TheodorWinthrop, JohnWirtanen, Carl AlvarWirtz, Carl WilhelmWitt, Carl Gustav

Wittich, PaulWolf, Charles-Joseph-ÉtienneWolf, Johann RudolfWolf, Maximilian Franz Joseph CorneliusWollaston, William HydeWoltjer, Jan, Jr.Wood, Frank BradshawWood, Robert WilliamsWoolley, Richard Van der RietWren, ChristopherWright, ChaunceyWright, ThomasWright, William HammondWrottesley, JohnWurm, KarlWyse, Arthur Bambridge

Xenophanes of ColophonXimenes, Leonardo

Yaī yī ib n Abū Manṣār: Abā �Alū Yaī yī ibn Abū Manṣār al- Munajjim

Ya�qāb ibn ṭ īriqYativḡṣabhaYavanečvaraYixing

I-HsingSeng YixingYixing Chanshi

Young, Anne SewellYoung, Charles Augustus

Zach, János Ferenc [Franz Xaver] vonZacut: Abraham ben Samuel ZacutZanotti, EustachioZanstra, Herman Zarqīlū: Abā Isī īq Ibrīhūm ibn Yaī yà al-Naqqīsh al-Tujūbū

al-ZarqīlūAzarquiel

Zeeman, PieterZeipel, Edvard Hugo vonZel’dovich, Yakov BorisovichZhamaluding: Jamīl al-Dūn Muī ammad ibn ṭ īhir ibn

Muī ammad al-Zaydū al-BukhīrūJamīl al-Dūn

Zhang HengChang Heng

Zhang SixunZinner, ErnstZöllner, Johann Karl FriedrichZu Chongzhi

Tsu Ch’ung-chihZucchi, NicolloZupi, Giovan BattistaZwicky, Fritz

If a name within the text appears in bold, there exists an entry on that astronomer elsewhere in the encyclopedia.

Introduction

History is the essence of innumerable biographies.Thomas Carlyle, Essays, “On History”

Astronomy has a long and rich tradition, and as the record shows, the history of that tradition is tied closely to collective biography.1 The present volumes represent a modern attempt to provide a comprehensive biographical encyclopedia of astronomers. The purpose of these volumes is twofold. First, as ready reference, they are designed to provide easy access to biographical information in the history of astron-omy. Cutting across space and time, biographical entries are international in scope and cover the period from classical Antiquity to the late 20th century. Second, drawing on a variety of specialized scholars, these volumes aim to serve as an “access point” for continuing research. While individual entries “stand alone” as ready reference, taken collectively, they offer a map of the complex communities that gave sci-ence shape.2 The following introduction has two purposes: first, to sketch the origins of collective biography and its place in the history of astronomy; second, to illustrate the design and use of collective biographies as reference and research tools.

Biography And History

There is properly no history, only biography.Ralph Waldo Emerson, Essays, “History”

History—here I mean historical writing—traces its origins to classical Antiquity, to the celebration of heroes and the lives of great men. Although lives were written before Plutarch’s aptly titled classic, the modern sense of biography—a fair-minded history of a particular life—took mature form only in the 19th century.3 The history of writing lives challenges the boundaries that currently separate history, biography, literature, rhetoric, and political commentary. While the roots of modern biography can be traced to the Renaissance (includ-ing early examples of science biography), sharp distinctions between “history and biography” are difficult to sustain, not only because the categories continue to overlap but because both share a common ancestor—what we now call collective biography.4 As background to the present volumes, the following historiographic essay sketches these changing relations.5

The origins of biography (literally, life writing) are found in classical Antiquity as part of a long tradition dedicated to the celebration of heroes.6 For two millennia, what we now know as history was often viewed as philosophy teaching by example. A brief glance at early writers suggests that biography and collective biography share a complex evolution. While Damascius (sixth century) was the first writer to use the Latin term biographia, John Dryden was the first to use biography in print (1683), this in reference to Plutarch’s Lives. Words are important but much more was at work. Viewed over time, historical writing included what is now known as history, biography, and collective bio-graphy, as well as elements from other branches of the humanities and social sciences.

Biography has served many masters. Between Antiquity and the Renaissance, its main role was to tell the lives of statesmen, philoso-phers, and saints. As a display of literary and rhetorical skill, its principal aim was to instruct and inspire. Among ancient Greek and Latin authors, the biographical art is evident in the Lives of Critias, the Memorabilia of Xenophon, the Lives of the Philosophers by Diogenes

1 I wish to thank the BEA Editorial Board for the invitation to write the Introduction. While I have contributed several articles in these volumes, I have had no role in designing or editing the present work.2 Collective biography invites the reader to explore the interplay of individuals, ideas, and groups. One scholar went further: “In group biography, one becomes d