the book of photography

The book ofphotographyJOHN HEDGECOE

Senior EditorBecky Alexander

Project EditorNicky Munro

Art EditorMichael Duffy

Managing EditorAdèle Hayward

Managing Art EditorKaren Self

Production ControllerJane Rogers

Category PublisherStephanie Jackson

Art DirectorPeter Luff

Associate WritersJonathan Hilton and Chris George

This revised edition first published in Great Britain in 2005by Dorling Kindersley Limited,80 Strand, London WC2R 0RL

This revised edition first published in the United States in 2005by DK Publishing, Inc.

375 Hudson Street, New York, New York, 10014

Original edition first published in Great Britain in 1994Original edition first published in the United States in 1994

Copyright © 2005 Dorling Kindersley Limited, London

Text copyright © 2005 Dorling Kindersley Limited and John HedgecoePhotographs by John Hedgecoe copyright

© 1994 and 2005 John Hedgecoe

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,

or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,

or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.Cataloging-in-Publication data is

available from the Library of Congress.

UK ISBN 1 4053 0438 3US ISBN 0 7566 0947 X

Reproduced in Singapore by ColourscanPrinted and bound in China by Toppan

see our catalogue at

www.dk.com

LONDON, NEW YORK, MUNICH, MELBOURNE, DELHI

CONTENTSINTRODUCTION 6

THE CAMERA 12The design of film and digital cameras with an explanation of how they work. Different types of camera, lens,and lighting equipment are also described in detail.

HOW TO SEEBETTER PICTURES 34The secret of good photography lies in the ability to “see”good pictures, the principal elements of which – shape, tone,pattern, and texture – are analyzed in this section.

HOW TO TAKEBETTER PICTURES 70A comprehensive and practical behind-the-cameraguide to photographing different subjects, from formal portraitsto panoramic landscapes.

PORTRAITS 72Creating Formal Portraits 74

Taking Fashion Portraits 76

Styling Portraits 78

How to Relax the Model 80

Creating a Style 82

Fashion Portrait Gallery 84

Taking Portraits on Location 86

Portrait Gallery 88

Capturing Character 90

Taking Portraits Outdoors 92

Taking Black and White Portraits 94

Creating Dramatic Portraits 96

Dramatic Portraits Outdoors 98

Portrait Gallery 100

Taking a Self Portrait 102

Composing Group Portraits 104

Creating Informal Portraits 106


Photographing the Nude 110

Natural Lighting for the Nude 112

Creating Abstract Nude Images 114


Portraying a Mother and Child 118

Taking Children’s Portraits 120

Children’s Portrait Gallery 122

Photographing Children at Play 124

Children at Play Gallery 126

Freezing a Moving Figure 128

Emphasizing Movement 130

Photographing Sports Action 132

Photographing Action Sequences 134


STILL LIFE 138Composing a Still Life 140

Lighting a Still Life 142

Selecting Still Life Themes 144

Taking Outside Still Life 146

Choosing Backgrounds for Still Life 148

Photographing Found Still Life 150

Still Life Gallery 152

LANDSCAPES 154Viewing a Landscape 156

Recording Times of Day 158

Landscape Gallery 160

Changing Light and Weather 162

Black and White Versus Color 164


Recording the Changing Seasons 168

Photographing Water and Light 170

Creating Images of Moving Water 172

Photographing Seascapes 174

Capturing Dramatic Skies 176


Photographing Urban Landscapes 180

Photographing Landscapes at Night 182

ARCHITECTURE 184Viewing a Building 186

Using a Wide-angle Lens 188

Architecture Gallery 190

Using a Shift Lens 192

Photographing Exterior Details 193


Photographing Interiors 196

Working in Large Interiors 198

Lighting Simple Interiors 200

Photographing Interior Details 202


NATURE 206Revealing Nature in Close Up 208

Macrophotography 210

Lighting for Indoor Macro 212

Nature Gallery 214

Photographing Gardens 216

Photographing Flowers and Shrubs 218

Nature Gallery 220

Photographing Garden Architecture 222

Recording Garden Features 224

Nature Gallery 226

ANIMALS 228Photographing Wild Animals 230

Photographing Birds 232

Photographing Pets 234

Animal Gallery 236

DIGITAL MANIPULATION 238An overview of digital manipulation techniques including computer retouching, filter effects, and combining images.

TRADITIONAL MANIPULATION 248An overview of traditional image manipulation techniques including conventional darkroom techniques suchas solarization and hand coloring.

DARKROOM AND STUDIO EQUIPMENT 260Practical guidance to all the equipment necessary forsetting up a studio and darkroom at home. In addition thereis information on how best to view and store slides, negatives, prints, and digital files.

FAULT FINDER 268GLOSSARY 274

INDEX 282

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 288

INTRODUCTION 7

INTRODUCTIONTaking exciting photographs has very little to do with buying an expensive camera orhaving a massive array of photographicequipment. What is crucial is how you see achosen subject – and then how this vision istransformed into a permanent image usingphotographic techniques and composition.

A PRACTICAL APPROACH

This book adopts a practical approach tohelp you master photography. The largestsection covers a wide range of photographicgenres, including portraiture, still life,landscapes, architecture, and natural history.All these are illustrated with behind-the-scenes shots of me out on location or in astudio actually taking the pictures. Thesephoto set-ups reveal exactly how a shot was taken, the equipment that was used, the camera angle, and the wider settingsfrom which the pictures were derived.

A technical understanding of your camerais important, as it allows you to capture thepictorial qualities of a scene in the best waypossible, whether you are using film or adigital chip. These fundamental cameracontrols are illustrated in the first section of the book using both diagrams andphotographs. The more familiar you becomewith the controls and lens settings on yourown particular camera, the more attentionyou can pay to composition and timing.

Framing the shot, leftThe photographer’s skill liesnot only in knowing what toinclude in the photograph,but also what to leave out.

Photographer at workThe unique photo set-upsprovide a practical insightinto the way I work in thestudio and on location.

8 INTRODUCTION

Good photographs tend to capture the spiritof a subject by showing some of its featuresmore strongly than others. To do this youneed to take advantage of the fundamentalelements of an image, emphasizing thosethat are most useful for the interpretation ofthe subject using composition and lighting.The most basic of these elements is theshape of a subject, for example, which isshown most graphically when the subject issilhouetted by means of backlighting andunderexposure. Other key elements areform, texture, tone, and color. I explain howto use these, and other, compositionaldevices in the section entitled How to SeeBetter Pictures.

THE DIGITAL REVOLUTION

In recent years, digital cameras have made ahuge difference to how photographers, bothamateur and professional, take pictures. Inthe last century it was the 35mm SLR thatwas the single most important invention for

Texture and light, aboveThis image shows howlight can be used to revealcontrasting textures. Thecomposition is simple, butthe effect created by thelighting is striking.

Using color, rightSome colors have a verypowerful effect in pictures.The red of this clown’smask dominates thisportrait, grabbing theviewer’s attention.

the serious photographer. Now, in the 21stcentury, many keen photographers are usingdigital imaging instead of film. Despite thebasic difference in the way an image isrecorded, many of the main camera controlsare the same as they were. In fact, manydigital cameras are designed to look andhandle in exactly the same way as thetraditional SLR. Most of the basic techniquesalso remain virtually unchanged. However,when there are differences in the way thedifferent types of camera are used, thesehave been highlighted throughout the book,so that you can get the most out of myadvice, whatever camera you use.

Where digital imaging comes into its ownis in the way that it can allow you to changeand improve the picture after it is taken.Whether shot digitally or on film, once on acomputer the exposure and composition canbe altered with an ease, precision, andsubtlety that are impossible to reproduceusing traditional means.

INTRODUCTION 9

INTRODUCTION 11

Using my own examples again, I provide anoverview of how digital image manipulationsoftware, such as Adobe Photoshop, can notonly improve your photography, but can adda new level of artistry to it.

THE COMPLETE PHOTOGRAPHER

The basic equipment you need to set up a home darkroom and studio is covered in the last section of this book. Even animpromptu studio allows you to experimentwith lighting and control it in a way that isimpossible to achieve outdoors. Having yourown darkroom, meanwhile, allows you tomanipulate, crop, and enlarge your ownimages without the need for a computer,scanner, or desktop printer. The fault findersection will help you see what mistakes you might make when taking and printingpictures, and the best way to avoid them –as well as how to rectify the problem usingconventional or digital techniques.

Use this book as a guide to developingyour own creativity and individual style. Byexploring the many possibilities of themedium, you will discover limitless ways toexpress your own particular vision.

Unnatural view, abovePhotography lets you seethe world in new ways. Tothe eye, this athlete wouldappear neither frozen noras a crisp, black silhouette.

Developing an eye, leftPart of the skill of goodphotography lies in beingable to see, and capture,great images in the ordinarythings around you.

To take consistently successful photographs,

it is important to understand the basic

optical principles underlying how a camera

works; type of lens; what film speed or digital

setting to use in a particular situation; lighting

equipment; plus the advantages and

drawbacks of different camera formats.

The more familiar you are with the controls

on your camera, the more you can

concentrate on the composition and lighting

of each photograph.

THE CAMERA

14 THE CAMERA

THE BASIC CAMERAIf you were to strip away the electronicrefinements and automatic features of anycamera you would find the same basic designunderneath – a lightproof container with ahole at one end over which a lens is placedand a holder opposite to accommodate eithera strip of light-sensitive film, or a light-sensitive electronic chip.

To produce a correctly exposed image in avariety of light intensities, the camera lens hasan iris diaphragm that can be adjusted toleave a hole of varying diameter. This iscalled the aperture. On a fixed-lens compactcamera, the lens also contains a shutter

THE PATH OF LIGHT

mechanism, known as a between-the-lensshutter, which opens to allow light to reachthe film. The shutter allows you to choose theprecise moment of exposure, and by selectingfrom a range of shutter speeds you can alsocontrol the length of exposure. The shuttermechanism on a single lens reflex (SLR)camera is located inside the body, behind thelens, just in front of the film or digital sensor,and is known as a focal-plane shutter.

Another common feature is the viewfinder.This is basically a compositional aid thatallows you to aim the camera accurately and to decide what elements to focus on.

CAMERA TYPES

•SLRs are the mostpopular type of camerafor serious photography,they are either digital oruse 35mm film.

•Compact digital orfilm cameras are lightand easy to use.

•Medium-formatcameras use wide rolls of film for betterimage definition.

Subject and light sourceA light source to illuminatea subject is essential. Lightrays reflected from thesubject are transmittedthrough the camera to forma latent image on the film(or digital chip).

LensA simple lens consists of aconvex disk of ground and polished glass thatrefracts the widening lightrays traveling away fromevery point of the subject,so that they converge toform coherent points. Thepoint at which the lensfocuses these rays – thefocal plane – coincideswith the position of thefilm when the lens iscorrectly focused.

Focal planeThis is where the rays oflight refracted by the lensconverge to form a sharp,upside-down image. Lighttraveling from differentdistances from the cameraneeds varying degrees ofrefraction to focus at thefocal plane, so a focusingmechanism moves the lenstoward or away from theback of the camera. Theposition of the film, or chip, and focal planecoincide if the lens iscorrectly focused.

Aperture The diameter of the lensdiaphragm can be changedby turning the aperture ring.This dictates the brightnessof the image reaching thefilm. Moving to the next f-number either halves ordoubles aperture size.Aperture size also affectsdepth of field (see page 17).

Focal plane and film

Subject and light source

Lens

Diaphragm

Shutter

ViewfinderDirect vision viewfinderson compact cameras donot show exactly the sameimage the lens sees. Withan SLR, light is reflected bya mirror and pentaprism tothe viewfinder. Digitalcameras usually also havean LCD TV monitor toshow the image beingprojected onto the sensor.

Viewfinder

Blade shutter – closed

Blade shutter – open

Full aperture Medium aperture Stopped down

Focal-plane shutter – closed

Focal-plane shutter – open

ShutterThe shutter can be set atdifferent speeds, whichdetermine the length oftime the film is exposed.Moving the shutter speeddial to the next stop eitherdoubles or halves exposuretime. Shutters locatedbetween the aperture andthe lens or behind theaperture have overlappingblades that spring openwhen the release button ispressed; focal-plane shuttersconsist of two metal blindsthat open progressively.

Direct vision Single lens reflex

THE BASIC CAMERA 15

DESIGN OF AN SLR CAMERA

The unique feature of the popular SLR (single lensreflex) camera lies in the design of its viewfindersystem. Light traveling from the subject enters thelens and strikes a mirror angled at 45˚. It is thenreflected upward, through the focusing screen, andinto the pentaprism, where it exits the camera viaa rear-mounted viewfinder window. This meansthat no matter what focal length lens is attached to the camera, the scene the photographer seesthrough the viewfinder corresponds exactly to that seen by the lens.

35mm SLR cutawayThis cutaway of a typical SLR shows thelink between the external controls and theinternal mechanisms. Although cameramodels may look different, the layout ofthe basic features – lens, diaphragm,aperture, angled mirror, shutter, focusingscreen, and pentaprism – is the same.

35mm SLR back view This view shows a typical SLR withthe hinged back removed to revealthe layout of the lightproof filmchamber and position of the focal-plane shutter.

Fold-away film-rewind crank(manual cameras only)

Ring forattaching

strap

Focal planeshutter

Filmadvancespindle

DX sensors

Rewindspindle

Viewfinder window Rubber eyecap

Film chamberfor 35mm

cassette

Focusing screen has etchedsurface to help the photographerjudge if the image is sharp

Exposure compensationdial: used for manuallyoverriding the automaticexposure system

Pentaprism has mirrored surfaces to flip the imageon the focusing screen sothat it appears the rightway round when seen inthe viewfinder

Shutter release button – on most SLRs, half depressing this often activates the automaticexposure and focusing controls

Shutter speed dial: exposure timesranging from up to 2 seconds or longerto 1/2000 second or briefer can be set

Internal mirror reflects theimage onto the focusingscreen, so photographercan see the image as it will appear on the film.Themirror swings upward outof the light path when theexposure is taken

Film

Focal plane shutter

Light paththrough thecamera

Lens is constructed with a number of glass elements

Aperture control ring

Rear viewfinderwindow

Flash hotshoe contains electricalcontacts that trigger the flashwhen the shutter is fired

Button forunlocking the lens

Batteries

Frame counteron LCD display

Ring for attaching strap

18 THE CAMERA

FILM CAMERASThe 35mm is far and away the most popularcamera size. It is small, lightweight, easy touse, and generally produces good results. Its popularity has led to a steady increase intechnical, optical, and design innovations,and cameras are now available with everyconceivable automatic feature. For 35mmsingle lens reflex (SLR) users, there is theadded bonus of a wide range of lenses withdifferent focal lengths from which to choose.

AUTOMATIC FEATURES

Autofocus systems in general target anythingpositioned center-frame and assume it to bethe subject of the photograph. Problems mayarise, however, if the subject is off-center,although more elaborate systems exist thatcan identify the closest subject from a widearea within the frame.

Autoexposure systems vary in how they are programed to control exposure. Somecameras measure exposure in the center ofthe frame (assuming that this is where thesubject will be). Other cameras take samplesfrom different parts of the frame, combiningthese multizone or evaluative readings tocallculate an intelligent reading.

Additional automatic features include film-speed recognition (DX coding), which picksup the speed of the film from a code printedon the cassette. Automated film transport notonly speeds up film loading and unloading,but winds on the film by one frame eachtime a picture is taken. When automaticwind-on is continuous, allowing you to takeup to four frames per second, this function isknown as motor drive.

COMPACT CAMERAS

The other popular types of 35mm camera arecompact, or point-and-shoot, models. Theseare less bulky than SLRs and have a fixedlens that cannot be changed. The maindesign problem with compact cameras is thatthe view seen through the viewfinder is notexactly the same as that seen through thelens. This can result in framing errors atclose distances, such as chopping off the topof a subject’s head. It is also not possible tosee whether the image is correctly focused.

AUTOFOCUS SLRThe majority of SLRcameras now haveautofocus. The skill of thisfeature will vary greatlyfrom model to model –with some able to trackfast-moving subjects farmore accurately thanothers. But it is stillnecessary for thephotographer to check and control where thecamera focuses – and insome situations it will bepreferable to focus manually.

MANUAL SLRThe least expensive filmSLRs tend to be thosewhich do not have autofocus. For every shot,you turn the lens until thesubject in the viewfinderappears as sharp as possible. On some models you may alsoneed to wind the film onmanually between shotsand when the film is usedup – but there may be abuilt-in motor to do thisfor you.

APS COMPACTAn alternative to the35mm film format is APS,or Advanced Photo System.The film area is smallerthan 35mm, but this meansthat compact cameras canbecome even morecompact. The cartridgesjust slot into the camera –you do not see or touchthe film. With APS you can also change the shape of each picturebetween conventional,widescreen, and panoramicaspect ratios.

Shutter speedand exposuremode dial

Exposurecompensation

Manual focus ringLens

Flashhotshoe

Flashhotshoe

Shutter releasebutton Viewfinder Flash

Lens

Shutter releasebutton Built-in

pop-upflash

Lens

Autofocuswindow

Shutter releasebutton

Focusmodeswitch

Manualfocus ring

FILM CAMERAS 19

AUTOMATIC SLR

•Automatic filmloading and wind-onmake for quick andeasy handling.

•Autoexposure isideal for those notinterested in makingtechnical decisionsabout the appearanceof the final image.

•Autofocus is usefulfor those with pooreyesight, or when thecamera is being used inlow-light situations.

COMPACT

•Point-and-shootfeatures make thiscamera ideal for non-technical users.

•Scene in viewfinderis not the same as thatrecorded on the film,so use the parallaxmarks to frame scene.

•Most compactcameras are lighter andless intrusive to usethan SLRs.

MANUAL SLR

•Ideal for technicallyminded photographers.

•Shutter speeds tendto be incremental andintermediate settingsare not usually possible.

•Viewfinder showsthe scene that will berecorded, no matterwhat lens is used.

•Manual focusingallows you to decidewhich area of the imageto concentrate on.

ZOOM COMPACTAll but the most basiccompacts have built-inzooms, allowing you tochange the focal length tomatch subject size anddistance. Advanced modelsoffer a greater zoom rangeallowing you to get close-ups of more challengingsubjects. Top models alsooffer more advancedmetering, focusing andviewing systems. However,you still miss out on thedegree of control overcamera settings andfocusing that is availableon even a basic SLR. Advanced compact picture

Basic compact picture

Shutter releasebutton

Autofocuswindow

Flash and red-eyereduction lamp

Camera grip andbattery compartment Zoom lens

Viewfinder

Automatic SLR can be used for low light levels

Manual SLR can be used for close focusing

BUYING SECONDHAND

•Buying a secondhand SLR allows you to own asophisticated camera for the fraction of the cost of a new one. It is not necessary to have the latestmodel in order to take great photographs.

•Secondhand film cameras and accessories havebecome even more affordable in recent years.This isbecause many serious photographers have switchedto digital cameras.

•If you buy from a reputable dealer your purchasewill be guaranteed against malfunction for a numberof months. But you may get a better deal privately or online through an auction site.

•Secondhand price is highly dependent on thevisible condition of the item.You will pay much less if you are willing to buy a scuffed item, or one thatdoes not come in the original box.

•Lenses, and some other accessories, are also goodused deals. But make doubly sure that they will workwith your particular model of camera.

20 THE CAMERA

DIGITAL CAMERASA principal attraction of digital cameras is theimmediacy of the results. As soon as thepicture is taken, you can view the shot onscreen. As there is no processing stage, thereis also the advantage of low running costs;even the memory can be re-used. As well asbeing displayed on camera, computer, or TVscreen, digital pictures can also be printed athome using a standard desktop printer – orprofessionally using photographic paper.

HOW DO THEY WORK?

Instead of using film, digital cameras use anelectronic light-sensitive CCD or CMOS chipthat converts the focused image into anelectrical signal. This is then converted into adigital form, using the same binary code inwhich all computer files are stored.

DIGITAL SLRA digital SLR is designed to offer the advantages of digitalrecording – but with thehandling and features of a 35mmSLR. The design allows you tosee the image directly throughthe lens using a prism andmoving mirror arrangement. Butthere is also an additional LCDmonitor, which can be used forframing shots, or reviewingpictures already taken. Thelenses are interchangeable, andmany digital SLRs can use lensesdesigned for 35mm models; but,as the imaging area is smallerthan that used with 35mm, the effective focal length isincreased. There is a high degreeof control over exposure,focusing, color balance, andother creative functions.

Just as with film cameras, the sophisticationof digital cameras varies enormously. Someare mere point-and-shoot models, producinglow-resolution on-screen snaps. At the otherextreme, an ever-increasing number arecapable of offering all the creative controland picture quality expected from aprofessional film camera.

A key consideration in choosing a digitalcamera is the number of pixels – the individualelements used by the imaging sensor. Themore pixels, the higher the maximumresolution. This is particularly important ifyou want to print your images, rather thanjust view them on-screen. An enthusiasts’model will typically offer a resolution of 5million pixels, and be capable of producingreasonable A3 (16x12in/40.6x30.5cm) prints.

DIGITAL SLR

•Reflex viewingsystem lets user seedirectly through lens.Large LCD monitoralso provided.

•Interchangeablelenses. Other systemaccessories available toadapt camera tospecific tasks.

•Wide range ofcreative controls andmanual overrides.

•Readout of apertureand shutter speed.

ABOUT PIXELS

•Choose a modelwith two million ormore pixels for good4x6in (10x15cm)prints.

•The higher theresolution, the biggerthe file size – so youget less shots on amemory card.

•You do not alwayshave to shoot at topresolution – file sizecan be reduced fromshot to shots. But ahigh resolution allowsmore cropping later.

Hotshoe forattaching flash

Lug forattaching strap

Zoom ring, for adjusting thefocal length of the lens

Focus adjustment ring,for when not using theautofocus

Interchangeable lens system.Lens is attached to camerabody using bayonet mount

Depth of fieldpreview button

White balance setbutton, for manualcolor temperature

readings

Manual whitebalance

adjustmentfor overriding

automaticcolor balance

Shutter release

AF illuminator,helps autofocuslock onto nearsubject in lowlight

Exposuremode dial

Input dial – usedin conjunctionwith othercontrols

Digital SLR picture

DIGITAL CAMERAS 21

HYBRID MODELThe hybrid is a halfway housebetween the SLR and thecompact. It is designed to lookand handle like an SLR, but asthe zoom is built-in the lens cannot be changed to suit differentsituations. The focal lengthrange, however, is usuallyextensive – and there are oftenother system accessories such aslens converters and additionalflashguns. Most significantly forthe serious photographer, theuser typically has completecontrol over aperture, shutterspeed and color balance –providing a degree of creativecontrol that is rarely found on acompact. Hybrid models arelighter, smaller, and lessexpensive than true SLRs.

COMPACT CAMERACompact digital cameras aredesigned for ease of use andportability, but typically provide a greater creative control than thatfound on a similar film camera.Most have built-in zoom lenses, butthe range varies significantly frommodel to model. The number ofpixels used (and maximumresolution) also varies greatly. Thereis often some control over shutterspeed, aperture, color balance, andfocusing – but this falls short of thatprovided with SLR or hybridmodels. A direct eyelevel viewfinderprovides a slightly different viewfrom that seen by the lens, althougha more accurate LCD monitor isalso provided.

BASIC DIGITAL CAMERAIf you do not need to print out yourpictures, and are happy to viewthem on-screen, and without beingenlarged, there is no need to investin a model with millions of pixels.Many low-cost digital cameras aredesigned as “webcams” – forproducing stills and movie imagesfor internet use, where lowresolution, and small file sizes, areessential. Digital cameras are alsofound built into other devices – suchas cell phones and camcorders.Those found on phones areparticularly popular, and aredesigned for sending thumbnailimages to other phones or to emailaddresses. Not suprisingly, thefeatures provided are very limited.

HYBRID MODEL

•Designed to handlelike an SLR camera –but lens is fixed.

•Lens has a wideratio, typically with a 6xzoom ratio or greater.

•Eyelevel TV monitorshows view seen bylens.There is also alarge LCD monitor.

•Wide range ofcreative controls andmanual overrides, withreadout of apertureand shutter speed.

DIGITAL COMPACT

•Designed primarilyfor ease of use andportability.

•Maximum resolutionvaries significantly frommodel to model.

•Has a fixed lens,which usually offersshort zoom range.

•Direct visioneyelevel viewfinder. Butusually also has largeLCD monitor.

BASIC DIGITAL CAMERA

•Very small, or builtinto multi-functiondevice.

•Low resolution with limited number of pixels. Designedprimarily for producingon-screen snapshots.

•Usually has fixedwide-angle lens. Anyzooming achieved bymagnifying the imageelectronically.

Basic digital camera picture

Compact camera picture

Hybrid model picture

Shutter release

Exposure compensation

Exposure mode

Automatic pop-up flash

Slot for memory card

Softkey – functiondepends on menu or

function currently in use

Screw mount for filters andadd-on lens converters

Built-in motorizedzoom lens

Mode dial

Shutter release

Viewfinder

Automatic flash

Color LCD screenused as viewfinderwhen the camera isin use

Main menu key

Built-in motorizedzoom lens: retracts intobody of camera when

not in use

22 THE CAMERA

MEDIUM-FORMAT AND SPECIAL CAMERASMedium-format roll-film cameras fill the gapbetween the lightweight 35mm compacts andSLRs and the unwieldy sheet film cameras.For many professional photographers, roll-film format cameras are ideal. Although it isnot too bulky, this type of camera produces a much larger negative than a 35mm, whichresults in better definition and tonal qualitiesof prints and transparencies.

Most roll-film cameras accept inter-changeable film “backs” that allow you tochange from color to black and white, orfrom negative film to slides even halfwaythrough a film. Many can be used with specialelectronic backs, which can capture the image

digitally if required. Medium-format camerasare not designed for casual snapping, and inmost situations must be used with a tripod.

Although a 35mm or digital SLR willproduce excellent results for most purposes,there are other cameras available that havebeen designed for specialized applications. Awaterproof camera will produce good resultseven in wet conditions, and an underwatercamera can take excellent images. Both arewidely available for the leisure photographerand can be found in digital form. The appealof instant film cameras has diminished withthe affordability of digital cameras – but theimmediate prints can still be fun.

ROLL-FILM SLRS

•Professional imagesof high quality resultfrom the large filmimage size.

•Convenience ofchanging the film back to switch quicklyand easily from film to digital.

•Wide range oflenses, viewing hoods,and other accessories.

Protectiveflap forwaist-levelfinder

Shutter release button

Lens

6 X 6CM CAMERA

•Film image sizemeasures 56 x 56mm.

•Lenses range from30mm to 500mm.

•Selection of differentviewfinders can beused, from eye-levelpentaprisms to waist-level and angle finders.

•Bellows can also beattached to the camera.

6 X 6CM CAMERAThis type of medium-format roll-film SLR is also known as a 21⁄4insquare camera and produces animage that is roughly 6cm (21⁄4in)square. Some photographers aredevoted to this format whileothers prefer the compositionalpossibilities of rectangular-formatimages. In terms of reliability anddurability, the Hasselblad shownon the right is the choice of manyprofessionals. It is supported by acomprehensive range of differentlenses, film backs, and auxiliaryviewfinders, including a pentaprismcorrection viewfinder.

6 x 6cm format picture

Film wind-onlever

Removablefilm back

Shutter releasebutton 6 X 7CM CAMERA

•Film image sizemeasures 56 x 69.5mm.

•Larger overall sizethan a 35mm SLR, butsimilar handlingcharacteristics.

•Interchangeablelenses are available,ranging from wide-angles to telephotos.

•Bellows and otherclose-up equipmentcan be attached to thecamera body.

6 X 7CM CAMERAThe 6 x 7cm camera produces anapproximately 6 x 7cm (21⁄4 x 23⁄4in)rectangular-format image, which isideal for landscape photography.This Pentax model is similar inappearance and operation to anenlarged 35mm SLR camera.However, the range of availablelenses is not as extensive as youwould find with a standard 35mmSLR camera, and because of theirsize and bulk, the lenses are muchmore expensive to buy. This typeof medium-format camera useseither 120 or 220 roll film (seepage 30).

6 x 7cm format pictureLens

Pentaprism

Focus control ring

MEDIUM-FORMAT AND SPECIAL CAMERAS 23

6 X 9CM CAMERA

•Film image sizemeasures 56 x 86mm.

•Direct visionrangefinder viewing.

•Models are availablewith either a 90mmwide-angle or 65mmvery wide-angle lens.

6 X 9CM CAMERAThis roll-film camera produces a rectangular image measuringroughly 6 x 9cm (21⁄4 x 31⁄2in). The large negative or positivefilm original ensures excellentenlargements. This model has arangefinder split-image viewingsystem, rather than standardthrough-the-lens reflex viewing,making it very lightweight. Thelens, however, is not inter-changeable, but different modelshave different focal lengths.

Rangefinderwindow

Lens

6 x 9cm format picture

Shutter lock

Flash sync terminal

KEY FEATURES

•Focusing is fullyautomatic through astandard 125mm lens.

•Viewing through thelens, via a reflex mirror.

•Ten images per packof film.

•Electronic flash.

INSTANT CAMERAInstant-picture cameras produce afinished image just a few secondsafter exposing the film. The modelshown here uses an integral filmwith the final print with plasticsheet layer and mask beingejected from the camera. Somemedium and large format camerasuse a peel-apart version of thefilm. Color and black and white35mm instant films are availablefor ordinary 35mm cameras, andthere are also instant-picture filmbacks for roll-film cameras. Instant camera for snapshots

Lens withautomatic shutter Built-in

electronic flashPhotocell

Film exitslot

KEY FEATURES

•Fixed wide-angle lens.

•Fixed focus withadd-on lens for close-ups down to 0.6m (2ft).

•Waterproof to adepth of 50m (164ft).

WATERPROOF CAMERASpecially adapted waterproofcameras have moisture-proofbodies and sealed controls fortaking photographs in wetconditions. Most waterproofcameras have automatic focusingand a choice of standard andwide-angle lenses. Waterproofcameras can be submerged inwater, but are not designed fordeep underwater photography.Digital versions are available. Waterproof camera for wet conditions

Built-in electronic flash

Viewfinderwindow

Shutterrelease

KEY FEATURES

•Direct vision coupledviewfinder.

•Front lens panel canbe removed andswapped for one of adifferent focal length.

•Uses 5 x 4in (10.2 x12.7cm) sheet film.

LARGE-FORMAT CAMERALarge-format cameras have eithera monorail or baseboard design.Focusing is achieved byextending the flexible bellows,holding the lens panel and lens,and moving them along the railson the monorail or fold-downbaseboard. This camera usesindividual sheets of 4 x 5in (10.2x 12.7cm) film for each image.Since the negative is so big, itrequires little enlargement toproduce prints of superb qualityand definition.

Bellows

Lens panel

Handle

Baseboard

Viewfinder

Glass lens coverNon-slip

grip

Large-format camera for architecture

24 THE CAMERA

STANDARD CAMERA LENSESCamera lenses can be broken down into threebroad groups: wide-angle, standard (normal),and long-focus (telephoto). It is not easy toassign focal lengths to each lens group,however, because these are dictated by thecamera format. The focal length of a standardlens is approximately equal to the length ofthe diagonal of that format’s image size. For a 35mm camera, the diagonal of the negativesize measures around 50mm, so a lens with

a focal length of 50–55mm is consideredstandard, and a lens of 80mm is a moderatelong-focus lens. The diagonal of a 6 x 6cmnegative measures approximately 80mm, soan 80mm lens is standard for a medium-format camera.

As the dimensions of the sensors used bydigital cameras varies so much from model to model, the focal length is usually quoted as if for the 35mm film format.

FOCAL LENGTH AND ANGLE OF VIEWThe illustration and sequence of photographs below,which are all taken from the same viewpoint, showthat as camera lens focal length increases so theangle of view decreases.

2˚

180˚62˚

106˚74˚

46˚ 28˚23˚

18˚12˚

8˚6˚

4˚

8mm 21mm28mm

50mm80mm

105mm

135mm200mm

300mm400mm 600mm

1200mm

Fisheye lens Extreme wide-angle lensesof 6–8mm are known asfisheyes. They record acircular image of at least180˚, with some lenseseven looking behind thecamera with a 220˚ angleof view. The resultingimage is very distorted,with vertical andhorizontal lines bowed.

Wide-angle lensWide-angle lenses of18–35mm have moregeneral applications thanfisheye lenses. Angles ofview are generous anddepth of field at allapertures is extensive. Poor-quality wide-angle lensesmay sometimes show somedistortion toward the edgesof the image.

Standard lensA standard 50mm lens isfitted on most 35mm SLRs.Useful for most types ofsubject, it often has a widemaximum aperture,making it good in lowlight. It does not show thesame distortion as a wideor long lens, and its angleof view is similar to that ofthe human eye.

Long-focus lensAngles of view of long-focus lenses of 80–400mmstart to diminish rapidly.With so little of the scenefilling the frame, thesubject is shown verylarge, making a long lensideal for distant subjects ordetailed close-ups. Depthof field decreases as thelens gets longer.

Extreme long-focus lensFocal lengths above400mm are specialized and are not usually foundon standard zooms. Theuse of a tripod to supportthe lens is essentialbecause of its relativelyheavy weight. A long lens has a shallow depthof field and a smallmaximum aperture.

92˚ 84˚

14mm

24mm

35mm

STANDARD LENSES

•50mm is standardlens for 35mm format.

•28mm is a commonwide-angle lens.

•200mm is a commonlong-focus lens.

STANDARD CAMERA LENSES 25

STANDARD LENSA standard lens producesan image that is roughlyequivalent to the way ascene appears whenviewed with the naked eye.Most 35mm SLRs used tocome with 50mm lenses, sothey can be inexpensive tobuy secondhand. Standardlenses usually have widemaximum apertures,making them useful in low-light situations.

WIDE-ANGLE LENSA wide-angle lens takes ina larger angle of view thana standard lens, and isideal for photographing agroup of people or whenyou are working inconfined space. If used tooclose to a subject,however, distortion may bea problem. Depth of fieldat each aperture setting isgenerous, which is usefulwhen all parts of a subjectmust be sharply rendered.

ZOOM LENSA zoom lens allows you tofine-tune subject framingby adjusting the focallength of the lens. Eachzoom lens covers a rangeof three or four fixed focallength lenses, giving yougreat flexibility at areasonable cost. Since youdo not have to think aboutchanging lenses, there isless chance you will missan important shot.

LONG-FOCUS LENSLonger focal lengths areuseful for taking largeimages of distant subjectsor when you cannot moveclose enough to the subjectto use a shorter lens. Long-focus lenses can befairly heavy, and therestricted angle of viewmakes the use of fastshutter speeds to avoidcamera shake moreimportant than with lighter,shorter lenses.

Aperturering

Focusingring

Lens

Depth offield scale

Aperturering

Focusingring

Depth offield scale

Aperturering

Focusingring

Depth offield scale

Aperture ring

Depth of field scale Focusing ring

Standard 50mm lens

28mm wide-angle lens

28–85mm zoom lens

135mm telephoto lens

Lens

Lens

Lens

Standard lenses are useful for most outdoor subjects

Wide-angle lenses are useful for interiors

Zooms are useful for action shots

Long-focus lenses are useful for natural history subjects

26 THE CAMERA

SPECIAL CAMERA LENSESA digital SLR, 35mm SLR, or medium-formatcamera body can be thought of simply as thefilm holder and control center for a vastarray of different add-on attachments,including lenses, each with its own use. Thelenses shown on these pages, designed forthe 35mm format, are just a selection of themany focal lengths and designs available.

ZOOMS AND SPECIALIZED LENSES

A zoom allows you to vary subjectmagnification without moving your cameraposition, which makes it the popular choicewith SLR users. Zoom lenses are also fitted asa standard feature on most compact cameras.

Specialized lenses, such as extreme long-focus lenses and ultra wide-angle fisheyelenses, have more limited applications. Theselenses are expensive to buy, but they can alsobe rented for short periods. Macro lenses aredesigned for taking close-ups of small subjectsor isolating details of larger subjects. Theselenses allow the camera to focus extremelyclose to a subject to record a detailed image.Used for photographing buildings, shift lensescorrect perspective to overcome the problemof converging vertical lines.

Advantages of a mirror lensThe compact design of amirror lens reduces thebulk and weightassociated with extremelong-focus lenses.Whereas the traditional500mm long-focus lens(below right) is 9.25in(235mm) long and weighs35oz (1,000g), the mirrorlens (right) of equivalentfocal length weighs only17oz (485g) and is 3.4in(87mm) long.

MIRROR LENS Instead of using groups ofglass elements to bendlight rays entering the lensand traveling down thebarrel, a mirror lens uses acombination of glasselements and mirrors.These mirrors bounce thelight up and down the lensbarrel, manipulating thelight rays to allow a longfocal length to becontained within aphysically short space. 600mm mirror lens

with colored filtersMirror lens image

Long-focus lens

Mirror lens

Distance scale

Frontal mirror

Focusing ring

Focusing ring

WIDE-ANGLE ZOOMA wide-angle zoom ranging from 21–35mm is effectivelythree lenses – 21mm, 28mm, and 35mm – with the addedadvantage of being able to select any intermediate focallength setting. However, a wide-angle zoom is likely to be slowerand heavier and to show moreimage distortion than a wide-angle fixed focal length lens.

TELEPHOTO ZOOMA telephoto zoom rangingfrom 75–300mmencompasses about sixfixed focal length lenses.This type of zoom ispopular with sports andwildlife photographers. It isalso useful for portraits andcan be used to photographarchitectural and landscapedetails.

35mm setting21mm setting

300mm setting75mm setting

Focusing ring

Aperture ring

Depth of field scale

Distance scale Focusing ringAperturering

Depth offield scale

75–300mm zoom lens

21–35mm zoom lens

Lensmount

SPECIAL CAMERA LENSES 27

ULTRA WIDE-ANGLE LENSUltra-wides used to be expensive,but now ultra wide-angle zoomshave made focal lengths under20mm much more affordable.Linearly corrected ultra wide-anglelenses have a focal length rangingfrom around 21mm down toaround 15mm. Some ultra wide-angles are designed to create adistorted view of the world – these are known as fisheyes.

SHIFT LENSA shift lens (also known as aperspective control lens) gets itsname because it can be shiftedoff-center in relation to the filmframe. Instead of tilting thecamera back to include the topof a tall structure and so distortingthe perspective, with a shift lensyou can keep the cameraparallel and shift the lens upwardto record an undistorted image.

MACRO LENSThis type of specialized lens isdesigned primarily to be used atvery close focusing distances (seepages 210–211). Macro lenses areavailable in focal lengths rangingfrom 50mm to 200mm. Whentaking close-ups outdoors, longermacro lenses produce a largeimage from farther back. Movingin close with a shorter macro lensmay block out the light.

TELEPHOTO LENSAn ultra telephoto lens hasspecially designed optics thatallow it to have a long focallength in a relatively short barrel.Most have a fixed focal length.Telephotos of 400mm, evenlightweight ones, require somesort of camera support but toensure some maneuverability, a sports photographer willfrequently use a monopod.

Standard lens image Ultra wide-angle lens image

Standard lens image Shift lens image

Standard lens image Macro lens image

Focusing ring

Focusing ring

Distancescale

Lensmount

Aperturering

Lensmount

Aperturering

15mm fisheye lens

28mm shift lens

50mm macro lens

Focusing ringAperture ring Distance scale

Lensmount

1000mm telephoto lens

Camera body

Shift control

Focusing ring

Focusing ring

Standard lens image 1000mm lens image

400mm telephoto lensTripod mount

28 THE CAMERA

FLASH LIGHTING EQUIPMENTFlash lighting units can be divided into severalgroups: studio equipment, built-in flash, andportable add-on or hand-held units. Althoughbuilt-in flash is a convenient source of lighting,which can also be used to supplementdaylight, it does have disadvantages. First, lightoutput is limited in strength and, if it is thesole illumination, has to be used relativelyclose to your subject. Second, the flash isalways front facing and tends to produce a

harsh, unattractive light. Third, the flash andlens are very close together and this causesred eye, in which the pupils of the subject’seyes appear red. Add-on and hand-held flashunits are far more versatile. In general, theyhave a more powerful output, the flash headcan be angled to bounce light off a wall orceiling for a softer and more natural look, andthe flash head is far enough away from thelens to avoid the problem of red eye.

FLASH FALL-OFF

•The farther thesubject is from the flash,the less light it receives.

•If the flash-to-subjectdistance is doubled, thelight is spread overfour times the area.

Direct light from built-in flash Bounced light from add-on flash Bounced light from hand-held flash

Built-in flashThis type of built-in flash is more useful as asupplementary or fill-in light source than asthe main illumination for a picture. Its low-output beam and front-facing position makeits application rather limited for any creativeflash effects. One useful feature of the camerashown below is an infra-red light transmitter,which bounces a beam of invisible light offthe subject and helps the autofocus detectorlocate the subject when it is too dark to see.

Add-on flashThis flash fits into the hot shoe on top of thepentaprism. Electrical contacts connect withthe camera shutter, automatically triggeringthe flash. This type of flashgun can be verysophisticated for its size, and a fully integratedunit (dedicated flash) allows great versatility.

Hand-held flashThis type of unit has a long handle for handholding, but it can also be attached to the sideof the camera. It may have a separate batterypack, allowing faster recharging and moreflashes per charge. A synchronization cablecoordinates the flash firing with the shutter.

Built-in flash headAutofocuslight projector

Pentaprism

Flash tube

Tilt and swivelflash head

Pentaprism

Flash lightsensor

Hot shoeconnection Flash

synccord

Flash syncsocket

Tilt and swivelflash head

Flash hot shoeattachment unit

Batteryholderandhandle

FLASH LIGHTING EQUIPMENT 29

STUDIO LIGHTING EQUIPMENTTungsten or flash lighting can be used forindoor photography. Tungsten lights plug intostandard outlets, are adjustable, and are easyto use, particularly with digital cameras. Flashlighting stays cool during use and is a popularchoice with film users. You must use thecorrect type of film (or white balance) withartificial lights because the color temperatureof tungsten is different from that of daylight.Do not mix daylight and tungsten. Flashlighting is used with normal film and, sinceit has the same color temperature as naturallight, can be used to supplement daylight.Flash units cannot be battery-powereddue to the intensity of their light output.

Power pack isconnected tomains supply;

larger packs canbe used for ahigher output

Cable connectsthe flash head tothe power pack

Centralcolumn oflighting standis telescopedup or downto alter the

height ofthe head

Size and shapeof the reflectorsurrounding theflash headdetermine thespread of light

Basic flash unitAn adjustable lighting standis required for each flashunit, and accessories can beused to modify light quality.A control switch allows youto alter the strength of thelight. Larger units require apower pack, linked to theflash head and shutter by a synchronization cable. Wide beam of light

Flood flash headA flood produces an evenspread of illumination overthe whole subject.

Adjustable beam of light

Narrow beam of light

Snoot flash headA snoot is similar to a spot and gives a narrow,concentrated beam of light with dark shadows.

Diffused lighting

Softbox diffuserA diffuser produces a soft,wide spread of light.Flashlight travels through thegauze material of thesoftbox, making the frontpanel the light source.

Bounced lighting

Umbrella reflectorThis device bounces lightback onto the subject.The inside of theumbrella can be white orsilver, according to thelight quality desired.

Adding a reflector

Portable reflectorA collapsible reflector isa useful accessory whenworking indoors or onlocation. Made ofreflective material, it isused to soften shadows.

Because of the immediacy of flash, alight meter is required for accurateexposure measurement. Somemeters are designed for use withflash and ambient light. Hold themeter where you want to take yourreading and fire the flash manually.

FLASH METER Barn doors flash headA set of four hinged flapsplaced around the flashkeeps light from reachingcertain parts of the subject.

30 THE CAMERA

CHOOSING FILM TYPESOf all the film sold worldwide, the vastmajority is color negative, intended forproducing color prints. The other main typesof film – color positive ‘slide’ film and blackand white film – may be less popular, butare widely used by serious photographers.

NEGATIVE OR POSITIVE FILM

Color negatives show subjects in theircomplementary colors, and there is anoverall orange color-cast. Colors are reversedwhen printed to show the scene correctlyrendered. Black and white negatives havereversed tones – what was a dark toneappears light, and vice versa. When a blackand white negative is printed the tones arereversed to show the correct distribution oflight and dark. Positive film images areknown as slides or transparencies, and areintended to be projected and not printed.Therefore, the colors or tones on the filmcorrespond to those of the original scene.

PRINTS OR SLIDES

The advantage of using color negative film is that color prints are easy and convenient to view. They can be stored in the envelopessupplied by the processors or mounted inalbums. In addition, extra copies can beprinted at little cost and enlargements made.In contrast, color slides must be mounted and loaded into a projector before they areviewed in a darkened room. A projectedslide, however, is far more impressive than aprint, since the image quality is superior, andthe colors tend to be richer and truer to life.

BLACK AND WHITEThe image tones on a blackand white negative appearreversed – but then appearnormal when printed.Black and white prints canbe made from a colororiginal, but a black andwhite negative will usuallygive the best-quality results.In comparison to color film, black and white filmis relatively easy to developand print yourself.

COLOR PRINTThe colors on a colornegative appear as thecomplementary colors of thesubject, which makes judgingimage quality from the filmdifficult. After printing, colorsshould appear normal. Ifnecessary, color can becorrected with filters duringprinting. You should ask forreplacement prints if colorsare inaccurate or there arecolor differences within a set.

COLOR SLIDESince there is nointervening printing stagewith slides, the colorsshould be extremelyaccurate. Before it is readyfor projection, each imagehas to be cut from the filmstrip and mounted. This isdone for you automaticallywith process-paid slide film.Color and black and whiteprints can also be madefrom these transparencies.

FILM FORMATS

Each format of cameramust be used with itscorresponding film format.Film for 35mm camerascomes in metal or plasticcassettes, while roll filmused in medium-formatcameras has a paperbacking for protection.Large-format film comesas individual sheets.

35mm filmThis is the most popularfilm format, with a largerange of brands. It isavailable for prints orslides, and in varyinglengths and film speeds.

APS filmFilm format used widelyfor compact cameras thatis easier to load, andsmaller, than 35mm. Letsuser to choose betweenthree different frameshapes for each shot.

Roll film Also called 120 or220mm film, roll film isused in all medium-format cameras, whichall have a 21⁄4in (6cm)image dimension.

Sheet filmSheet film comes inindividual sheets that areloaded into holders.

Black and white negative (above)Black and white print (right)

Color negative (above)Color print (right)

Slide (above)Mounted slide (right)

CHOOSING FILM TYPES 31

Film with yellow bias Film with red biasFilm with blue bias

BRAND COLOR BIAS

Different brands of colorfilm use different dyes,which result in subtle colorvariations. Color may alsovary between differentspeeds of film from thesame manufacturer.Thesedifferences are mostobvious when using colorslide film, since there is nointermediary printing stage.

Incorrect use of daylight-balanced film Correct use of daylight-balanced film

Correct use of tungsten-balanced film Incorrect use of tungsten-balanced film

DAYLIGHT AND TUNGSTEN FILMWith color prints, this cast can largely becorrected during the printing stage. Colorslide film, however, does not go through aprinting stage, so it is vital to make sure thatyou buy the correct type of film for the lightsource under which it will be used (or filterscan be used). Black and white film can beused under any type of lighting without riskof distorting its tonal response.

Film is manufactured to produce best results,in terms of color, when used under specifictypes of lighting. Most film is balanced foruse in bright daylight or for use indoors withelectronic flash, both of which have thesame color temperature. If daylight-balancedfilm is exposed using domestic lighting, orwhen using tungsten studio lights, then itwill show a pronounced orange color-cast.

TUNGSTEN FILM Color film intended for usein tungsten light will showa strong blue cast if usedin daylight (or withelectronic flash). Thesetwo pictures were bothtaken on tungsten-balanced film. In the firstpicture (far left), the sceneis lit by domestic tungstenbulb lighting and hascorrect color rendition. Inthe second picture (left),daylight gives the scene adistinct blue cast.

DAYLIGHT FILM Color film designed for use in daylight or flashwill show a distinctorange cast if used undertungsten lights. These twopictures were shot ondaylight-balanced film. Inthe first shot (far left), thetungsten of the domesticbulb lighting gives theroom a distinct orangecast. In the second picture(left), the scene is lit bynatural daylight alone andis correct in color.

DIGITAL SOLUTION

Digital cameras canautomatically adjust the color of the image to suit the type of lighting used, withtheir auto white balance system.

32 THE CAMERA

FILM SPEED AND CAMERA EQUIPMENTFilms are referred to as being fast, medium,or slow – a reference to their sensitivity tolight. Fast films have high ISO (InternationalStandards Organization) numbers and slowfilms have low ISO numbers. Fast films areuseful in low-light situations, since theyincrease the chances of achieving a correctly

exposed image when a less-sensitive, slowerfilm may result in underexposure. The resultof this increase in speed, however, is somereduction in image sharpness and an increasein contrast. Slow films are ideal when lightlevels are good and you need the highest-quality prints with fine detail.

DIGITAL CAMERAS

The sensitivity of digitalsensors can often bechanged electronicallyfor each shot to give arange of “film speeds.”

SLOW FILMThis marble bust was shot usinga very slow-speed film (ISO 32).Note the delicate, almost creamytexture of the statue’s surfaceand the soft gradation of tonesbetween the lit right-hand sideand the shadowy left-hand side.Even in the enlargement (seeinset), the appearance of anygrain is negligible.

MODERATE-FAST FILMWith the film speed doubled toISO 400, the appearance of thebust on the full-frame image isslightly different. The surface ofthe bust looks less fine and thecontrast between light and shadeis beginning to increase slightly.As you would expect with afaster film, the grain is now fairlynoticeable in the enlargement.

MEDIUM FILMUsing the same lighting as above,the bust was shot using amedium-speed film (ISO 200).Note that grain becomes coarserthe faster the film. Here the filmis much faster than the ISO 32film (each doubling of the ISOnumber is a doubling of thesensitivity), but the quality is stillgood, and the grain can only justbe detected.

ULTRA-FAST SPEED FILMThe ISO 1000 film used for thisphotograph of the bust is 1.5times more sensitive than theISO 400 film, and now the grainynature of the film emulsion isapparent. Note, too, that the softgradation of tone apparent in theversion using the slow film isnow more abrupt and that thereis a slight color shift.

Choosing slow filmA slow film is ideal forbrightly lit subjects, or where a degree of subject movementor blur is required. It is oftenused for still life subjects thatneed to be enlarged while stillretaining a lot of detail and afine-grained image. Even iflight is poor, the camera canbe set up on a tripod and along exposure given.

Choosing medium filmA film in the medium-speedcategory is suitable for a widerange of different subjects andlighting conditions. Althoughambient light levels are high in this bright Mediterraneanscene, medium-speed film can also be used in less lightearlier or later in the day when the sun is much lower in the sky.

Choosing moderate-fast filmThis shot of a seagull in flightrequires a fast shutter speed tocapture the movement of thesubject and avoid camerashake, as well as a smallaperture to cover any slighterror in focus. The speed of amoderate-fast film enables youto photograph subjects in dimlighting conditions.

Choosing ultra-fast filmChoose an ultra-fast film whenlight levels are really low, forexample, in a dimly lit interioror outdoors at dusk. This type of film is so sensitive that itwill give you acceptableresults even by the light of amatch. The graininess of theresulting image can add to thedramatic impact of the shot.

FILM SPEED AND CAMERA EQUIPMENT 33

CABLE RELEASEReleases the shutter on a tripod-mounted camera and avoids the riskof camera movement.

FRONT AND REAR LENS CAPSWhen a lens is not in use, always keepthe front lens cap on.The rear lens capshould be fitted when the lens isremoved from the camera.

35MM CAMERAThe body of the camera forms theheart of a system for which there arenumerous accessories and lenses. Usea cap to protect the interior of thecamera when a lens is not attached.

TRIPODA lightweight tripod is essentialwhen you need steady images.

NOTEPAD AND PENThese are invaluable for noting thelocation of a particular shot or fordetails of a particular subject.

ELECTRONIC FLASHGUNAn electronic flashgun is usefulwhen light levels are low, whenworking indoors, or when youwant to lessen contrast by addingsome light to areas of shadow.

CAMERA STRAPUse a camera strap and keep itaround your neck in case you let thecamera slip.Wider straps spread theweight of the camera and lens.

FILTERSA clear ultra-violet filter can be lefton the lens as protection. Stronglycolored filters are used with blackand white film or for special effectswith color film.

LENSESChoose lenses according to the typeof shots you want to take.Wide andlong lenses increase flexibility.Extension rings allow you to get incloser to a subject.

FILMAlways carry several rolls of sparefilm. If you have fast film you will be able to take photographs in dimly lit places.

CAMERA CARE KITAll you need for cleaning yourcamera and lenses are (from left toright) a soft lint-free cloth, specialdust-free tissues, lens-cleaning fluid,and a blower brush. Use the cleaningfluid very sparingly. If a hair or pieceof film debris gets lodged in anawkward area, then a pair oftweezers might be needed. A smallscrewdriver is also useful.

BASIC CAMERA EQUIPMENTFor the 35mm SLR user there is a wide rangeof equipment and accessories available tocover every area of photographic interest. In terms of lenses, your camera may comewith a standard 50mm lens already fitted.Additionally, you should consider choosing a wide-angle lens between 28 and 35mm for shooting a broad panorama or whenworking in a confined area. A long-focus lens between 90 and 135mm is useful forportraits as well as more distant subjects.However, a zoom lens gives you flexibilitywithout changing lens. A tripod guaranteessharp images of stationary subjects and maybe essential to avoid camera shake during along exposure.

If there is room in your camera bag, thenyou should also include a few filters, a basiclens- and camera-cleaning kit, a notepad andpen, a portable flashgun, and some sparefilm of different speed ratings.

CAMERA BAGA camera bag should be well paddedinside and have adjustable compartmentsfor holding equipment.

Taking photographs that have appeal and

impact depends in part on your ability to

see the potential in a subject and then

interpret it in your own way.This section

reveals how light affects form, color, texture,

shape, and pattern, and shows how to

compose excellent photographs by

considering the different qualities of light.

It also illustrates the importance of selecting

the viewpoint that will show your subject in

the most effective and telling fashion.

HOW TOSEE BETTERPICTURES

36 HOW TO SEE BETTER PICTURES

THE ESSENTIAL PICTURE ELEMENTSIt is difficult to define precisely what it is thatmakes a “good” photograph. With picturestaken on vacation or of members of yourfamily, what constitutes a good photographmay be a personal judgment. However, somephotographs do communicate to a broaderaudience because of the revealing way thesubject has been treated or the way in whichthe elements are composed to convey mood.

The photographs on these pages are alldifferent in terms of subject matter, but eachhas a quality that invites closer inspection.Some images work because the photographhas captured the subject’s intriguing shape orsome aspect of its form that makes it appearthree-dimensional. In other photographs, themain element may be color – subtle andmoody or vibrant and contrasting – or ahumorous juxtaposition of subject elements.

Adding humor, aboveLooking like companionableold friends, and showingalmost the same amount ofteeth, this Peruvian womanand her llama makes for avery humorous picture.

Main subjectA well-composed pictureneeds to have a main focalpoint. In this image, acentral cloud directs thegaze to the distance andgives a feeling of depth.

Vibrant colorThe color of this cabbagehas been intensified bymoving in close to excludeextraneous details and fillthe whole frame with adeep, vibrant pink.

Color harmony, leftNatural brown and greenhues come together in thisphotograph of a decorativepiece of fungus to createan image that has strongshape and color harmony.

THE ESSENTIAL PICTURE ELEMENTS 37

Lens effectExtra punch is given tothis photograph ofIndonesian paddy fields by shooting the sceneusing a long lens. This hasthe effect of squashing thedifferent subject planes, so that the background isenlarged relative to theforeground. A clue to thescale of the landscape isprovided by the figure,whose shirt provides asplash of contrasting color.

Simple detailEven a simple still lifephotograph of seeminglymundane objects such asthese thermometers can bean image of considerabledramatic impact.


UNDERSTANDING COLOR HARMONYIdeally, a photograph should have one mainsubject and one main color – with any othercolors being supplementary to give addedemphasis to the most important element. Interms of mood, a composition made up ofharmonious colors of similar tones tends to berestful and calm, unlike the discordant feelingof compositions based on contrasting colors.

Even contrasting colors can be blendedand subdued to create a harmonious pictureif photographed in the appropriate type oflighting. The choice of lighting can affectcolor, but you can also affect color throughexposure: slightly underexposing to give alow-key result, and slightly overexposing orusing colored filters to lessen color contrast.

Restricted paletteThe stark simplicity of thisbathroom is reinforced byrestricting the color paletteto cream and beige, with apanel of delicate, gray-bluetiles used to link the flatbands of color.

Strong huesAlthough blue and greenare harmonious colors, thestrength of the hues in thislandscape would appearstrongly contrasting if itwere not for the interveningband of light gold acting asa buffer between the two.

UNDERSTANDING COLOR HARMONY 39

Sunset colors, aboveAs the sun dips below thehorizon, red wavelengthsof light dominate, turningall colors in the scene intoharmonious shades of thesame single hue.

Low-key image, leftThe green, blue, and redcolors of these woodenboats are blended into aharmonious scheme byunderexposing the imageto give a low-key result.

Natural colorsAn abandoned wagon,slowly being absorbedback into the natural worldis the focal point of thisrural image composed ofsubtle, harmonious shadesof green and brown.

Morning lightRed and blue – oppositesin the color spectrum –feature in this portrait, butin the morning light thecolors complement eachother rather than compete.

Faded huesA gentle, autumnal blendof color characterizes thisphotograph of dried roseblooms and hips.


USING COLOR CONTRASTColor has an emotional content, conveyingatmosphere and affecting how we interpretan image. Strong, bold colors can create afeeling of vitality and, if used with restraint,small areas of color contrast can drawattention to a section of an image withoutoverwhelming it as a whole.

Color contrast is caused by thejuxtaposition of primary colors – red, blue,and yellow – or results from placing aprimary color next to its complementarycolor (green, orange, and purple,respectively). Large areas of contrastingcolor can have a detrimental effect onsubject form, destroying depth and maskingdetail. Although the use of color isdependent on personal preference, as ageneral rule bold colors should usually bebalanced with weaker ones.

Spatial abstraction, aboveTwo large blocks ofstrong, contrasting colordestroy the sense of depthin this picture. Althoughthe yellow field is moredistant, it is the greengrass closer to the viewerthat appears to recede.

Light and color, leftThe light by which anobject is viewed has aneffect on its coloration.Here, strong, directionalevening light producesintense hues of red.

Unusual view, aboveAn abstract compositionconsisting of strong colorcontrast is created here byshowing part of the boat’sred keel and its reflectionin the inky blue water.

USING COLOR CONTRAST 41

Touch of color, rightAlthough only very small in theframe, the red of the Senegalesetribesman’s headdress contrasts withthe blue both of his gown and of thesky, drawing immediate attention to aparticular area of the image.

Color control, aboveSemi-diffused light from a window onthe left helps to control the riot ofcolor provided by the scarves andpetals in the background of thisphotograph. In more direct light, thevariety of color would have detractedfrom the subject.


WORKING WITH SHAPEOne of the most powerful ways toemphasize shape in a photograph is toensure that, at least in outline, it contrastsstrongly with its surroundings in either toneor color. The shape of a subject with a lot of pattern or detail can be emphasized byphotographing it against a plain, neutralbackground that will not compete forattention. Another technique is to use anextreme form of lighting contrast, as youwould for a silhouette, to suppress all detailsand allow the subject to become a stronggraphic outline of equal-density tone.

The shape of an object is not fixed and youcan alter its appearance by changing yourcamera position. Shooting down on a subjectcan reduce its bulk overall, as well as theapparent size of its different parts, makingsome seem larger in relation to others. Youcan also manipulate shape by shooting frombelow the subject, or by using differentlenses, from very wide-angle to long-focus.

Competing shapesThe presence of twopowerful shapes such asthe Great Pyramid and theSphinx in the same imageneeds careful handling toensure a well-balanced,harmonious composition.

Viewpoint and shapeIt is necessary to look foran unusual viewpoint toconvey something of theAmazon River’s huge size.This aerial shot reinforcesthe twisting nature of theriver, making shape ofparamount importance.

Using shadows, aboveTwo ways of emphasizingshape in a photograph canbe seen in this image.First, the dark outline ofthe man contrasts with thepastel color of the wallbehind. Second, a lowafternoon sun has cast awell-defined shadow ontothe wall, strengthening theelement of shape in thecomposition as a whole.

WORKING WITH SHAPE 43

Concentrating attentionThe close-up figure on theright of this photographacts as an effective frameand counterbalance to themore distant one, helpingto direct and then holdattention within the pictureboundaries. Both figuresare reduced to silhouettesby the strong backlighting,and the diagonally heldpole helps unify thecomposition by bridgingthe gap between them.

Rim lighting, belowA dramatic silhouette isachieved by positioningthe model directlybetween the sun and thecamera. The sunlight is sointense that a halo of rimlighting has spilled pastthe subject, perfectlyoutlining her profile, neck, and upper body.

Silhouette, below leftA low camera angle isused here to show off thestriking Gothic silhouetteof a ruined abbey against a neutral backdrop of sky.A high camera positionwould have shown moreof the dark hills behindthe building and lessenedthe impact of its shape.


USING LIGHT AND DARK TONESThe term tone refers to any area of uniformdensity on a print, negative, or transparencythat can be distinguished from lighter ordarker parts. In its most extreme form, aphotograph may consist of just two tones –black and white – with no shades of gray inbetween. More often, however, images arecomposed of a wide range of intermediarytones between these two extremes.

Tone is also used to refer to the visualweight – the perceived darkness or lightness– of an image. A photograph consisting ofpredominantly heavy dark tones and black isknown as a “low-key” image; while one thatis made up mostly of light bright tones andwhite is referred to as “high-key.”

These terms are not restricted just to blackand white photography. A color photographcan also be described as high- or low-key.We talk about shades and tints of a color todescribe its intensity, and the grays makingup a tonal range also form part of our colorperception. The latter is mainly governed bythe intensity and angle of light striking anobject and you can manipulate this for effect.

Low-key resultsLow-key pictures do nothave to exclude all brighttones. In the portrait (right),daylight illuminates oneside of the man’s face, butmost of the image is inshadow. In the still life(below right), the pots showa whole range of tones inwhat is a low-key picture.

High-key color, belowDirectional window lightbathes one side of thispitcher and bowl in brightillumination that dispels anyhint of deep shadow. Thishigh-key result is helped bythe white wall behind,which acts as a reflector,increasing light levels andlightening dark shadows.

USING LIGHT AND DARK TONES 45

Low contrast, leftThe tones in this mistywoodland scene all comefrom the middle of thetonal range. There are nostrong black or stark whitetones, and so this image is a low-contrast picture.

Dark imagery, leftThis low-key image of awindmill has a broodingatmosphere. The sky seemsfull of foreboding and thedark landscape has a hintof menace. A red filter isused to darken the sky andother light tones, except forthe path in the foreground.

Bright imagery, aboveA combination of smokeand mist has given a light-toned, high-key result.Although practically nodetail has survived, theimagery has an old-worldtranquillity and there is anoverwhelming feeling ofspace and emptiness.

High contrast, far left Contrast in a photographrefers to the difference intone between the brightesthighlight and deepestshadow. This image ishigh contrast because ofthe presence of bothbright white and deepblack tones.


EMPHASIZING FORMWhereas shape describes the two-dimensional outline of a subject and isrecognizable even if an object is backlit withno surface details showing, form or modelingdescribes not only the surface characteristicsof an object but also its three-dimensionalqualities, such as its roundness andsubstance. In a photograph, form is shownby the gradation of light and shade, and thecolor strength, which is also related to theamount of light reflected or absorbed by thesubject’s surface.

Lighting that produces a flat color or tone,with little or no variation across the surface ofthe subject, tends to suppress the appearanceof form. To accentuate form, it is thereforebest to avoid harsh, frontal lighting and to useangled lighting or sidelighting, which tends toproduce a gradation in color or tone. This inturn emphasizes the surface texture and tactilenature of the subject. The still life on thesepages was shot in daylight and also with flashto show how the angle of light striking anobject affects the sense of form.

This still life is part of asequence showing differentlighting effects. Here a lightis positioned low down atabout the same height asthe lemons, so that onlyone side is lit. Contrastbetween the lit and unlitsides is very strong.

Natural daylightPositioned by a window,these lemons are directlylit by natural daylight aswell as by reflected lightfrom the white windowledge. Note that adjacentto the window, where thelemons are most stronglylit, form is least obvious.

Low sidelighting

Light source at 90°

EMPHASIZING FORM 47

The light is shining downfrom directly above thestill life group, and, apartfrom the area near thedividing line between lightand shade on each lemon,there is little sense ofroundness. As a generalrule, overhead lightingdestroys form.

An angle of about 45˚ isideal to give an impressionof the form of the lemons.There is a now a gradualtransition between lightand shade, noticeable onthe right of the group,which was in very darkshade before.

Overhead lighting

Light source above

Angled lighting

Light source at 45°


REVEALING TEXTUREThe appearance of texture in a photographgives the viewer additional information aboutthe tactile qualities of an object. It is only byseeing the pitted quality of the skin of anorange, the coarseness of a length of wovencloth, or the smooth perfection of a piece offine porcelain that we can imagine what itwould be like to touch the object.

The most revealing type of illumination fortexture comes from directional lighting, sinceit is the contrast between the lit, raisedsurface areas and the shadows in the hollowsthat creates a three-dimensional illusion (seepage 46). This is the reason why the soft,directional light of early morning or eveningsunshine has been the basis for so manysuccessful landscape photographs.

Magnified texture, aboveBy photographicallyenlarging a small objectyou can record its texture.The individual hairs on thebody of this hornet and thehollows of the fungus areemphasized by the use ofstrong, directional lighting.

Diffused light, belowWorking in diffused lightensures that the shadowsdo not hide too much ofthe surface of this gianttree trunk. Note that thetop ridges have all caughtthe sunlight, while thehollows are filled withdeep shadows.

Depth and texture, rightShot from overhead withweak sunlight striking thefront of the cauliflower, it is easy to imagine the feelof the vegetable’s surface.Tonal contrasts define thetactile qualities of the objectand also give the picture animpression of depth.

REVEALING TEXTURE 49

Surface sheen, leftAn old tarpaulin exposedto the weathering effects of the elements has takenon a character of its own.The lighting is subdued,since the sheen would belost and the appearance oftexture and form would bediminished if harshly lit.

Light and shade, aboveThe rusted and peelingsurface of this sheet ofmetal is partly in sunshineand partly in shade. Thedirectional lighting revealsthe texture and adds to theoverall composition.

Wood surface, above leftSoft, oblique light revealsthe texture of otherwiseuninteresting pieces of oldand weathered wood.Remember that individualsurfaces absorb and reflectdifferent quantities of lightand must be lit accordingly.


DISCOVERING PATTERNRepresenting order and harmony, pattern is something pleasing to the eye. To recordthe patterns abounding all around us, youneed to choose the right viewpoint. Bycarefully selecting your camera position, youcan record patterns even when looking at aseemingly random array of subject elements.

PATTERNS IN NATURE

As a photographer, you can draw attentionto abstract patterns and repeating forms inthe natural world, such as fallen autumnleaves or the frost-covered branches of atree. Sometimes pattern is only transitory and is gone in an instant. A flock of birds,for example, can be seen as a collection ofrepeating colors and shapes, or sunlight on arow of houses may create a pattern of darktriangles in an otherwise bright scene.

Seeing patternA vortex of repeatingshapes seems to draw theeye upward, following therelentless spiral of thisstaircase toward a distanthighlight. Without thecuriosity to explore differentcamera angles, unusualshots are easily missed.

Importance of viewpointTo concentrate attentionon the repeating shapes,colors, and forms of thisflock of geese, a highcamera viewpoint is vital.A lower camera anglewould show more of thebackground and so dilutethe pattern’s impact.

DISCOVERING PATTERN 51

Random pattern, leftAlthough the pots are notarranged, their repeatedcurved shapes and the darkcircles of their shadowyopenings create a sense ofpattern. The uniform colorof the composition isanother vital element.

Effective detail, aboveThe pleasing effect patternhas on the eye is illustratedin this detail of two cogs.Not only do the teeth of the cogs themselves forman obvious motif, but theinterplay of light and shadealso reinforces the effect.

Isolating design, belowA jumble of rope can beframed in the viewfinderto create an interestingdesign. The twisted strandsmaking up the rope itselfrepresent a pattern withina pattern.

Layers of pattern, aboveIn this close-up of an aloe,many different layers ofpattern can be seen in theoverlapping fronds.


THE BENEFITS OF BLACK AND WHITEBlack and white photography, although nowa minority interest, continues to have a bandof dedicated adherents. The enduring appealof working in this medium stems from itspowerful graphic potential and its ability toevoke mood and atmosphere.

Black and white film allows you a lot offlexibility in how the image will look whenprinted. You can use a wide range of coloredlens filters to change the relative strength oftones within an image. It is also far easier thanwith color to manipulate the image in thedarkroom, by giving a weak part of thenegative extra exposure through the enlargerto increase local density, or by printing on atype of paper that gives an overall cold-blueimage or a warm-brown one. Inevitably, oncecolor is extracted from some scenes they losemuch of their impact, and thus subjects suchas gardens or natural history, in general, maynot be ideal for black and white treatment.

Dominant colorA wide range of tones isthe main feature of theblack and white picture(right). Although linearperspective draws attentionto the door itself, the

patchwork effect of thetones leads the eye indifferent directions aroundthe photograph. Bycontrast, the colors of thedoor (below), serve toemphasize the textures.

Distracting colorThe color content is sooverwhelming in the detailof a wall (above) that itdoes not allow the image tobe seen as anything otherthan a color composition.Seen in black and white, asimilar detail of a brick wall(left) has visual attributessuch as texture, pattern,form, and shape.

THE BENEFITS OF BLACK AND WHITE 53

Infra-red filmInfra-red film is sensitiveto wavelengths in ordinarylight that are invisible tothe naked eye, and givessome subjects an unusualappearance. The sky inthis image is unnaturallydark while the roadsidefoliage is unnaturally light.An infra-red or a deep redfilter over the lens willexaggerate the tonal shiftswhen using infra-red film.

Darkroom manipulationAn atmosphere of isolationpervades this image of asolitary figure walkingalong a winding road. Toheighten this effect, thecountryside surrounding the road was given extraexposure during printing.

The human formBlack and white is idealfor showing the form andmodeling of the humanbody by bringing outsubtle gradations of tone.Sidelighting accentuatesthe skin texture so thatevery line is palpable.


FRAMING THE IMAGETo create a unified effect you need to decidehow best to arrange the elements making upthe image – what to include or omit, theangle at which to shoot, and how to showone subject element in relation to others. Justas a painter must work within the dimensionsof his canvas, a photographer uses the cameraviewfinder as the creative space within whichto build a pleasing composition. One way ofcomposing a picture is to use a frame withina frame. In order to emphasize the mainsubject of a picture you can show itsurrounded and balanced by another element.

Stonework surroundThe foreground stoneworkthrough which the distantlandscape is viewed givesthe scene an added feelingof space and distance.

Framing a buildingBy using an arch as aframing device, the imageis simplified. Unwanteddetails are cut out to focusattention on the building.

FRAMING THE IMAGE 55

Framing choicesIf using a 35mm camera,you can frame a picturevertically or horizontally. Inthe horizontally framedshot (above), there is afeeling of being enclosedby the hills rising on eitherside. By turning the cameraaround for a vertical shot(left), the inclusion of agreater amount of skyhelps to dispel the sense ofconfined space.

Color contrast, far left The figure is effectivelyframed by the red curtainas well as by the darkbackground against whichhe is highlighted.

Balancing shapes, leftCareful composition withinthe viewfinder creates anevocative composition, withwell-positioned silhouettedfigures and the diagonalshape of the platform.

Frame effect, aboveThe viewer’s gaze is drawnto the group of figures atthe window by showingthem within a naturalframe created by a gap inthe wall covered with ivy.


SELECTING THE VIEWPOINTThe viewpoint from which you photograph asubject determines the apparent relationshipbetween all the objects included in the frameand of those objects to their surroundings.

The only accurate way to determine theeffectiveness of a particular viewpoint is bychecking its appearance through theviewfinder. Looking at a scene with thenaked eye, you are aware of a mass ofperipheral information surrounding the areaof interest. The viewfinder, however, showsthe scene with clear-cut edges as it willappear in the finished photograph.

Look for ways to simplify the picture bypositioning yourself to exclude extraneousdetail, or for unusual ways to present thesubject. While looking through the camera,try crouching down so that you are lowerthan the subject; or try standing on a smallstepladder so that you can look down on it.Even by simply moving to one side you canshow subject elements in a different way.

Selective viewpointIn this unusual portrait ofthe sculptor Henry Moore, it is the artist’s hands thatare the focal point. Theviewpoint forces ourattention on to the strongfingers that are reminiscentof the sculptural shapesthey once produced.

High viewpointIn an overhead view,taken from standingheight, these colorfultoadstools growing on theforest floor seem to glowwith an autumnal warmth.If taken from a lowercamera viewpoint, theirimpact would be lessenedby the inclusion of less ofthe background.

SELECTING THE VIEWPOINT 57

Varying the viewpointThis sequence illustratesthat there is more than oneviewpoint for any subject.The first image (top) isshot from slightly aboveand the next (center) atabout level with the snakecharmer. The final shot(bottom) is taken fromstanding height.

Low viewpointShooting directly upwardproduces an extremeviewpoint, which conveysthe immense size of theseancient Egyptian columns.


SHOOTING AROUND THE SUBJECTWhile some subjects may only merit a singleshot, others deserve more attention –particularly if you have traveled far to alocation, or have had to wait for the rightconditions. One of the simplest ways tocreate a different composition from the samesubject is to walk around it. Not only will thelighting on the subject change, creating adifferent balance between highlights andshadows, there will also be a major impacton the composition. Even if the subjectremains relatively unaltered as you movearound it, the foreground and backgroundmay change radically. A distracting backgroundbehind a person can be made to disappear,simply by moving a few steps to one side.

With a wide-angle lens, it is the foregroundthat offers the greatest scope for visualvariety. All manner of things, such as people,flowers, rocks, and gateways can be used tofill the lower part of the frame, providingcounterpoint or balance to the main subject.

Half frame, rightBy altering your viewpointyou can alter the positionof foreground subjects sothat they surround themain subject; here thefoliage creates a naturalframe around the chapel.

Variation of tone, rightThe camera angle isparticularly important inarchitecture, as straight-onshots can make thebuilding appear very two-dimensional. A slightlyangled approach meansthat one of the two visiblesides is better lit than theother. This creates a betterimpression of three-dimensional form.

Using color, leftBecause of their brighthues, flowers are goodallies for the landscapephotographer. If you adopta low camera viewpoint,flowers can be made totake a leading part in thecomposition. Here thewhite blooms form a visualpathway that leads the eyeto the chapel.

Leading the way, far leftLook out for shapes andlines that can be used in the foreground to directthe eye toward the subject.In this shot, themeandering path leads theviewer’s eye to the rockerygarden and the building.

SHOOTING AROUND THE SUBJECT 59

Strong shapes, bottomWhen using a wide-anglelens with distant subjects,use interesting foregroundelements to fill the emptyspace that is created by thewide angle. Here, the spikyleaves contrast with therocks and the smooth linesof the building.

Central framing, leftHere, although the house iscentered top to bottom, it isslightly offset left to right inorder to include the sea,which provides both asense of place and a feel ofharmony and tranquility.

Small focal point, belowThe building may be thefocal point in this picture,but it does not need to belarge in the frame. Thisbold approach means thatthe sky and land dominatethe composition.


DEPTH AND PERSPECTIVEPerspective is a way of using spatialelements to indicate depth and distance in aphotograph, giving the impression that youare looking at a three-dimensional scene.There are several different methods of usingperspective to create this illusion of depth.

By placing one object behind another,known as overlapping forms, you canindicate that it is farther away from thecamera. Diminishing scale, meanwhile, stemsfrom our knowledge that objects of the samesize appear to look smaller the more distantthey are from the camera. Linear perspectivedescribes the apparent convergence ofparallel lines as they recede from the camera,and aerial perspective is the tendency ofcolors to become lighter in tone in distantshots. Finally, by using depth of field, you canmake the background appear out of focus.

Linear perspective, aboveThe camera angle chosenfor this view of a mosquein India shows stronglinear perspective in theapparently convergingsides of the lake.

Wide-angle perspectiveA wide-angle lens producesan exaggerated perspectiveeffect. The man’s feet nearthe camera seem large inproportion to his head.

Using the horizon, belowThe setting sun and thegradation of tones wherethe sea and sky meetcreates an illusion of depthand distance in this scene.

DEPTH AND PERSPECTIVE 61

Vanishing point, aboveThe tapering sides of theseclassical columns are anexample of linearperspective. By picturingthe pillars extendingfurther into the sky, youcan imagine them meetingat a distance – thevanishing point.

Aerial perspective, far leftA mountain lake makes anevocative foreground forthe overlapping forms of arange of mountains in theSwiss Alps. Note how thepeaks become lighter andbluer in tone as they fadeaway into the distance.

Diminishing scale, leftAn avenue of trees leadsthe eye to a fountain, aneffect reinforced by linearperspective. Another clueto perspective is present inthe diminishing scale andapparent size of the trees.


USING THE VANISHING POINTArtists perfect their drawing skills so thatperspective looks natural in their work. They learn that lines need to be drawn so that they converge at an appropriatevanishing point. The photographer has nosuch problems, as the lens handles linearperspective automatically and with unfailingaccuracy. However, by altering viewpointand focal length, the photographer can make the effect of the vanishing pointappear more dramatic within a picture.

By tilting the camera and by using a wide-angle lens, it is possible to make parallellines seem to converge more steeply thanusual. The effect is most frequently seenwhen shooting skyscrapers from street level,but it is more dramatic with lines that leadtoward the horizon. Roads, pathways, andrailtracks can all be used to create powerfulangled lines with visible vanishing points ifyou crouch down and also angle the widelens down slightly.

Coming to a point, aboveThe effects of linearperspective appear mostmarked when you canphotograph the vanishingpoint within the frame.The lines along the edgeof the subway walls andthe markings on theplatform all converge atthe distant tunnel entrance.This provides a feeling ofdepth in the photograph.

High viewpoint, leftThe effect of perspectivecreates strong diagonallines, which can be usedto emphasize dramaticcompositions. In this shot,the lines along the glassroof converge in thedistance, as the skyscraperbeyond tapers into the sky.The result is a strong criss-cross pattern. The lightertones of the more distantparts of the buildingscontributes to the three-dimensional effect.

USING THE VANISHING POINT 63

Up to the skyConverging verticals arecaused by tilting the lens(above); the top of thebuilding is more distantthan the base, so appearsnarrower. A similar effectis achieved with parallellines in the horizontalplane (top) using a wide-angle lens.

Light attracts, leftThe focal point of thismonotonal shot is the roof,as the light tone attractsthe eye. The lines of theescalators also draw theeye to this area.

DIGITAL SOLUTIONS

Digital software can beused by photographersto correct convergingverticals in architecture,but the same stretchingand squeezing processcan also be used withother pictures toexaggerate the effectsof linear perspective.


DEFINING IMAGE PLANESUnless you fill the camera frame with a flat,two-dimensional object, or just one face orside of a three-dimensional object, thenevery photograph should contain aforeground, middleground, and background,which are known as the image planes.

By ensuring that important subject elementsare visible in all three image planes, you canmanipulate the viewer’s interpretation of thecomposition by leading the eye to explorethe picture. However, you should try tochoose a viewpoint that clearly defines one of the image planes as having a dominantcompositional role, so that the idea you wantto convey is not confused or lost.

Well-defined planes Mooring poles define theforeground, the gondolathe middleground, and thechurch the background.Each element adds to theview of Venice as a whole.

Tonal separationIn this view of ornate stepsleading to a church inPortugal, it is the subtledifference in tone thathelps separate the fore-,middle-, and background.

DEFINING IMAGE PLANES 65

Focusing distance, leftBy using a wide apertureto render the backgroundout of focus, attention isfixed on the railings at thefront of the frame.

Merging planesA long lens is used for this shot of the temple at Luxor in Egypt. Bycompressing the perspective,it merges the distinctionbetween the image planes, and makes thejudgment of depth anddistance more difficult.

Foreground detailAlthough a full anddetailed picture, with well-defined image planes,the camera viewpointemphasizes the foregroundstatue by showing itagainst a plain greenmiddleground with thebackground buildingreduced in scale.

Middleground, far leftThe castle in the middledistance dominates thislandscape. Although thefore- and background areimportant, they are onlyassigned supporting roles.


BALANCE AND PROPORTIONPractically every photograph, whether it is avisually rich interior or an abstract compositionof shapes and colors, consists of a number ofdifferent subject elements. The photographermust aim to compose the shot so that there isa balance between all of them.

The concept of balance and proportiondoes not mean that a good photograph mustbe perfectly symmetrical or that the main focalpoint must be positioned in the center of theframe, since this leads to static, formal images.A much-used pictorial device is to divide thephotograph into thirds, both horizontally andvertically, and to place the subject one-thirdacross and one-third up or down the picture.Balance also applies to color and shape. Twostrong colors or dominant shapes will competefor the viewer’s attention, but if they arepositioned in a sympathetic way they canprovide an effective pictorial balance.

Partial viewBy avoiding the temptationto position the windmills in a symmetrical way, thepartial view of the nearestbuilding is balanced by themore distant structure.

Foreground interest, aboveThe Taj Mahal is one of themost photographed sites inthe world. In this picture,however, a duality of focalpoints makes for a moreunusual representation. Theboatman moving pastbalances the temple in thebackground, and also addsinterest to the foreground.

Balanced shapesIn this photograph of artistGraham Sutherland, thecamera angle is chosen tobalance the shapes of theseated figure and the semi-silhouetted tree stump.

BALANCE AND PROPORTION 67

Dynamic imbalanceAlthough this picture isnot at all symmetrical, thesilhouetted figure seems to balance the bulk of thesurrounding buildings. Inits simplicity, starkness oftone, and geometric forms,the composition verges onthe abstract.

Human scaleThe imposing columns ofthe Egyptian temple ofKarnak at Luxor rivet theattention of the viewer, butwithout the presence ofthe diminutive, white-cladfigure, the enormous sizeof the building could notbe appreciated.


SELECTION FOR EFFECTBefore taking a photograph of any subjectyou should spend some time studying and composing the image in the viewfinder.This involves arranging the subject elements to achieve the desired effect. Sometimes youmay want to emphasize balance, harmony,and symmetry, while at other times you mayprefer to highlight contrast by juxtaposingdifferent elements or colors.

First decide which are the most importantelements and then choose the viewpoint,focal length of lens, and film accordingly.Scenes with landscapes or buildings havemany viewpoints; the interpretation of theimage depends on the photographer’s skill inframing the subject to exclude details thatdetract from the main area of interest.

Positioning the horizon, aboveWhere you position the horizon can havea marked effect on the image. Whereas ahigh horizon accentuates the foreground,a low horizon emphasizes the sky.

Vertical abstraction, belowBy framing a vertical subject such asthese trees horizontally, a tension isestablished in the photograph. Verticalframing would weaken the overall effect.

SELECTION FOR EFFECT 69

Verticalcropping is

used toisolate adetail of

the image

Close croppingisolates thefigure in thephotograph

CROPPING AN IMAGEAlthough it is always preferable to make majorcompositional decisions through the camera’s viewfinderbefore taking a picture, you are not restricted to usingthe full-frame image once the film is processed.Sometimes it may be impossible to obtain the cameraposition you ideally want, so cropping out theforeground or background of the final image may benecessary. Alternatively, you may want to change thecomposition from horizontal to vertical framing byhaving only part of the original image enlarged. Youcould crop off one side of the picture to move a subjectinto an off-center position in the frame. Cropping canbe used to concentrate attention on particular areas ofinterest in the picture to create balance and harmony.All the pictures on this page show how cropping canalter the appearance of an image to convey severaldifferent messages.

Alternative ways of croppingThe full-frame image shows architect RichardRogers in his home. The outlined areas illustratedifferent ways the image can be cropped.

Horizontal image, aboveCropping in on both sides of thefigure and down from the top of thefull frame has simplified the visualcontent of the image and produceda distinctly enclosed feeling.

Isolating details, leftA side detail of the original imagehas been enlarged to become thesubject of this version. Enlargingshould only be attempted when theimage is sharp overall and there issufficient visual content.

Vertical image, aboveStrong vertical cropping of the picture is used to isolate thesubject and to eliminate all background detail. However, thisportrait lacks some of the atmosphere of the scene shown inthe uncropped shot.

Horizontal cropping shows the subjectand surroundings

DIGITAL SOLUTIONS

Digital images are easier to cropprecisely than those shot on film. Use the highest resolutionavailable when shooting to allowfor cropping, and edit a copy ofthe file rather than the original.

The difference between an outstanding

photograph and an ordinary one can often

be the result of a minor adjustment in the

angle of a light or a slight shift in viewpoint

that totally changes the emphasis of a

composition.This section reveals exactly how

an experienced photographer undertakes a

range of real-life photographic sessions and

provides an invaluable insight into how to

take successful photographs in a variety of

situations, both in the studio and on location.

HOW TOTAKE BETTERPICTURES

72 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS

PORTRAITS

Fashion portraitsSee pages 76–85

Character portraitsSee pages 90–91

Dramatic portraitsSee pages 96–99

Children’s portraitsSee pages 120–127

Photographing peopleA portrait can be a photograph taken withoutthe subject’s knowledge, or it may be a moreformal affair where the photographer has beencommissioned to follow a specific assignment. As with all areas of photography, there aretechnical decisions to be made. Different typesof camera and lens are needed for differentconditions; lights must be arranged to achievespecific effects; and the camera viewpoint hasto be positioned to suit the subject’s face, or toenhance some aspect of the setting.

What makes a good portrait?Portraits are not limited to posed shots ofimmobile subjects. Capturing moving subjectson film with flash can make lively, expressiveportraits, and giving subjects an activity canhave unexpected results. The latter approachworks well with children, who become boredquickly. Do not underestimate the importanceof background and setting in your portraits.Photographing people outdoors or in their ownenvironment can add a dimension otherwisemissing from a portrait in a studio setting.

Drawing out a subjectAnother important aspect of portrait work isovercoming a subject’s natural apprehension ofthe camera and lights. Try to put your model atease by having all the camera equipment andlights set up well in advance of the photosession. This will leave you free to get to knowand reassure the model before you start to takeany photographs. Talking may help the sitterrelax and allow you to achieve the desiredresult – a revealing, natural-looking portrait.The best photographs move beyond this tocapture expressions that give an insight into aperson’s character and mood, resulting inwonderful and exciting portraits.

Photographs of people often elicit a greater response fromthe viewer than any other kind of subject. A good portraitphotograph does not just show you the appearance of thesubject. It should also be a visual biography, capturing asitter’s character and revealing their unique personality.

PORTRAIT SET-UPThe equipment illustrated here comprises aflexible set-up for a formal portrait photograph. Itallows you complete control of the lighting and ishighly adaptable. For full-length portraits you willneed a room about 20ft (6m) long, although it is possible to shoot half-length portraits in ashorter space. Start by positioning the lights as shown below, and then adjust them to achieve different effects.

Umbrella reflectorThis has a reflective

inner surface that bounces back light

directed at it, softeningthe quality of

the lighting

Background lightThis additonal flash unitallows you to light the

backdrop independentlyof the main subject

Fill-in light power packThis provides the power for

the secondary flash. It isautomatically triggered when

the main flash fires

Fill-in lightA secondary flash unit,

positioned slightly farther away than themain flash, fills in the

shadowy areas

PORTRAITS 73

EQUIPMENT

•35mm SLR cameraand spare film

•Range of lenses

•Adjustable tripod

•Cable release

•Flash lighting units

•Umbrella reflectors

•Power packs

•Synchronization lead

•Diffuser panels

Backdroplight 5ft

(150cm)

3ft (90cm)

Fill-in lightCamera

6ft (180cm)

Main light

21⁄2ft (75cm)

21⁄2ft (75cm)

Backdrop

Formal portraitThis portrait is the resultof the set-up below. Thelighting is soft and gives

good tonal separationbetween the model and

background, with no harshshadows across her face.

OVERHEAD PLAN

Camera and filmA 35mm SLR camerawith a 100mm long-focus lens, loaded withISO 100 film.The lensis set level with themodel’s face

Main lightBuild up your lighting schemeone light at a time, startingwith a main light.This flashunit is positioned so thatlight shines at about 45° tothe model’s face

TripodUsing a tripodleaves you free toadjust lights andcheck the results inthe viewfinder

Synchronization leadThe cable runs from thecamera to the mainpower pack, enabling theflash units to fire in syncwith the shutter release

Main light power packA 3,000-joule power pack

provides the power sourcefor the main flash unit.

Output can be varied inone-stop increments

Light standAdjustable light stand makespositioning the flash unitsextremely quick and easy

Cable releaseThis frees you from behindthe camera, which allows youto interact with the subject


CREATING FORMAL PORTRAITSA studio can be a challenging place to work.It is up to you to transform a stark space intoan environment where your subject can bedrawn out. However, if you have access to astudio, you have greater control and theopportunity to experiment with lightingquality and intensity, as well as with variousshooting angles, and you will learn how tomanipulate these variables for specific results.

LIGHTING EMPHASIS

There is no single “correct” lighting set-upfor all portraits. The three-point arrangement(see pages 72–73) is a good starting point.However, placing diffuser panels directly infront of the flash heads and umbrellareflectors (below), allows lighting to bemanipulated to produce subtle variations.More obvious changes occur when wholelighting units are removed.

PHOTO SET-UP: Diffused lightingLarge diffuser panels made of heavyweight tracing paperare placed in front of the flash units and umbrella reflectorsto increase the area of light falling on the model.This givesa low-contrast result if both lighting heads are used.

Patterned rug acts asinteresting backdrop

Lighting variationsIf directional light is usedwith very little fill-in light,shadows increase (left). No fill-in light at all resultsin heavy contrast (above).

Soft lighting, belowThis softly lit portrait is theresult of the photo set-upusing the diffuser panels.

35mm camera withan 80mm long-focuslens fixed on a tripod

Diffuser panel ofheavyweight tracingpaper on a woodenframe is positionedbetween the modeland the lights

Each light ispowered by an individualpower pack

Synchronization lead

Flash lighting unitwith umbrellareflector ispositioned at 90˚ tothe diffuser panel

Cablerelease

CREATING FORMAL PORTRAITS 75

High camera angleShooting from a small stepladder givesstrong emphasis to the model’s forehead,eyes, and cheek bones, while the line ofher jaw and chin is understated.

Low camera angleKneeling down and shooting up at themodel from a low viewpoint changes theportrait’s emphasis. Different facial featuresnow catch the viewer’s eye, with the chinand jaw looking stronger and squarer.

Subject in profileA close-up profile is one of the mostcritical in portrait photography. Beforestarting to take pictures, study all aspectsof your model’s face and decide whichangles to shoot from for the best effect.

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•A three-quarter view of the face often makes itappear finer and less full than a frontal angle.

•For a 35mm SLR use an 80–90mm long-focus lens.

•Distortions occur when using a short lens close up.

•Using an extreme shooting angle may produceunwanted results, such as tapering features.

PHOTO SET-UP: High viewpointA little extra height considerably steepens the cameraangle. Lighting is unchanged from the set-up shown on theopposite page. A long synchronization lead connecting thecamera to the flash units allows freedom of movement.

Flashlighting

unit

Hand-held 35mm camerawith an 80mm lens

Diffuser panel

Umbrellareflector

VARYING CAMERA ANGLESA studio is the ideal type of location in whichto experiment with different camera angles. Byaltering the viewpoint of the camera, you canbring about a variety of interesting and subtleeffects. A high camera position, for example,shooting down on the model’s face, tends toemphasize the forehead and the tops of thecheek bones. Moving to the opposite extreme,and taking the shot from below up toward theface, draws attention to the chin and lowerjawline. This approach often results in the facetaking on a slightly square appearance. Thecamera angle may also imply something aboutpersonality: shooting from above suggestsvulnerability; while a model shot from belowmay appear aloof.



TAKING FASHION PORTRAITSObtaining the services of a professionalmodel for a day’s session is not difficult, butit can be expensive. Model agencies usuallycharge for their models by the hour, so makesure you have a clear idea of the type ofpictures you want before the shoot starts.

USING A PROFESSIONAL MODEL

Modeling is a form of acting that requiresexperience as well as an attractive face. Aprofessional model will know how to react tothe camera and how to change her pose togive the clothes an added elegance. She willbe able to vary her facial expression and willbe confident in the way she holds herself. Incomparison, most amateur models will lackconfidence and may appear wooden. Finally,if you do not want to use a make-up artist, aprofessional model will know how to applymake-up to suit the clothes she is wearing.

PHOTO SET-UP: Fashion portrait Two lights pick the dark-clothed model out from the mottled gray background.The flash unit to the model’s right is angled at the ceiling so that its light reflects back down to give a broad spread of illumination.The flash unit to her left gives three-quarter illumination and is fitted with a softbox diffuser. A 6 x 6cm camera ensures the qualityresults demanded by magazines.

Posed portraitsAim to direct the modelinto poses that emphasizethe shape of her body andthe clothes she is wearing.Note the way in which themodel constantly changesher pose in this sequenceof pictures.

Each light is poweredby an individualpower pack

Wide-angle flash lightinghead enclosed within asoftbox diffuser

Wide-angle flash lightinghead is angled upward atthe ceiling

Canvas backdrop painted to give a neutral,

mottled-gray effect

Cable release

Power pack

Reflector board ensures lighting is even

Telescopic lighting stand, fitted with castors to

make positioning easier

6 x 6cm camera on a tripodwith a 120mm long-lens focus

Symmetrical shapeThe model’s almost

symmetrical pose highlightsthe simplicity of her dress.

TAKING FASHION PORTRAITS 77

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•Keep a variety of interesting accessories on handso that you can experiment with different props.

•Talk to your model, directing her every movement.

•Ask someone to assist with hair and make-up.

Framing a modelThe story a photographtells is partly dictated byhow the model is framed.With a nearly full-lengthshot, the emphasis is on the model’s generalappearance. The viewercan appreciate the clothes,their monochromaticcoloring, and how theywork together.

Splash of colorThe use of props, such as this green hat, cancomplement a model’sclothes and provide abright finishing touch.

Change of moodConfidence and poise arethe hallmarks of a goodmodel, quickly changingfrom one pose to the next.

Close-up eyesViewed in close-up, theemphasis of the image isfixed on the model’s face.The pearl-studdedsunglasses perched on hernose demand the viewer’sspecial attention.

USING ACCESSORIESAttention to detail can transform an otherwiseordinary photograph. For a fashion portrait,any accessories or props you use should beappropriate to the type of image you want tocreate and should complement the model’sclothes. Careful selection of accessories is vital: neutral tones can be set off by simpleprops, and bright, saturated colors can becomplemented by unusual and excitingaccessories. A portrait should communicate amessage to the viewer, and each and everydetail should facilitate that communication.


STYLING PORTRAITSBrief models beforehand on the look and styleyou want to create at the photo session. If youcan afford the expense, a costume supplierwill be able to provide you with everythingfrom period costumes to evening wear, and astylist can help furnish the set. When takingfashion portraits, be sure that the models lookperfect, since the final images should appearglossier and more attractive than real life. Ifyou are working with two models featured inthe same shots, coordinating the appearanceof both of them is also essential.

PLANNING THE SHOOT

Once you have identified the style of themodel’s clothing, you can turn your attentionto choosing a suitable setting. If you do nothave access to a photographic studio orsuitable space indoors, you could use anoutdoor environment such as a desertedbeach. Whatever setting you choose, beprepared to shoot a lot of film to get themost out of the session.

PHOTO SET-UP: Lighting for a styled portraitThe set is lit by reflected light from a wide-angled flashdirected at the ceiling on the photographer’s left.Themodels’ faces are illuminated by the two softbox diffusers.

Making use of a propA silk scarf adds color aswell as compositionalbalance. Expect to shoot a lot of film to achieve anatural-looking picture.

Coordinated imageThe two models have acoordinated look with theirmatching sequined dresses.This image is emphasizedby their linked-arm pose.

Cable release

6 x 6cm cameraon a tripod witha 120mm long-

focus lens

Blue background paper is taped down

to the floor

Canvas backdrop is painted togive a realistic blue-sky-and-

clouds effect

Wide-angle flash lighting head is angled upwardat the ceiling so that its light reflects back downto give a broad spread of soft illumination

Flash units arepositioned atdifferent heights

Softbox diffusersproduce soft,directional light

Single power pack runsboth diffused flash units

STYLING PORTRAITS 79

Flash lighting units arepositioned at differentheights and angledlow to light models’faces evenly

Softbox diffuserproduces soft,directional light

Wide-angle flash unit angled upward

to reflect light off the ceiling

Painted backdrop

Stylist makesadjustments to

make-up and hairduring the shoot

Double profile, aboveIf using two models,position them so that eachone is seen with her bestprofile toward the camera.

Critical close-upAlways check the models’appearance by lookingthrough the viewfinderbefore pressing the shutter.

Unusual headwearHats can cause lightingproblems by casting shadowsover the models’ faces orobscuring their eyes. To counterthis, make sure the faces are litindependently, as shown in theset-up on the right.

FILLING THE FRAMEYou can achieve a close-up simply by movingthe camera position closer to your subject toconcentrate attention on facial features andexpression. By excluding other details fromthe picture, the impact of the image can bedramatic if the model is well chosen. With anormal lens you may have to move very closeto your subject to fill the frame with themodel’s head and shoulders. Alternatively, youcan use a longer lens or have the centralportion of the picture enlarged during printing.

The correct lighting is essential for close-upportraits. Gentle, soft lighting, such as from awindow or a diffused flash, is more flatteringthan harsh, directional light, which tends toemphasize every fine line or misplaced hair.

PHOTO SET-UP: Lighting for a close-upA wide-angle flash head reflects light bounced off the ceiling, ason the opposite page.The flash units with softbox diffusers tothe photographer’s right are positioned low and angled slightlyupward, to throw extra light onto the models’ faces.

Power pack

6 x 6cm camera on a tripod with a 120mm

long-focus lens

Floor covering


HOW TO RELAX THE MODELWhether using professional models or friends,taking head-and-shoulder portraits or full-figure nudes, your photographic session willbe more successful if your model is at ease.If a sitter is not relaxed, this will usuallyshow in the pictures.

Create the right ambience from the start byensuring the studio is not too warm or cold,and by playing suitable background music.Make sure that camera gear, lighting, andbackdrops are as ready as possible beforethe model comes on set, and that the modelhas somewhere private to change costumes,adjust make-up, and sit between shots. It isthe photographer that is the key, though. Ifyou keep talking to the model, praising himor her, and suggesting poses and actions,you will obtain more successful shots than if you hide quietly behind the camera.

PHOTO SET-UP: Communicating with the modelThe studio set-up can help the model to feel comfortable. By using a tripod, it is possible to maintain eye contact with the model while giving instructions, andusing a standard lens allows close proximity so there is no need to shout.

Changing the poses, leftWhen photographingpeople, even smallchanges in posture, or theway they turn their heador body, will have a majorimpact on the composition.

Getting a reaction, oppositeOften the poses that workbest are exaggerated ones.To get an exaggerated posewhile keeping the effectnatural, ask the model tolaugh or shout as you takethe shot. Use lots of film toensure you get the poseyou want; this is not sonecessary with digitalcameras as you can reviewthe actual facial expressionsshot after each sequence.

Using props, leftThe purpose of the rope in this set-up is not just toprovide visual interest anda strong diagonal line. Italso provides somethingfor the model to hold onto, helping to avoidawkward-looking poses.

Large studio flashwith softbox provideswindow-like lighting

6 x 6cm camera on a tripod with a80mm standard lens

Builder’s tarpaulinprovides a natural-

colored, texturedbackground

HOW TO RELAX THE MODEL 81


CREATING A STYLEThere are almost as many styles of fashionphotography as there are styles of clothing.Glossy magazines are always trying to find“new” ways to show a new collection. Ratherthan just using those methods traditionallyused for portraits, techniques are borrowedfrom other genres in the quest for an originallook. For instance, models may be shotreportage-style with ambient light and grainyfilm, or special effects used, such asprocessing print film in chemicals meant for slides to give unusual color balance.

An approach that is particularly timeless, is the abstract style. The idea is to show theclothing almost in isolation; it is worn by themodel, but by using close-ups her identity ishidden – putting the whole focus of attentionon the clothes. The secret is then to use thethousands of poses that the human body iscapable of to frame interesting shapes.

PHOTO SET-UP: Using digital backsAn advantage of a medium-format system camera is thatit allows the professional photographer to switch fromfilm to digital, between shots if necessary, or to suit theclient’s requirements.

Color match, topSo as not to distract from thecolor of the stockings, it wasimportant that the skirt andshoes were also red. The blackand silver stool is neutral, as isthe gray background.

Color contrast, above & rightA green backdrop was chosenbecause green is thecomplementary color to red.This ensured that thestockings stand out in thecompositions.

Soft, evenlighting isprovided bybouncing studioflash unit into awhite umbrella

6 x 6cm camera on atripod with 120mmtelephoto lens. A digital or film back can be used

Plastic material withmirrored surface isused as a silverreflector to softenthe shadows

Footstools are not only formodel’s comfort, they

ensure her leg stays as stillas possible during the shot

CREATING A STYLE 83


Change of background,above & left Small changes to a set-upcan create an entirelydifferent look. Changingfrom a pale green tarpaulinbackdrop (above), to ablack backdrop (left) hascreated a more stylizedlow-key effect.6 x 6cm camera, 120mmlens, digital back, ISO 100,f11, 1/60 sec.

Defining the style, rightProps and background areessential for defining thestyle of the photograph.Thewooden floor and leatherchair help to give theimpression that this is acandid photograph taken ata cocktail party in a grandcountry house.6 x 6cm camera, 120mmlens, digital back, ISO 100,f11, 1/60 sec.

Conveying purpose,below & rightClothes are designed fordifferent purposes, andfashion shots must conveythis.Alternative approachescommunicate comfort andglamor.These two shotsshow ways of depictingdifferent levels of sensuality.6 x 6cm camera, 120mmlens, digital back, ISO 100,f11, 1/60 sec.

ABSTRACT FASHION GALLERY 85


TAKING PORTRAITS ON LOCATIONYou may have to overcome certain difficultieswhen you want to take a portrait of a subjectin his home or workplace. You will have lesscontrol over lighting intensity and direction,and space may be cramped with furnitureinconveniently arranged. However, a subjectwill be more relaxed in his own environment,and you gain the chance to record aspects ofhis life that could not be witnessed elsewhere.

LIGHTING POTENTIAL

In terms of lighting, you should be preparedfor almost any situation – from direct sunlightstreaming through a large window, to levelsso dim that even fast film will require a wideaperture and still result in a very slow shutterspeed. It is advisable to visit the locationbeforehand to see if you will need flash oradditional equipment. You can then decidewhat type of camera to use and at what timeof day the light will be most suitable.

PHOTO SET-UP: Supplementary flashTo photograph sculptor Glyn Williams in his studio callsfor soft, directional lighting to capture the subtle textureof the sculpted figures.The low level of natural daylightrequires the use of flash lighting.The light-colored ceilingsand walls make ideal surfaces from which to bounce light.

Diffusing umbrellamade of sheer

material creates soft directional

lighting effect

Subject and setting, topThe setting is as much thesubject of the picture as thesculptor. Carefully placedstatues mark the fore-,middle-, and background.

Framing a subject, aboveLook for the best way toframe your subject in theavailable space. In this shot,the sculptures make strongshapes flanking their creator.

6 x 6cm cameraon a tripod withan 80mm lens

Flash head positionedhigh to reflect light

from ceiling and walls

Light-colored walls and ceiling

are ideal forbouncing flash


Power pack

TAKING PORTRAITS ON LOCATION 87

SIMULATING DAYLIGHTWhen taking a portrait in a workingenvironment, it is preferable to use naturallight to convey the atmosphere of the setting.If it is not possible to illuminate an interiorusing natural light, you can arrange the flashlighting to simulate some of the characteristicsof daylight. Light entering a room through awindow produces a directional effect, lightingnear parts of the subject and casting distantcorners into shadow. When taking a portrait,you may need to reduce this contrast by theuse of fill-in lights and reflectors. However,high-contrast lighting does give a scene anaturalness that implies a lack of interference.

Natural daylight, abovePositioning the sculpturedirectly below a skylightproduces this high-contrastlighting effect.

Simulated daylight, leftDiffused flash is used tosupplement the weak lightfrom an overhead skylight.The lighting direction andquality resemble naturallight but ensure that theshadow areas are not toodark on the subject’s face.

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•Visit the locationbefore the shoot.

•Exclude unwantedclutter from the shot.

•Take additional lightsif daylight is very poor.

•Make sure there aresufficient power pointsto run your equipment.

PHOTO SET-UP: Poor natural lightLow levels of natural light present lighting problemssimilar to those on the opposite page. Diffused flash isneeded to light the sculptor evenly in the dark interior.A single flash unit with reflector is positioned to light thesubject’s face, but the background walls remain in shadow.

Walls are too far awayfrom the light sourceto affect the overallexposure

Subject is leaning onsculpture to reinforcelink with work

6 x 6cm cameraon a tripod with a 150mm long-focus lens

Single flash head witha diffusing umbrella isangled to spotlight thesubject’s face

Power pack


Indirect daylight, topFor this portrait of artist Ivan Hitchens, indirect light bouncing off a wall produces a soft effect.6 x 6cm camera, 150mm lens,Ektachrome 200, f11, 1/125 sec.

Flash and daylight, aboveFlash supplements the poor light in a gallery interior for this portraitof sculptress Barbara Hepworth.6 x 6cm camera, 80mm lens,Ektachrome 100, f11, 1/125 sec.

Location lighting, rightBounced flash was used for thislocation portrait of Agatha Christie.6 x 6cm camera, 150mm lens,Ektachrome 64, f11, 1/125 sec.

Appropriate lighting, far rightArtist Richard Hamilton’s expressiveface benefits from the punchyquality of strong natural daylight.6 x 6cm camera, 80mm lens,Ektachrome 100, f11, 1/30 sec.

Filling the frame, aboveWith a strong personality such asartist David Hockney, stay alert andreact to any chance expression.6 x 6cm camera, 120mm lens(plus extension tube),Ektachrome 100, f16, 1/60 sec.

PORTRAIT GALLERY 89

Color statementThe color and abstract flowing shapes of his paintings make an ideal background forthis portrait of Terry Frost.The colors ofthe canvas are emphasized by the artist’sberet and the contrasting vertical stripes of his waistcoat.6 x 7cm camera, 80mm lens,Fujichrome 100, f8, 1/250 sec.

Integrating the backgroundGood photographs work at all levels,from the foreground right through tothe background.And in this portrait ofJohn Bellamy, the background of one ofhis canvases is as much the subject ofthe photograph as the artist himself.Lighting is provided by a mixture of bounced flash and daylight.6 x 6cm camera, 50mm lens,Ektachrome 200, f5.6, 1/15 sec.


CAPTURING CHARACTERPerhaps the most challenging aspect of takinga portrait photograph is to try to capturesomething more than just a likeness of thesubject. In fashion portraiture (see page 72), forexample, the models are not just vehicles forthe clothes they wear; they also need toproject a certain image. Similarly, an informalportrait of a person should tell the viewersomething about the sitter’s character.

LIGHTING FOR AN OLDER SUBJECT

Choosing appropriate lighting is critical whenphotographing an elderly subject. A face linedwith age speaks volumes about the sitter’spersonal history. If you want to emphasizethe wrinkles and lines that reveal character,use strong directional lighting to highlight thesurface texture. However, if you want todisguise the signs of aging, you can use asoft-focus filter to blur skin texture. Diffusedor reflected light as used in the images onthese pages gives a flattering, subtle effect.

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•A wide-angle lens allows you to include more ofthe setting in the frame for added atmosphere.

•A 35mm SLR is less noticeable than a medium-format camera and may seem less intimidating.

•Remove unwanted furniture from the picture area.

•Use a dulling spray to prevent reflections.

•If you are working with a flash unit, make sure thesynchronization lead allows you free movement.

PHOTO SET-UP: Diffused flash lightingThe location is a long-established reading room for retiredsailors and fishermen.The walls are covered with glass-covered photographs recording long careers spent at sea. Ifnot treated with care, the flash could cause each picture toreflect light in the form of intense highlights known as hotspots.To prevent these reflections, check the image in theviewfinder, and adjust the picture frames accordingly.

Creating atmosphereLit mainly by reflected lightbounced off the side wall, the intimate atmosphere of the setting is preserved.Lighting must be adjustedconstantly and the imagechecked in the viewfinder.

Softbox diffuser helpsboth to soften and directthe light output

6 x 6cm camera on atripod with a 50mmwide-angle lens

To lighten this darkcorner, bounced flash isused to reflect light offthe side walls

CAPTURING CHARACTER 91

Candid moment, aboveCapturing an unguardedmoment is possible heresince the subject is totallyengrossed in the game andnot self-conscious.

Using the setting, leftSetting the subject off-center establishes a tensionin the composition, andthe pictures visible behindhim suggest somethingabout his history.

PHOTO SET-UP: Character in close-upBy moving in closer with a hand-held 35mm camera and an 80mmlong-focus lens, you can isolate one person in the group.Try toframe the image to exclude unwanted detail so that everything inthe final shot provides valuable clues to the sitter’s character.Concentrate on the feature that you most want to emphasize andthen wait for the right moment to release the shutter.

Character and moodTry to be unobtrusive andavoid drawing attention tothe camera. Do not let yoursubject pose for too long(top), but follow the moodand atmosphere of theoccasion (above).

Compactness of a35mm SLR camera

makes it ideal forhand-holding

Subject quickly forgetsabout the photographerand continues playing thegame of cards

80mm long-focus lens is used toisolate a single subject


TAKING PORTRAITS OUTDOORSThe advantage of shooting outdoors is that itis much easier to get natural-looking resultsin daylight than it is in the studio, althoughin the studio you have greater control overthe lighting. Outdoors, the intensity andquality of light varies enormously from dayto day, and often from one minute to thenext, so it is important to choose theconditions with care. Harsh direct sunlightproduces strong shadows that can obscurefacial details, as well as making peoplescrew up their eyes in an unphotogenicfashion, while heavily overcast conditionscan lead to dull, flat portraits with weakcolors. An ideal compromise is to shoot on a bright day when there is some cloudcover. Setting up the shot so that the light is at 45 degrees to the subject’s face provides just the right amount of shadow. If necessary, the lighting can be balanced by using white reflectors.

Selective focusing, above & rightBy combining a telephotolens with a small aperture,the horizon is softened, soas not to distract from themain subject.

Personal details, leftInclude objects in the shotthat tell you more aboutthe subject. This chair hasbeen painted by the artistin the colorful stripes thatcharacterize his work.

PHOTO SET-UP: Sir Terry Frost This portrait of abstract artist Terry Frost, taken shortlybefore his death at age 87, was taken at a beach near hishome that had been an inspiration for his paintings.Theopen space provided a vast backdrop to shoot against.

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•Red-colored clothes or accessoriesprovide immediateimpact in portraits.

•Hats are useful props to have to hand for portraits,helping to isolate thehead from thebackground as well asadding visual interest.

Sitting the subject in a chair restricts theirmovement so that youcan focus accurately

Digital SLR withzoom set toaround 100mm.Sitting downprovides a lowcamera angle

The beach is a naturalreflector, bouncing softlight into the shadowareas of the face

TAKING PORTRAITS OUTDOORS 93

94 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTAITS

TAKING BLACK AND WHITE PORTRAITSBlack and white film is a medium that attractsthose photographers who want an addeddimension in the process of image selectionand interpretation. Color, even when used in a very abstract way, leaves little room for theviewer’s imagination. Color also has certainassociations with mood, some of which arecultural and some personal – fiery red, sunnypastel shades, cold blue tones, and so on.Because we react so strongly to the colorcontent of a photograph, it can sometimesdistract us from looking at other importantaspects of the image.

TONAL VALUES

In black and white pictures, images becomemuch simpler in content. The clutter of colorfalls away and is replaced by a range of tones– shades of black, ranging from gray to white(see page 44). If you think of a photograph asalready being an abstraction of the real sceneit records, then a black and white picture isanother step away from that reality.

PHOTO SET-UP: Confined spacesIn the narrow upstairs hallway of sculptor Glyn Williams’home, there is little space for the flash lighting unit usedto supplement the daylight coming through the window.In order to maneuver himself into the correct position in relation to the background of sculpted heads, Glynimprovised by standing on a plank bridging the stairwell.

Subject is positioned against abackground of sculpted heads

6 x 6cm camera on atripod with a 50mmwide-angle lens

Walls and ceilinghelp reflect thelight

Single flash lightingunit is pointingdirectly at a largecircular reflector

White reflectoris set at about 45˚to the subject

Black and white or colorPositioning the subject so that he appears to bepart of the collection ofsculpted heads worksbetter in black and whitethan color.

TAKING BLACK AND WHITE PORTRAITS 95

DIGITAL SOLUTIONS

•If using a digital camera it is often best to take theshot in color rather than in a black and white shootingmode. If you convert the image to black and whitelater you will be able to exercise better tonal control,and also retain the option of using the shot in color.

•A black and white shooting mode can also be used as it will be extremely useful for visualizing the shot without color before the final version isactually recorded.

PHOTO SET-UP: Subject and backgroundTwo aspects of Glyn Williams’ work, drawing and sculpting,provide ideal background and foreground elements for thisportrait, and a strange perspective is achieved by utilizingthe distorting effect a wide-angle lens exerts on theapparent sizes of foreground and background objects. Aswith the set-up shown on the opposite page, the lighting is kept simple with a single flash lighting unit and reflectorsupplementing the poor natural daylight.

Highlighting elementsThe way we interpret apicture varies according towhether the image is incolor or black and white.In this comical pose theviewer’s eye is drawn tothe sculpted hands in theimmediate foreground, thesizes of which have beenexaggerated by using awide-angle lens. Although

Single flash lighting unit with an umbrellareflector is positioned opposite the subject

6 x 6cm camera on a tripodwith a 50mm wide-angle lens

the subject’s pose in thecolor portrait is identical tothe black and whiteversion, it is the coloredchecks of the subject’sshirt that initially attract the viewer’s eye. With themiddleground demandingattention in this way, theoverall image lacks theimpact of the black andwhite portrait.

Winter daylight fromwindow supplementsflash lighting

Sketches taped to the wallbehind are lit by a mixture offlash and daylight


CREATING DRAMATIC PORTRAITSInjecting drama into a photograph oftenmeans using lighting creatively to produce a powerful or unusual interpretation of yoursubject. You can use strong, directional light to create a high-contrast portrait with brighthighlights and dark shadows that accentuate a subject’s bone structure and facial features.

LIGHTING COLOR AND EFFECT

You can also alter the color of the lighting fordramatic effect. It is best to make a radicalchange to the normal color since a minordeviation may look accidental. In the imageson these pages, the flash heads are filtered indifferent colors and the lights lowered to castlong shadows. In additon, smoke is releasedduring the shoot for added theatrical impact.

PHOTO SET-UP: Lighting with colored filtersTwo flash units covered with blue and green gelatin filtersrespectively are positioned at the back of the set behindthe dancers. A red-filtered flash unit with a large softboxdiffuser to the right of the photographer provides general,warm illumination all over the set.

Power packfor main light

Colored filter effectsThe dancers and the lightsilluminating the set arewell defined before theaddition of the smoke.

Smoke effects on lightingWhen the smoke is added,the light becomes morescattered and diffused, thefigures less distinct, andareas of color start to merge.

Blue-filteredflash head

Red-filtered flash head andsoftbox diffuser

Plain, whitebackdrop is agood surface

for colored flash lights to

reflect off

Green-filtered

flash head

Smoke machineproduces cloudsof white smoke

6 x 6cm camera on alow tripod with an

80mm standard lens

Cable releaseSynchronization lead

COLORED GELS

Colored light filters areusually made of gelatinor plastic, and come in a variety of sizes. If filtersare too large, trim themto a manageable sizeand clip or tape themover the lighting headsor the inside surface of a diffuser.

CREATING DRAMATIC PORTRAITS 97

Enhancing effects The exaggerated poses of the modern dancers are given greater dramatic impact by the addition ofspecial-effects smoke.

Exposure compensationScattered light, as shown inthis sequence, can causethe meter to register morelight than is present. Openthe aperture an extra half toone f-stop to compensate.


DRAMATIC PORTRAITS OUTDOORSRain, wind, and fog can sometimes be usedto help add ambience to an outdoor portrait.Whilst these atmospheric effects can beadded by waiting for the right conditions, itis more practical to create them artificially.This has the advantage that the effect can beadded with minimal discomfort, and withmaximum control over intensity. Real rain,for example, will cause problems withlighting intensity, and may damage cameraequipment. A strategically-placed sprinklerallows you to keep equipment dry and touse brighter lighting conditions.

A favorite effect, both outside and in thestudio, is smoke. This can be used to suggestclouds, fog, or mist. The smoke, however,cannot be controlled precisely, so getting the exact effect you want is hit and miss.Usually, it is best to wait for the smoke tobuild up, or disperse, to the right density,then quickly take as many shots as possible.

Keeping your distance, left For this shot, only mist inthe background wasrequired, so that themodel was not obscuredfrom view. The smokemachine was set up on theopposite side of the waterfrom the camera. Thedensity of fog in shotcould then be controlledby the model moving todifferent parts of the lake.

Ripples, rightIn order to get a feeling ofmovement in the water, Iasked the model to moveforward as I shot thepicture. This created anattractive pattern of ripples.

PHOTO SET-UP: Morning mist on a lake I wanted to take pictures of the model in a lake against abackdrop of atmospheric mist. By using a smoke generatorI was able to do the shot on a warm, bright summer’s day,rather than on a cold, gray winter’s morning.

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

Smoke can beprovided artificially byusing cigarettes,bonfires, or dry ice.For better control, amains-powered smokegenerator can be hiredfrom specialisttheatrical suppliers.

Modelin lake

An assistant controlsthe machine tocreate the requiredsmoke effects

A special solution ofglycol or glycerol isburnt by an electricsmoke generator tomake a white fog thatfloats over the water

35mm SLRset up onother sideof water

DRAMATIC PORTRAITS OUTDOORS 99


Tonal contrast, aboveThe carefully positioned sculptedheads make an ideal frame withinwhich to place their creator, thesculptress Elisabeth Frink.35mm camera, 80mm lens, HP5,f16, 1/30 sec.

Making a connectionAn old woman holding her prized pet pigeon makes for a revealingcharacter portrait. Diffused flash is used to supplement the weaksunlight and highlight the fine lines on the subject’s face.35mm camera, 105mm lens,HP5, f16, 1/250 sec.

Window lightWeak sunlight from a window on thesubject’s right provides the onlyillumination for this picture of aSalvation Army stalwart.This type ofgentle and sympathetic lighting maskssome signs of aging and is in keepingwith the subject.35mm camera, 80mm lens,Tri-X Pan, f5.6, 1/60 sec.

Rural record, belowA single picture can tell a life story.The simple setting, the clothes on theline, and the farmer’s expression tellof a way of life now extinct.6 x 7cm camera, 80mm lens,Tri-X Pan, f11, 1/60 sec.

PORTRAIT GALLERY 101

Framing an ideaIn any photograph of an artist you might expect the tools of thetrade to feature prominently. In thisportrait of sculptor Henry Moore, itis his hands that are held up to thecamera, positioned as if sizing ablock of stone, yet acting as a framefor his face.6 x 6cm camera, 50mm lens,Tri-X Pan, f11, 1/250 sec.

Focusing attentionAlthough a face as powerful as this would command attention nomatter how it was photographed,a wide lens aperture keeps thedepth of field sufficiently narrow to keep details in the background from competing.35mm camera, 135mm lens,HP5, f4, 1/30 sec.

Natural spotlight, topWith sidelight revealing fine details,typographer David Kindersley isthrust forward in the frame.35mm camera, 135mm lens,HP5, f16, 1/250 sec.

Directional flash, aboveA flash is directed at the subject tothrow a band of light over the face.6 x 4.5cm camera, 120mm lens,Tri-X Pan, f22, 1/60 sec.


TAKING A SELF PORTRAITSelf portraiture is a photographic exercise thatmay require the use of one or two technicalaids and a great deal of patience, but it canalso be a lot of fun. The simplest way to takeyour own portrait is to pose in front of amirror and to photograph your reflection byholding the camera at waist level.Alternatively, you can use a long cable releaseor self-timer and pose in front of the lens.

DELAYED-ACTION TIMER

Practically all cameras have a delayed-actiontimer designed for self portraiture. Activatingthis before pressing the shutter release givesyou between 10 and 20 seconds (dependingon the camera) to get to your predeterminedposition. Alternatively, if you pose close tothe camera, you can trigger the shutter at theprecise moment you want by using a longcable release. An adjustable tripod is essentialfor positioning the camera at the right height.

PHOTO SET-UP: Indoor self portraitFor this self portrait, the camera’s integral delayed-actiontimer is used.The camera is prefocused on the exact spotthe subject will occupy, and a chalk mark on the canvassheet acts as a position guide.

Self-timer sequenceExperiment with differentposes to record a comic,dramatic, or serious selfportrait. The exposure forthese self portraits (above)was calculated using aflash meter, and thesettings then transferred to the camera. Rememberto wind the film onbetween shots and to reset the timer.

Hardboard reflector is positionedon the subject’s shadow side toreturn some of the light andreduce contrast

6 x 6cm camera with a l20mmlong-focus lens and with shutterset on a delayed timer

Adjustable tripod is positioned sothat the camera frames thesubject’s head and shoulders

Single flash unit isset high and

positioned atabout 45˚ to

the subject

Umbrella diffusergives direct but

softened lighting

Synchronizationlead

TAKING A SELF PORTRAIT 103

Exposure readingTo determine the exposurefor these self portraits, thesubject took a readingfrom the back of his handwhile standing where thepictures were to be taken.

Self portrait setting, belowUsing a timer allows you to position yourself somedistance from the camera.

Photo set-up: Outdoor self portraitThe camera is focused and set manually for the distanceof the subject from the camera, and an extra-long cablerelease allows the shutter to be released at precisely theright moment.

Long cable release is held bythe subject, low down and outof shot, allowing the shutter tobe triggered at will

Silver reflector is used tolighten the subject’s shadowside and even out the lightingcontrast across the face

Colors in the scene arewarmed up using acolor-compensating filter

Viewfinder may have to be covered to keepstray light from affecting exposure

35mm camera with an 85mmlens is set on a delayed-actiontimer to release the shutterafter 20 seconds

PHOTO SET-UP: Delayed-action timerA test run timed with a stop watch determinesthat there is enough time for the subject totake up his position before the delayed-actiontimer triggers the shutter.

35mm camera on atripod with an 85mmlong-focus lens


COMPOSING GROUP PORTRAITSNo matter what type of group portrait you are photographing, you need to show that allthose involved are somehow associated witheach other. This can be done by arranging thefigures so that they all obviously relate.

ARRANGING A GROUP

When arranging a dynamic subject such asthis modern-dance ensemble, aim to conveythe sense of group movement. It is possibleto use a slow shutter speed to record subjectblur (see pages 130–131), but this techniquecan be problematic in group portraits. Thesolution here is to place the dancers in activeposes, carefully choreographed and integratedto create a very definite compositional shape.In all group portraiture, take plenty of shotsof each variation of the pose so that there isat least one frame in which every individual isseen to best advantage.

Circular group, oppositeCareful attention to theshapes described by thedancers’ bodies producedthis circular composition.The group seems poised toexplode into movement.

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•Aim for a broadspread of light, perhapsfrom wide-angle units.

•Soften directionallighting to preventshadows falling on anymember of the group.

6 x 6cm camera on a tripod withan 80mm standard lens

Background canvasis painted to give a

mottled green effect

Power pack formain light

Dynamic arrangements Try experimenting withseveral group arrangements.Two different compositionswork in different ways. Thepyramid (above) has greatergroup cohesion, but theother arrangement (right)emphasizes movement.

Undiffused flash unitlights background andsubjects

Cable release

Undiffused flash lightingunit is angled down to

lighten tonal value offloor surface and increaseexposure on the dancers

Flash lighting unit andsoftbox reflector

with front diffusingpanel removed to

increase the intensityof light

Synchronizationlead links camerato power pack

PHOTO SET-UP: Lighting a groupThe lighting for group portraits needs to be generalized to create a broad spread of light over a fairly large area.Here a matched pair of diffused flash units, one either side of the camera, ensures even lighting.Two undiffusedflash units at the rear of the set help increase exposure on the dancers and so pull them out of the mottled green background.

COMPOSING GROUP PORTRAITS 105


CREATING INFORMAL PORTRAITSA good informal portrait relies on thephotographer working unobtrusively. Thepresence of a camera may make some peopleself-conscious, and some subjects may notwant their photograph taken. Ideally, thephotographer and his camera should gounnoticed. Modern compact and SLR camerasare lightweight, discreet, and quick and easyto operate, and often ideal for this type ofcandid photography. However, it is alwaysbest to ask permission if you think that theperson you want to photograph may object.

KEEPING YOUR DISTANCE

Successful photographs depend on awarenessas well as being in the right place at the righttime with your camera loaded and preset tothe correct exposure. A compact camera orSLR fitted with a zoom lens allows you todistance yourself from your subject.

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•Candid portraits areeasiest to take in publicplaces where lots ofpeople carry cameras.

•Zoom lenses allowfine-tune cropping andsubject enlargementfrom one position.

•Pretend to take ashot of an accomplicein the foreground, butuse a zoom to focuson your real subject inthe background.

PHOTO SET-UP: Dramatic expressionA bustling riverside setting is an ideal location to wait forthe reactions of passers-by to this street entertainer’sbizarre guitar-playing technique.This set-up picture showshow you can stage an expressive and amusing portraitwith the cooperation of your subjects.The model iscarefully positioned in the foreground to give the pictureadded humor and exaggerated theatricality.

Riverside location is worthstaking out because there isa lot of activity

Natural reactionAt first glance, the model appears to be a casual passer-by. In fact, as the set-uppicture shows, she is deliberatelypositioned level with the musician and is reacting for the camera.

Model is kneeling in front ofthe camera so that her headis level with the musician

Small, fully automatic 35mmSLR with manual focus and

fitted with a 28–70mmzoom lens

CREATING INFORMAL PORTRAITS 107

Advance planningThis picture is the result ofcareful advance planning.If you visit the locationbeforehand and chooseyour subject carefully youwill be able to envisageprecisely the type of imageyou want to recreate.

Storyboard sequenceEach image should workon its own, but when theyare viewed together, all thepictures in a sequence tella complete story and havegreater impact.


Monochromatic light, topWith the air heavy with woodsmoke and the threat of rain,the moody light givesatmosphere to this scene of anelderly Romanian coupleholding their grandchild.Thelight is so diffused that thelandscape appearsmonochromatic.35mm camera, 28mm lens,Fujichrome 400, f8, 1/60 sec.

Street life, aboveThe markets of Cairo are full of photo opportunities.This portrait of a shopkeeperwith his hookah was takenusing a long lens.Always askpermission before takingyour picture if you think thata person may object.35mm camera, 90mm lens,Kodachrome 100, f16,1/250 sec.

Unposed perfection, aboveAlthough completely unposed, thisportrait of a Romanian boy seems to bein an environment almost too painterlyto be true. Strong geometric squares andrectangles, and clearly defined blocks ofcolor comprise most of the image.Snaking through the center is the single,sinewy shape of an ancient vine.35mm camera, 28mm lens,Ektachrome 200 , f11, 1/250 sec.


Ultra-violet light, rightThe hazy effect of ultra-violet lightcan be clearly seen in this pictureof young Indian tea pickers.35mm camera, 80mm lens,Ektachrome 200, f11, 1/125 sec.

Tropical brightness, far rightIntense light and heat create specificphotographic problems. Depth offield has been strictly limited here.35mm camera, 135mm lens,Ektachrome 100, f5.6, 1/1000 sec.


PHOTOGRAPHING THE NUDEIn the same way as the study of the humanfigure in fine art is an exercise in drawing andpainting technique, so the nude can be used toshow the photographer’s skill. Lighting thefigure offers numerous ways to emphasize skintexture, form, and tone. Daylight from awindow, or diffused sidelighting from a flashenhances form, whereas backlighting highlightsshape rather than form to create a silhouette.

WORKING WITH A LIFE MODEL

Successful nude photographs depend uponthere being a good relationship between thelife model and photographer. The more youinvolve the model in the picture-takingprocess, the better the results are likely to be.Working indoors assures your subject ofprivacy and allows you to set up equipmentin advance. Remember to keep the roomwarm and make sure the model feels relaxed.

PHOTO SET-UP: Silhouette lightingFor a silhouette effect, the background must be much lighter than the subject. A large exposure difference between the two will produce a high-contrast result.With the exposure taken for the light background,the subject appears as anunderexposed shape.

Graphic profile, aboveThe heavily diffused lightreflected from the graybackdrop gives it a mottledappearance. The figure isin total shadow and standsout as a bold, stark shape.

Flash lighting unit (one either sideof the set) with an umbrellareflector, throws broad, softbeams of light onto thebackground paper

Flat boards are placed either side of the set to stop stray light fromthe flash units reaching thecamera side of the subject andweakening the effect

Gray background paper returns some of the

light bounced from theumbrella reflectors

Adjustable lighting stand makesit possible to change the height

and angle of the flash unit

6 x 6cm camera on low tripodwith a 120mm long-focus lens

Cable release Synchronization lead runs from thecamera to the main power pack; thesecond power pack is fitted with a slaveunit that triggers its flash the instant thefirst one is fired

PHOTOGRAPHING THE NUDE 111

Lighting for the human form usually needs tobe not only diffused and softened, but alsodirectional. If lighting is used in this way,some planes of the body are lit while othersgrade off into progressively deeper shadow.This suggests the contours and shapes of thewhole, but leaves the form only partlyrevealed and thus abstracted. This type oflighting effect can be achieved relativelyeasily using natural daylight from a windowcovered with a large sheet of tracing paper.Harsh frontal lighting is usually inappropriatefor the human figure. It often reveals toomuch detail, resulting in a clinical or anoverly suggestive quality.

Using a sidelight, aboveThe silhouette takes on afuller, rounded form, asthe play of light and shadehelps flesh out the figure.

Enigmatic image, rightUsing just the sidelight, thebackground drops away.The resulting increase incontrast produces anenigmatic, intimate image.

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•For a silhouette, takeyour light reading frombrightest part of frame.

•Brief the life modelbeforehand not towear tight clothing thatmay leave marks onthe skin.

Gray background paper

Board to preventlight from strayingand weakening the effect

Flash head with snoot attachment

gives a narrowbeam of light

White reflectorboard bounces light onto front

of the subject

Power pack formain light

Synchronization leadruns from camera tomain power pack

6 x 6cm camera on a low tripodwith a 120mm long-focus lens islevel with the seated model

Cable release

LIGHTING THE HUMAN FIGURE

PHOTO SET-UP: Directional sidelightingThe background lights used for the silhouette on theopposite page remain the same, but a third flash is added.This flash unit has a snoot attachment and is pointed at awhite reflector board to bounce a narrow beam of lightonto the figure.The reflector softens the lighting effect.

Flash lighting unitwith umbrellareflector lightsbackground

112 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES; PORTRAITS

NATURAL LIGHTING FOR THE NUDEThe essential requirement for a photographicsession with a life model is guaranteedprivacy. This may be difficult if you wish touse an outdoor setting, but a secluded gardenor quiet beach may make suitable locations ifthere are not too many curious onlookers.

Photographing a life model in an indoorsetting does not mean that you have to useflash (see page 110). If you have access to abright, sunny room with a large window orskylight, a wide range of subtle effects ispossible using only natural daylight. Artists’studios are traditionally positioned so thatthey receive light from a bright, open skyrather than from direct sunlight, and this typeof reflected light is the most sympatheticwhen photographing the human figure.

DIGITAL SOLUTIONS

It is often worth tryingto make the skintonecolor slightly warmerthan in reality.This canbe achieved by settingthe manual whitebalance to a cloudyrather than a daylightsetting, to tweak theelectronic filtration.

PHOTO SET-UP: Natural light sourceThis bright room benefits from a large window. Normally,the bigger the light source, the less contrasty the lightingeffect. But by positioning the model in front of the glass,the exposure difference between the lit and unlit areasmakes for dramatic pictures that emphasize form.

Model’s gracefullycurved body contrastswith the angularity ofthe window frame

Bright reading, oppositeAs well as lighting, theaperture and shutter speedcan also be important.Exposure for this darkerimage is taken from theview outside. The model is now silhouetted.

Low camera angleemphasizes theimmediate foreground

6 x 6cm cameraon a tripod withan 80mm lens

Shadow reading, aboveA wall of light floods pastthe model, softening heroutline; exposure is judgedfrom a dark area on herleg, and the highlights areallowed to burn out.

NATURAL LIGHTING FOR THE NUDE 113


CREATING ABSTRACT NUDE IMAGESWhen viewed through a camera, the humanfigure can be seen as a series of interactingabstract shapes. Variations in muscular tensionin a model’s body may seem minor whenlooking at the whole figure, but when fillingthe frame with a single area such as a torso orupper arm, every little detail is important.

LONG-FOCUS OR WIDE-ANGLE LENS

Choice of camera position and focal length arevital considerations. Long-focus lenses have arestricted angle of view and facilitate cropping.Extreme long-focus lenses flatten the subject,robbing it of clearly differentiated planes,while a wide-angle lens can cause curiousdistortions, exaggerating depth and distance.

PHOTO SET-UP: Lighting for formBy positioning the model on the windowsill, the curve of her back and buttocks receives direct illumination.In contrast, her front and her lower body below thewindowsill are all in heavy shadow and would require a longer exposure time to bring out additional detail.

6 x 6cm camera ona tripod with a 150mmlong-focus lens

Lighting contrast, leftThis image uses lightingcontrast, rather than lensfocal length, to highlightparts of the model’s body.Her hair is also hangingforward, casting her faceinto dark shadow.

Angular form, aboveAsking the model to bringher arm across her bodycreates a sense of diagonalmovement. Excluding themodel’s head focusesattention on the abstractangularity of the form.

Window provides the onlyillumination for the room

CREATING ABSTRACT NUDE IMAGES 115

Abstract formAs the life model leansagainst the wall, thecontours of her arms,shoulders, and back create an effect thatemphasizes abstract formand textural contrasts more than her nudity.

Lenses to isolateLonger focal-length lensesare useful when you wantto fill the frame with just asmall aspect of the figure.In this picture a long-focuslens is used to isolate themodel’s back.


Diffused natural light, leftDaylight is diffused through a blind to reveal both the textureand form of this reclining nude.6 x 6cm camera, 80mm lens,Tri-X Pan, f16, 1/8 sec.

Tonal definition, below leftSuperb tonal range and definitionresult from an overhead skylight.6 x 7cm camera, 80mm lens,Tri-X Pan, f22, 1/60 sec.

Selective light, belowA tungsten spotlight illuminates the model’s arm and side.6 x 6cm camera, 120mm lens,Plus-X, f32, 1/500 sec.

Candid nude, oppositeLost in her own thoughts, themodel seems unaware of thecamera. Natural light gives a moody, low-key result.6 x 7cm camera, 80mm lens,HP5 Plus, f11, 1/125 sec.

Floodlit form, aboveThe lighting for this detail comesfrom a 500-watt floodlight.Tungstenlights allow you to see the highlightsand shadows before shooting.6 x 6cm camera, 150mm lens,Tri-X Pan, f16, 1/60 sec.


The bond that exists between a mother andher newborn child is an enduring theme forphotographers. Capturing those feelings oftrust and intimacy is easiest when you arephotographing members of your own family.With patience you should be able to recordnatural, spontaneous images, especially ifyou stay alert to the baby’s shifts in mood.

UNPOSED BABY PORTRAITS

Babies and young children cannot be directedor persuaded to stay still while you composethe shot in the viewfinder. Always enlist thehelp of the mother to keep the baby relaxedand happy and to divert its attention awayfrom the camera. With portraits it is usual totake more pictures than you think you willneed, but when working with babies youshould show greater restraint. Constantlyflashing lights, even when heavily diffused,are likely to upset a young baby.

PHOTO SET-UP: Soft lightingBounced light from an umbrella reflector produces diffusedlight to emphasize the softness of the baby’s skin.The simplebackground does not compete for the viewer’s attention.

Open affection, belowA happy and relaxed poseshows the mother’s naturalpride and is complementedby slightly subdued lighting.

Private moment, aboveThe reflector is used tobrighten the shadows andcreate a gentle gradation oftones without losing detail.

Draped, softly foldedmuslin is used as abackdrop to create an intimate setting

Wide-angle flashhead is directed

at backdrop

Reflector returnslight and keepsshadows from

becoming dark

6 x 6cmcamera on atripod with a120mm lens

Main flash unit forthe mother and child;its effect is softenedby bouncing it froman umbrella reflector

Synchronization leadlinks the power pack to the camera

Cable release

Individual powerpack for each lightminimizes the needfor cables runningacross the set

PORTRAYING A MOTHER AND CHILD

PORTRAYING A MOTHER AND CHILD 119

PHOTO SET-UP: Baby portraitsUsing a long lens allows you to take close-up portraitswithout altering the camera position.The flash lights andreflectors are positioned to concentrate on the baby.

USING A LONG LENSAlthough long lenses result in large images of small or distant subjects, they do notnecessarily give you the feeling of standingup close to the person being photographed.The longer the lens, the more obvious thiseffect becomes. For an intimate picture, it isoften best to move in closer, if the subject iseasily accessible, and to use a standard lens (see pages 16 –17). With a young baby,however, moving in too close with a cameracould seem threatening. You may, therefore,need to strike a balance between the idealfocal length and what a young subject seemsmost comfortable with.

LIGHTING AND FRAMING FLEXIBILITY

A bonus of working with a long lens is thatsince you are farther back from your subject,you have more flexibility in where you canplace lights and reflectors. You can positionlights close to the subject without danger ofcasting a shadow by partially blocking them.If you have a zoom lens, you will be able to adjust framing, without changing position,to ensure that unwanted parts of the set areexcluded from the shot.

Close-ups of baby, aboveThese close-ups are linkedby the repetition of gentlyrounded forms, the soft,directional lighting, and thecontrast in scale providedby the mother’s hands.

Intimate detail, rightFor this scene, a long-focuslens produces a detailedclose-up. The tight framingexcludes unwanted details,and lighting is easier tocontrol over a small area.

Draped muslinbackground

Flash unit andumbrella reflector

is lowered so asnot to put too

much toplightingon the seated

figures

6 x 6cm camera on atripod with a 150mm

long-focus lens


Cable release

Power pack

White cardboardreflector panel

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•A zoom lens gives you flexibility in framing shots.

•Keep sessions short to minimize possible distress,and allow time for breaks to rest the child.

•A slightly longer lens allows you to take detailedclose-ups without intruding too close.

•Include the mother's hands in shots to highlight thedifference in scale and skin texture between subjects.

•Soft, diffused lighting is best to capture the skintones of both mother and child.


TAKING CHILDREN’S PORTRAITSPhotographing children requires patienceand a sense of humor. In a studio, the space and equipment will all be new andfascinating, and children may well want totouch and ask questions about everything.For good results, try to make the photosession fun – let them look through thecamera viewfinder, for example, and answer their questions about what you are doing and why as fully as possible, even while you are shooting.

CAMERA AND LIGHTING EQUIPMENT

Children rarely sit still, so do not try torestrict their movements too much or theymay become bored and uncooperative. Flashlighting units should be set to give a broadarea of even light, perhaps positioned eitherside of the set. You will have to be asmobile as your subjects, and a hand-heldcamera fitted with a telephoto zoom lens will allow you most freedom of movement.

Framing the shotA long lens allows you to photograph your subjectwithout moving in tooclose. A zoom lens offersgreater flexibility – youcan fill the frame with achild’s smiling expression(above) or achieve a moreformal result as in the half-length portrait (left).

Full-length portraitA battered skateboard givesthe boy something to leanon and adds informality to

this full-length portrait.

PHOTO SET-UP: Lighting a large setWide-angle flash lighting units fitted with softboxdiffusers give almost shadowless light over thewhole set.The lights are positioned low down tosuit the height of the subject and the cameraviewpoint is set at the child’s eye level.

A wide background is createdby draping a curtain of muslin

at the back of the set

Wide-angle flash lighting units arepositioned on either side of the

set to give broad frontal illumination


Wide-angle flashlighting unit

Each light ispowered byan individualpower pack

Power pack

Hand-held 35mmcamera with a zoom lens

TAKING CHILDREN’S PORTRAITS 121

WORKING WITH CHILDRENA 35mm camera is ideal for photographingchildren since it is lightweight and easy tooperate. With a young subject you have towork quickly, and there is little time to focusor to adjust the exposure for each frame.Count on using more film than normal tocover inevitable framing and focusing errors.Many children enjoy having their picturetaken, however, the presence of a parent orother adult family member will give a childextra confidence. A parent can alsoencourage or entertain a child from behindthe camera to provoke laughter and smiles.

PROVIDING TOYS AND GAMES

A young child gets bored very easily and has a short attention span. You will need asupply of toys or other props, such as booksand games, on hand to provide entertainment.With an interesting toy or a colorful picturebook, children will soon become absorbedin what they are doing and forget about thepresence of the camera.

Candid approach, belowYou must work quicklysince a child will not staystill for long. Dancing tomusic, this three-year-oldgirl soon forgot about thelights and camera.

Center of attention, rightThis child’s debut in frontof the camera is facilitatedby her glove puppet. Withher prop, she spent anenjoyable 15 minutes asthe center of attention.

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•Talk to the child constantly, taking an interest inwhat he or she is saying to put the child at ease.

•Make sure cables, switches, and expensive cameraequipment are safely kept out of harm’s way.

•Kneel so that the camera is at the child’s eye level.

•Lights need to be positioned lower than normal.


Focusing on the eyes,aboveWhen shooting with naturallight indoors, you areusually forced to use thewidest apertures that thecamera has available.Thismeans there is little depthof field. In order to ensurethat the portrait lookssharp, focus on the subject’seyes rather than any otherpart of the face or body.Digital SLR, 28–80mmzoom lens, ISO 200, f5.6,1/60 sec.

Shooting at eye level,right & far rightFor natural shots ofchildren, take the cameradown to their eye level,rather than tilting the lens.Kneel if necessary.Digital SLR, 28–80mmzoom lens, ISO 200, f5.6,1/60 sec.

CHILDREN’S PORTRAIT GALLERY 123

Relaxing the subject,rightThis little boy wasuncooperative at thebeginning of the shoot.Adding his sister to thecomposition helped to relax him, and kept him inone place long enough totake his picture.Digital SLR, 28–80mmzoom lens, ISO 200, f2.8,1/125 sec.

Helpful distractions,top & aboveA grudging, unhappy childwill make an unphotogenicportrait. Having a parentjust out of shot, reassuringand entertaining the child,can be helpful for achievinga relaxed, natural pose.Digital SLR, 28–80mmzoom lens, ISO 200, f5.6,1/60 sec.

124 HOW TO TAK E BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS

PHOTOGRAPHING CHILDREN AT PLAYLeave nearly any group of children to theirown devices and within a few minutes theywill have invented some sort of game toplay. Young children make ideal subjects forinformal, candid photographs, and olderchildren can also make cooperative models ifyou want a more formal portrait (see page120). The attraction of working with childrenis their boundless energy, enthusiasm, andconstantly changing expressions and moods.

RECORDING CANDID IMAGES

Once the photo session starts, it is often bestto keep well on the periphery of the children’sactivity. Children tend to behave morenaturally if you are out of immediate sight. To avoid distant shots with the children verysmall in the frame, use a long-focus or zoomlens with a range that allows you to fill theframe with the entire group or an individual.Use a fast shutter speed and fast film if youtake shots of children on the move.

DIGITAL SOLUTIONS

•Take lots of shots to ensure you capturea wide variety ofexpressions and poses.Weaker shots can bedeleted later.

•If taking pictures fora family web page,shoot at highresolution, then resizefor the Internet later.Successful shots canthen also be printed, aswell as being used foron-screen images.

PHOTO SET-UP: Candid actionA quiet beach makes an ideal location for photographingchildren. By squatting down you can position the cameraat the children’s eye level (below), whereas by taking theshot from a standing position (above), you can show thechildren against a plain background.

Hand-held 35mmcamera with an 85mmlong-focus lens allowsfreedom of movement

Subjects areabsorbed in play andpay no attention tothe camera

Sand castles, aboveA high camera viewpointkeeps the children and thecircle of sand castles frombecoming confused withthe breakwater visible inthe set-up picture. Thebright colors of the pailsand spade give a color liftthat helps to compensatefor the flat lighting.

PHOTOGRAPHING CHILDREN AT PLAY 125

Sports sequence, aboveThese four pictures takenin rapid succession show acomplete action sequence.The boy prepares to hitthe ball, makes contact,swings the bat, and startsto run. Fast film was usedbecause of the poornatural light.

Captured action, rightThis shot captures thepeak of action as the boyruns to first base. Anaperture of f16 ensuressufficient depth of field,and a fast shutter speed of 1/500 is used to freezemost movement andovercome camera shake.

Facial expression, aboveChanging to a lowercamera angle and closefocusing with a zoom lensshows the children’sexcitement on finding acrab. The tight framingemphasizes the boys’friendly relationship.

Hand-held 35mm camerawith a 70–210mm zoom lensis not too bulky to carry andis also powerful enough tobring one figure up large inthe frame

PHOTO SET-UP: Baseball gameThe priority in photographing this baseball game is tofind the best camera position to photograph the boywith the bat. It is important to keep far enough back soas not to interfere with the game.This means using along-focus lens and selecting a fast shutter speed tofreeze the action.

Boy with the bat isthe main subject


Fancy dress, above & belowChildren love to dress up, and having a collection of masks to hand can help you get a selection ofunusual portraits at a family gathering or party.Digital SLR, 14–54mm zoom lens, ISO 200,f4, 1/125 sec.

Change of character, rightMasks not only add color andshape to a shot, they often havean effect on the wearer’spersonality, helping you tocapture unusual expressions.Digital SLR, 14–54mm zoomlens, ISO 200, f4, 1/60 sec.

CHILDREN AT PLAY GALLERY 127

Masks of menace, rightMasks strip away the visualidentity of the peoplewearing them.The effect of the transformation canoften be quite dramatic.Digital SLR, 14–54mmzoom lens, ISO 200, f4,1/60 sec.

128 HOW TO TAK E BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS

FREEZING A MOVING FIGUREWhen using flash lighting as your sole orprincipal source of illumination, you can take advantage of its movement-stoppingcharacteristics to create unusual actionportraits that are full of “frozen” energy.

ARRESTING MOVEMENT

If, for example, you were to use a flash-synchronization speed of 1/125 second at f8,your subject would be recorded by light fromthe flash alone (without flash, a shutter speedof 1/30 or 1/15 second would be necessaryfor correct exposure). The “freezing” power of this technique stems from the fact that flash units – studio units, add-on flashguns, or built-in types found on some SLRs andcompact cameras – deliver a burst of light of short duration. The longest flash durationfrom a small unit might be only 1/1000second, while larger units might deliver lightin 1/10,000 second bursts – brief enough tostop any normal subject in its tracks.

DIGITAL SOLUTIONS

•The delay betweenpressing the shutterand the shot beingtaken can be muchlonger on some digitalcameras than others.This can make takingaction shots difficult.Focusing manually canhelp shorten the delay.

•Digital cameras taketime to write the dataafter a shot is taken, socontinuous shooting isnot always possible.

PHOTO SET-UP: Capturing the momentFour flash units are needed to light this large set, but it is possible to create similar effects using a single flash unitin a smaller room with neutral-colored walls and ceiling.

Anticipating the actionTo capture the dancer inmid-leap with his legsperfectly horizontalrequires anticipation so youcan release the shutter atexactly the right moment.

Plain white background doesnot detract attention from thesubjects and is a good surface

to bounce the light off

Subjects wear brightly coloredclothing and are positioned toward the rear of the set

Front flash lighting unit with alarge softbox diffuser provides

direct, diffused illumination overthe whole set

Second flash unit with largesoftbox diffuser providesadditional soft light

Cablerelease

6 x 6cm camera with an80mm standard lens seton a low tripod

Rear flash lighting unitincreases overall lightlevels and bounces light off the whitebackdrop to produce a bright background

Singlepowerpack


FREEZING A MOVING FIGURE 129

Dynamic portrait, leftThe brief burst of flashlighting from the two unitson either side of the set has perfectly captured themodel – her hair is framingher face, her expression isgood, and her skirt andposture convey interrupted,frozen movement.

Shooting rate, aboveYou need to shoot a lot offilm since there is no wayof predicting the results atthe instant when the flashfires. A motor drive allowsyou to take a continuoussequence of exposureswith a firing rate of severalframes per second.

PHOTO SET-UP: Freezing action To create an even spread of light, the flash units on eitherside of the model are fitted with umbrella reflectors andplaced in front of diffusing panels made of heavyweighttracing paper.The set above is smaller than the one onthe opposite page, so fewer flash units are required.

6 x 6cmcamera with

an 80mm lens

Power pack

Flash lightingunit withumbrellareflector


Colored backdropfor contrast withblue dress

Diffusing panelsscatter light,

creating a moresubtle effect


EMPHASIZING MOVEMENTMovement can be recorded in two ways. You can freeze a moving subject by using afast shutter speed (see page 128), or you canrecord a more indistinct, blurred image togive a different impression of the action.

CREATING A GHOST IMAGE

To record blurred and frozen detail on thesame frame, select an aperture and shutterspeed combination (the recommended flash-synchronization speed or one slower) whichwould result in detail being recorded even ifflash were not used. If, for example, you setan aperture of f11 and a shutter speed of1/15 second, the flash would fire a burst oflight lasting, say, 1/1000 second when youpressed the shutter release, but the subjectwould continue to move and be recorded onfilm for all of the 1/15 second exposure.

Ghostly dancer, oppositeThe ghostly image on theopposite page was shot atf16 and 1/4 second – theslowest shutter speed inthe entire sequence.

Evocative imageryThe first image of thedancer (right) was shot atf11 and 1/15 second, whilethe second (far right) wasshot at f11 and 1/8 second.

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•Lights should be setto isolate the subjectfrom the background.

•Ambient light levelsmust be kept high.

•Subtle blurring of animage may be lost ifbackground is well lit.

•Try experimentingwith different shutterspeeds and exposures.

PHOTO SET-UP: Blurred imageIf ambient lighting is sufficiently high at the slow shutterspeeds used, a secondary image records after the flasheshave fired.The slower the shutter speed, the moreobvious the secondary ghost image becomes.

Flash unit fitted with barn-door attachment

to highlight the dancer’sskirt and arms

Plain white background isunlit so that subjectblurring is more apparent

6 x 6cm cameraon a low tripodwith an 80mm

standard lens

Cable release

Power pack

Single flash unit with a largesoftbox diffuser providesdiffused illumination over

the whole set

EMPHASIZING MOVEMENT 131


PHOTOGRAPHING SPORTS ACTIONThe key to taking successful sports actionphotographs is anticipation. Find the mostsuitable camera position before the eventstarts and then try to interpret how the actionwill develop so that you can be ready withthe camera. Good results are also more likelyif you are familiar with the rules of play.

USING A LONG-FOCUS LENS

The most effective action shots are those inwhich the subject appears large in the frame;the impact will be lost if you can barely seethe action. For most field events, a lens witha focal length of 200mm or longer is ideal,but for close-ups of players in mid-field, a500mm lens may be necessary.

PHOTO SET-UP:American footballThe photographer kneels at the sidelines, near the action.A motor drive attachment on the camera automaticallyadvances the film at a rate of three to four frames persecond, allowing shots to be taken in quick succession.

Fast action sequence, aboveA camera with a motor drive allows you to takedramatic shots, such as this. A sequence of shotscan be taken of a particular move, which canhelp ensure you capture the decisive moment.The small amount of blur due to subjectmovement imparts a sense of action.

Football players aremoving toward thecamera position

35mm camerawith 200mm long-focus lens andmotor driveattachment

Kneeling positionclose to groundlevel gives adramatic viewpoint

DIGITAL SOLUTIONS

A digital camera hasno film to wind on.Whether a rapidsequence can be takendepends on the size ofthe buffer memory,which temporarilystores data before it issaved permanently. A“burst” rate will onlybe available for alimited number ofshots, and at certainresolution settings.

PHOTOGRAPHING SPORTS ACTION 133

Panned action, aboveYou can increase the sense of excitementin an action photograph by panning thecamera to produce streaks and blurs thatexaggerate the impression of movement.This photograph conveys the urgency ofthe football player’s situation as anotherplayer sprints to tackle him.

Frozen action, belowAlthough this frozen-action photographpresents the subject in a very unnaturalway, it depicts the power and athleticismof the player who is frozen in mid-air. Theplain background serves to emphasize thefigures of the players and the two levels ofaction – in the air and on the ground.

Shutterreleasebutton

Lens

Detachablemotordrive unit

MOTOR DRIVE

Many modern 35mm SLRs have autowinders or motor drives built in to the basic camera.Professional cameras, however, have separate unitsthat are attached to the base of the camera.Thesesturdy units can be set simply to advance the filmafter each exposure or to take up to four frames asecond, depending on the selected shutter speed.Some models can also be programed to take shotsat preset intervals. Remember that at four framesper second a 36-exposure film will last only nineseconds. Use continuous exposure settings in shortbursts when shooting dramatic action sequences.

Flash hot shoe


PHOTOGRAPHING ACTION SEQUENCESA long telephoto lens is essential for manysports, but is not always easy to use withaction subjects. Long lenses provide limiteddepth of field, which means that accuratefocusing is crucial. However, as the distanceof the moving subject is continually changing,keeping the image sharp is difficult.

One solution is to pre-focus on a point youknow the subject will pass through, and thenshoot when the subject reaches this point.However, many 35mm and digital SLRs nowfeature autofocus modes that help focus on amoving subject. A predictive AF system notonly continually refocuses on the subject untilthe trigger is fired, it adjusts the lens up to themoment the shutter actually opens, bymeasuring the subject’s speed and direction.

Long telephoto settingsprovide little depth offield, so accurate, fast

focusing is essential

Camera is handheld so thateach shot can be composedquickly and moved to follow

the polo ponies

PHOTO SET-UP: Polo at St. Moritz, SwitzerlandThe large playing area, and the fast-moving action, makepolo a difficult sport to photograph, but the digital cameraused had a predictive autofocus system that could lockonto the moving subject.

Digital SLR with 50–200mm zoom lens

PHOTOGRAPHING ACTION SEQUENCES 135

Multiple shots, leftOne of the difficulties of photographing fieldsports is that howevercarefully you choose yourviewpoint, the player withthe ball is frequentlyobscured by other playerson the pitch. When a clearview becomes available, itis wise to take as manyshots as possible. Thesequence should be sharplyrecorded with a predictiveautofocus system.

Wide approach, rightAlthough the range ofshots that can be taken arelimited, it is possible totake pictures of sport witha wide-angle lens. Theappeal of this picture isthat it not only shows aclose-up of the action, butalso the large frozen lakeon which this polotournament is played and the alpine scenery that surrounds it.

DIGITAL SOLUTIONS

Some digital camerasare slower to reactthan film cameras –with a delay as the on-board camera preparesitself for taking thepicture, and taking timeto write the image tofile. Setting a lowerresolution will improvethe camera’s reactions.


TimingA poolside camera position andcareful timing of the shot capturesthe swimmer’s facial expression.35mm camera, 135mm lens,Ektachrome 200, f8, 1/250 sec.

Peak of actionThis boy is photographed at the topof his jump, before gravity takes overand he falls back to earth.35mm camera, 70mm lens,Kodachrome 100, f22, 1/125 sec.

Viewpoint, leftThe right viewpoint is often thevital ingredient of a good actionphotograph. If taken from theriverside, this canoeist would beobscured by spray.An overheadviewpoint shows his descentdownstream in a dramatic fashion.35mm camera, 135mm lens,Ektachrome 100, f8, 1/500 sec.

Roundup, aboveWhen you are on vacation look forexciting action images that capturethe spirit of the country you arevisiting.This shot of a roundup ofwild horses in the Australianoutback is given atmosphere by the swirling dust.6 x 6cm camera, 80mm lens,Ektachrome 200, f16, 1/250 sec.


Direction of movementBy adopting a camera positionhead-on to the action, a relativelyslow shutter speed is used tofreeze movement. If the hurdlerhad been photographed from theside, a faster shutter speed of atleast 1/250 second would beneeded to get a sharp image.35mm camera, 250mm lens,Kodachrome 200, f22, 1/125 sec.

PanningA plume of water, kicked up asthe water skier changes direction,adds drama and excitement tothis shot.To keep the rapidlymoving subject in focus, it isnecessary to pan the camera,resulting in the slight blurring ofthe background scenery despitethe very brief shutter speed used.35mm camera, 500mm lens,Ektachrome 100, f8, 1/500 sec.

138 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: STILL LIFE

STILL LIFE

LightingSee pages 142–143

Still life themesSee pages 144–145

Outside still lifeSee pages 146–147

Found still lifeSee pages 150–151

Arranging a still lifeA still life is an object or group of objects,which is usually arranged as the subject for apicture. Because the subject is inanimate, youcan concentrate more than is usually possibleon the lighting and composition. Setting upyour own still life can be rewarding, since youhave total control over the selection andarrangement of the objects. It is advisable tobegin with one object and gradually build up acomposition in which the various parts relate toeach other. The items used should not beselected arbitrarily, but should fit into a theme –for example, objects from a certain place or aparticular period. The essential point is tocollect as many props as possible. Gathereverything you may want to incorporate andkeep it on a table beside you while you work.This allows you to develop your compositioncarefully, one piece at a time.

Found still lifeThese are compositions that occur naturallyaround you, and “found” still life photographswill demonstrate your ability to see goodpictures in day-to-day life. A collection ofobjects in a shop window, for example, maystrike you because of their overallarrangement, or the unusual nature of theitems. And the natural world abounds withfound still life possibilities, from driftwood ona beach, to a pile of fallen apples.

Photographing foodSimple ingredients such as fresh vegetablesand exotic fruits offer a sensuousness and avariety of color and texture not found in otherinanimate objects. Food photography is athriving area of commercial photography andprofessionals use special techniques forenhancing the appearance of food.

Photographing a still life can serve as an exercise in skilland creativity, honing your understanding of compositionand the effects of lighting on objects. Like a painter, thephotographer can use a still life picture to communicateideas of color, form, tone, texture, and composition.

STILL LIFE SET-UPThe equipment shown here comprises an ideal set-up for photographing a still lifesubject. A single diffused light is sufficient toprovide overall illumination, as all theshadows should fall in the same direction.Ideally, this single flash unit should be fittedwith a softbox diffuser to soften the effect. Use a flash unit with a built-in modeling light, if possible, so you can see how the shadows fall.You will also need a reflector to bounce light into the shadows for overall illumination.

Light sourceA single flash unit is

the light source for this set-up.The

flash head ispositioned at

about 90° to the still life

Softbox diffuserThe front of

the diffuser is covered with

semi-transparentmaterial, softening

the light and diffusing it over a large area

Light standAdjustable standallows you toexperiment withthe light atdifferent heightsuntil you get thedesired effect

Power packThe flash unit is

powered by a 3,000-joule power pack.

Light output can be varied in

one-stop increments

Synchronization leadThis links the camera and the

flash unit’s power pack, triggeringthe flash to fire in time with the

shutter release

STILL LIFE 139

EQUIPMENT

•Roll film

•Range of standard,wide-angle, and long-focus lenses


•Cable release

•Flash lighting unit

•Softbox diffuser

•Power pack

Still life groupThis still life is theresult of the set-up

below. Soft, directionallight from the diffuseron the left-hand sidesuggests natural light

from a window.

OVERHEAD VIEW

TripodThis allows you to check the compositionin the viewfinder

Cable releaseThis releases the shutter,reducing the risk of camerashake from hand contact

Prop collectionA variety of objects allows you to experiment withseveral different arrangements

Still life surfaceThe surface on which youarrange the still life shouldbe away from the walls sothat you can position thelights to best advantage

White card reflectorA simple reflector bounces lightback into the shadowy areas.There should not be anyaccidental shadows

ClampTo support the

background, youcan use a clamp

attached to a free-standing pole

Background This should harmonize withthe still life withoutdominating it.The texture ofthis white board adds interest

Camera and film6 x 6cm camera with a 120mm long-focuslens, loaded with ISO

100 film. It is set sothat the lens is level

with the still life

White cardreflector

Lightsource

2ft(65cm)

11⁄2ft(49cm)

Table withadditional

props

Still life subject

Camera


COMPOSING A STILL LIFEFor a successful still life you have to establishsome sort of link between the objects used inthe composition. This link could be a theme– the objects on this page are all typical of apastoral lifestyle and could have been foundon a farmhouse pantry shelf.

BUILDING UP A COMPOSITION

Most still life pictures are built up element by element. Begin with the most importantobject, viewing it through the camera andadjusting its position until you are satisfied.Then add the second component, and againcheck the image through the viewfinder. Inthis way you can build up your arrangementpiece by piece, making minor adjustmentsuntil you are satisfied with the result.

Finished still life, belowThe final addition is a smallwooden pestle. Its positionkeeps the gaze from beingdrawn to the gap at thebottom. It also reintroducesthe warmth and texture ofthe wood of the storagecontainer, which hadbecome slightly obscured.

A wooden storage containeris the starting point.

A blue bottle is positionedto provide balance.

A wire basket filled witheggs confers warmth.

A weathered lamp givescharacter to the composition.

Adding an old copper potanchors the still life.

COMPOSING A STILL LIFE 141

Triangular group, leftA group of bottles definesthe apex of a triangle, aclassic compositionalshape. The bottle at therear acts as a visual anchor,and the similar shapes andtextures of all the bottlesgive the image unity.

ANALYZING A STILL LIFEA collection of still life objects arranged for thecamera should have shared attributes such asshape, color, form, and texture. When youstart to take note of these qualities as well asthe more obvious thematic connections, yourcreative scope is widened immeasurably.

BALANCE AND HARMONY

The most difficult part of creating a still lifearrangement is knowing when it is complete. Afinished composition should have balance andharmony. The objects should be organized sothat they emphasize, rather than detract from,the main focal point. Creating a balanced stilllife composition is instinctive, but you willrecognize it when your eye is drawn from oneobject to the next, with the characteristics ofeach adding to your pleasure in the next.

Shape and pattern, aboveThe repeated shapes offork and spade handlesleaning against a fencecreate a strong pattern inthis still life picture.

Simple grouping, aboveThe appeal of this simplestill life is the wealth ofdetail visible on the twowooden objects as well as their strong shapes.

Placement and balanceAlthough these bottlesappear to be arranged in a haphazard fashion on the shelf, they have beendeliberately placed so thatthe densest mass sits in the central portion of thepicture frame.


LIGHTING A STILL LIFEHow you undertake the lighting for a still life depends largely on the elements making up the composition and the degree oftranslucency, solidity, or color saturation youwant them to take on in the finalphotograph. Generally soft lighting comingdirectly from in front of the camera will havea form-flattening effect, and results mayappear two-dimensional. In contrast,sidelighting tends to enhance the surfacecharacteristics of objects, but shadows maybe cast that obscure surface detail.

OVER- AND UNDERLIGHTING

Overlighting by directing a lot of harsh lightat the subject lightens the “visual weight” ofthe subject elements, but it may also causecolors to appear less saturated and weak.Conversely, underlighting by restricting theamount of light reaching the subject maymake objects appear heavier and more solid,and colors, too, may appear darker andstronger. By introducing secondary lights,reflectors, or diffusers, myriad subtle ordramatic lighting effects can be achieved.

PHOTO SET-UP: Directional lightA white-painted textured board directly behind thebottles makes a visually interesting backdrop. Lighting is provided by a single flash unit fitted with a softboxdiffuser and positioned to one side of the glass bottles, pointing slightly downward. On the far side of the group a reflector throws back some of the light and so lessens the exposure difference between one side of the group and the other.

Textured white boardmakes an interesting yetsimple background

Form and modelingDiffused sidelighting and areflector, combined with atextured backdrop thatalso reflects some of thelight, highlight the formand modeling to produce asubtle gradation of tone.

Table with selection ofprops to be added to thearrangement if required

6 x 6cm camera on a tripodwith a long-focus 120mm lens,which makes it possible to shootfrom farther back, lessening thechance of the image appearingas a reflection in the surfaces ofthe bottles

Reflector positioned on theshadow side of the compositionmakes the exposure more evenacross the whole arrangement

Lighting head fitted with adiffuser ensures that reflections

on the glass bottles are notintense enough to pick up

reflections from the flash andother nearby objects

Power pack is used to power the

single flash unit

LIGHTING A STILL LIFE 143

Backlighting, topLit from behind, the surfacecharacteristics of the glassdisappear. The silhouette ofeach bottle is defined by adark line. The red stoppernow appears nearly black.

Varying light, leftThe textured board directlybehind the glass bottles isremoved for this sequenceof three photographs. Thisleaves the white-paintedwalls at the back of the setas the effective background.Then, for each shot, thelight output from the flashis gradually increased toproduce progressivelylighter images.

Color saturation, far leftIn the darkest image in the sequence, you can seeimmediately that the glassbottles appear more solidand heavier than in lighterversions. Note, too, that asthe image darkens the redstopper on the bottle onthe right seems darker andthe color more saturated.

Combined lighting, aboveA flashgun fired from thecamera position gives softfrontal illumination to theglass bottles. Backlightingpredominates, but someform has been reinstated.

PHOTO SET-UP:Transmitted lightFlash lighting is directed at the white background behindthe glass bottles so that they are defined solely by thelight transmitted through them (left and bottom left).Theshape of the bottles becomes the principal element.

Cable release

The still life should be checkedthrough the viewfinder before

the shutter is released

White walls at the backof the set reflect back

light from the flash

Flash heads haveumbrella reflectorsand are directed at white backdrop to bounce back alarge area of veryeven illumination

6 x 6cm camera on a tripod with a120mm lens

Synchronizationlead


SELECTING STILL LIFE THEMESWorking with inanimate objects allows youtime to select suitable subjects, to find themost appropriate background, to position thelights if using flash, and to make any subtlecorrections to the composition. All of this canbe carried out at your own pace, withouthaving to worry about the comfort of a model.

CHOOSING ELEMENTS

Look for some aspect that unifies the items ina composition. This could be texture, function,color, shape, or age. A suitable backgroundand sympathetic lighting are also important. Inthe pictures on these pages the high-key(light-toned) composition is lit by bright,reflected light, and the low-key (dark-toned)one is illuminated by daylight and fill-in flash.

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•Nearly all still lifephotography requiresthe use of a tripod.

•For a high-key stilllife, provide sufficientillumination so thatthere is only about aone-stop differencebetween the mainhighlights and thedeepest shadows.

•When shootingwith a digital camera,use the LCD screento check the lighting,composition, andexposure of yourselected image in asimilar way to how aprofessional would usea Polaroid back.Unlike film cameras,however, if the digitalimage is a successthere is no need toshoot a final version.

PHOTO SET-UP: High-key still lifeFor this simple still life study, the colorand reflective nature of the objectsdictate the lighting used.To achieve thedesired high-key effect, a broad spreadof reflected, indirect light from a wide-angle flash head is angled toward theceiling and another light is reflected bya white-painted board positioned tothe left of the objects.

Wide-angled flash headpoints at the junction ofthe ceiling and back wall

to give a variety oftoplight angles

White, plastered walldoes not compete forattention, but provides

a contrast in texturewith the smooth

surface of the objects

Objects are linked bytheir white coloring,rounded shapes, and

enameled texture

Single power packis the power

source for bothlighting units

6 x 6cm camera with a120mm long-focus lens

Secondary flash head isdirected mainly at a reflectorbut its light also spills overand reflects onto the subjectfrom the rear wall

Adjustable tripod can bepositioned at appropriateheight for still life

Light compositionAlthough composed almostentirely of white, there issufficient tonal variation to

separate the enameled potsfrom their surroundings,while the black rims givebalance and contrast.

SELECTING STILL LIFE THEMES 145

PHOTO SET-UP: Low-key still lifeThis antique kettle and range require additionalillumination since there is not much natural daylight in thekitchen.This lighting is provided by a silver reflector on theobject’s shadow side (to reflect the available windowlight) and a boost of indirect light from a flashgun.

Hand-held flashgun directed at thewall bounces light onto the objects

35mm camera with a100mm lens is set on amanually timed exposure

Adjustable tripod

Dark compositionAn antique kettle andrange make an ideal low-key still life subject.Lighting is also low-key,which suits the subject.Even with added light froma flashgun, an aperture off16 requires a long shutterspeed of two seconds.

Objects to be included inthe next still life shot are

ready and prepared nearby

Silver reflector is positionedopposite the window to reflect soft

light onto the kettle’s shadow side

Adjustable tripod


TAKING OUTSIDE STILL LIFEThe main advantage of working outdoors liesin the range of backgrounds and settings youhave at your disposal. Indoor settings tend tobe cluttered and the decor may compete withthe subject. Photographing a subject outsideallows you more space to find a setting thatmakes a positive contribution to the shot.

WORKING IN NATURAL LIGHT

The disadvantage of photographing a still lifeoutdoors lies in the diminished control youhave over lighting. Working inside, you canposition lights and reflectors at will, andbounce light off the walls and ceiling.Outside, however, you are reliant on naturallight – either direct sunlight or, preferably, anovercast sky. You can influence the lightingquality by using reflectors to redirect lightinto the subject’s shadows and so lessencontrast, or you can use a flashgun to addhighlights or raise the level of exposure.

PHOTO SET-UP: Still life with vegetablesThe vegetables are arranged in a wooden dish in front of

a red brick wall. It is lit by diffused light from a hazy sky,with no direct sunlight.The light reflected from the

surrounding hard surfaces helps lift light levels by aboutone f-stop and ensures that the exposure is even.

Tripod supports the weight of the camera and lens,and gives the camera afixed reference point forchecking the composition

Fruit arrangementYou can create a still lifeby confining yourself toone type of food, like thiscomposition, which ismade up of colorful fruitsarranged in a glass vase.

Vegetable still lifeIn this well-balancedcomposition, the shapes,forms, textures, and colorsof the vegetables were allcarefully considered.Diffused rather than directlight is used because ofthe reflective surface of theeggplants and red onions.


Hard surface of thepaving stones reflectsavailable daylight

Background wall adds interest, yet does not

compete for attention

TAKING OUTSIDE STILL LIFE 147

Mirroring artThe inspiration for thisrustic tableau is a 19th-century watercolor painting.Although the scene looksalmost natural, the quaileggs were bought andplaced in an artificial nest.

Food still lifeDaylight helps bring outthe color and texture ofthe red and green pasta,the pink crayfish, and theslab of stone. The colorcontrast and shadows givean impression of depth.

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•For professionalfood photography,ingredients must haveno marks or bruising.

•Care and attentionto detail is critical.

•Objects with shiny,reflective surfaces canbe polished to removefinger marks.

•Start by positioningthe largest object in thecomposition and thenbuild up the otherelements around it.

•Background colorcan affect the mood ofa still life composition.

Board is propped againstthe tree to act as awindbreak to preventsubject movement

Appearance of the subjectis carefully checked in thecamera viewfinder afterevery minor adjustment


Tripod and cable releaseare essential to preventany slight movement ofthe camera during theexposure

PHOTO SET-UP: Spring still lifeSunlight filtering through the tree canopy is the light source for this still lifeof an artificially re-created bird’s nest and eggs.The use of a long-focus lensmeans that an aperture of f22 is required to ensure sufficient depth offield, and this necessitates a shutter speed of 1⁄4 second. A windbreakprevents unwanted subject movement.


CHOOSING BACKGROUNDS FOR STILL LIFEBackgrounds are particularly important instill life, since they are such a highly visiblepart of the composition. As many subjectsthat are photographed are relatively small,the background becomes not only what isbehind the arrangement, but what is placedunderneath it as well. This means that it isfrequently in sharp focus in the frame.

When photographing natural objectsoutdoors, such as fruit and vegetables, it will complement the composition if they areplaced against a natural-looking background,such as a piece of stone, a plank ofweathered wood, or an expanse of grass.

Pick the color of the background so that itblends harmoniously with that of the mainsubject. Check also that there is enoughdifference in tone so that the subject standsout – for instance, with a lighter subject, usea darker background.

DIGITAL SOLUTIONS

Some medium-formatcameras can takeinterchangeable digitalbacks, so the finalimage can be recordeddigitally as well as onfilm. Like a Polaroid filmback, a digital back isalso useful for checkinga picture’s compositionand exposure.

Background texture, aboveA piece of stone creates atextured backdrop, as wellas a natural-looking surfaceupon which to arrange thefreshly-picked peas.

PHOTO SET-UP: Natural contrastThe aim of this shot was to juxtapose the smooth broadbeans in their pods with the rough hands of the gardener.The man wanted to wash his hands beforehand, but the soil in the creases and under his nails provided a bettercolored, more dramatic backdrop for the composition.

Perfect lighting, oppositeWaiting until the handswere in half shadowprovided a softer light thatsuited the delicate shapeand color of the broad beans.

Gardener rests armson back of chair, sothat his hands canbe held as still ashumanly possible

A specialist 120mmmacro lens can focusclose enough to fill theframe with the subject

6 x 6cm medium-format camera ona sturdy tripod

Shot composed sothat hands framethe broad beans

CHOOSING BACKGROUNDS FOR STILL LIFE 149


PHOTOGRAPHING FOUND STILL LIFEAny arrangement of everyday objects thatforms a pleasing composition, but has notbeen put together specifically to bephotographed, can be termed a found stilllife. The art of photographing found still lifelies in finding the appropriate camera angleand using sympathetic lighting so that thefinal image you have in your mind’s eyebecomes the image captured on film.

NATURAL ORDER AND PATTERN

In one way or another, all of us tend toimpose order on our surroundings – in our homes, at work, and in our gardens.Manifestations of this are all around us. Weorganize ordinary cooking ingredients in thekitchen so that the ones we use most oftenare easy to find, or we change the positionof everyday items on a shelf so that theymake a more attractive grouping. The secretis to recognize the picture possibilities ofthese arrangements.

Work bench, rightA collection of plant pots,garden tools, a weatheredwatering can, and dryingbulbs, makes a harmoniousstill life with a unity ofcolor, form, and purpose.

Nostalgic mood, aboveSunlight entering throughthe window adds to themood of this picture.Strewn with cobwebs, theglass bottles and scales area glimpse into the past.

35mm camera on a tripodwith a 70–210mm zoom lens Collection of objects among the

clutter on a garden work bench isisolated in the viewfinder

PHOTO SET-UP: Greenhouse detailThe sunlight filtering through the greenhouse creates a dappled lighting effect.The white wall behind the objects acts both as a textured background and as a reflector, raising light levels and relieving areas of shadow.

PHOTOGRAPHING FOUND STILL LIFE 151

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•Lighting cantransform a ratherordinary arrangementof objects into acaptivating composition– depending on itsintensity, direction, andcolor temperature. Beprepared to come backto a found still life atdifferent times of dayto see the effect ofalternative lighting.

•View a potential stilllife subject from allpossible angles beforedeciding on the finalcamera position.

•Use your thumbsand index fingers tomake a frame, toprevisualize how theimage will appear. Butalways use theviewfinder for finalcompositional changes.

Rhubarb, leftThese sticks of rhubarbhad just been picked andleft on a garden table. Thewhite background anddiffused light shows off thedelicate coloration well.


Repetition of shapeFinding a coherent theme for theobjects making up a composition isone of the most difficult aspects ofstill life photography. In thiscollection of objects, it is therepetition of shape that forms thecommon link. Note, too, how thearrangement sets up a strongdiagonal flow within the frame.6 x 7cm camera, 120mm lens,Fujichrome 100, f11, 1/60 sec.

Natural sunlightSoft, directional light coming from awindow to the right of this still lifeis the only illumination.The sense ofcalm would be marred if thecontrast between the shadows andhighlights were too marked, so awhite cardboard reflector has beenadded on the left-hand side.35mm camera, 100mm lens,Kodachrome 200, f16, 1/30 sec.

STILL LIFE GALLERY 153

Found objects, topA still life does not have to be acollection of objects arranged forthe camera. Use the viewfinder to isolate found objects, such asthese old, discarded boots, to forma pleasing composition.35mm camera, 120mm lens,Ektachrome 200, f11, 1/125 sec.

Shape and symmetry, aboveThe repeating shapes andsymmetrical composition of theseterra-cotta plant pots convey asense of balance and harmony.Thelow camera angle introduces adepth that would be missing from an overhead viewpoint.35mm camera, 50mm lens,Ektachrome 100, f5.6, 1/250 sec.

Multifaceted imageryAlthough the components makingup this still life are very simple, thecombination of elements with thelighting and background results in a multifaceted image comprisingshape, form, texture, and tone.6 x 6cm camera, 80mm lens,Ektachrome 100, f16, 1/250 sec.

Dominant colorThe two principal colors in thiscomposition – the yellow of thesunflowers and the blue of the table top – represent a potentiallydiscordant color combination.However, the intensity of thedaylight spotlighting the flowers issuch that the yellow relegates allother colors to supporting roles.35mm camera, 28mm lens,Fujichrome 100, f8, 1/500 sec.

154 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: LANDSCAPES

LANDSCAPES

Viewing a landscapeSee pages 156–157

Urban landscapesSee pages 180–183

Water and lightSee pages 170–175

The light factorUnlike an outdoor portrait, where a subject canbe moved into position for the most beneficiallighting effect, with a landscape picture youmust work with the prevailing light. This doesnot mean that you cannot influence how thesubject will appear in the photograph. Forexample, from one angle, a pool lying at thebottom of a ravine may appear black andlifeless, while seen from another, the watermay be a mirror holding a flawless reflectionof blue sky and white clouds.

Compositional controlBefore taking any pictures you should explorethe surroundings to find the best viewpoint. Alandscape may be dramatically improved bythe inclusion of a feature in the foreground orwhen photographed in a particular light. Even if your camera angle is restricted to a singleviewpoint, you should be able to move to theleft and right to find the best perspective. Theheight from which you shoot is also critical.Squatting down tends to stress the foreground,while gaining extra height may allow you toexclude an unwanted foreground detail. Lookat the scene through the viewfinder to see howlandscape features relate as you move around.

Lenses for landscapesA wide-angle lens is ideal for broadpanoramas with a wide sky and plenty offoreground. If the sky is flat and dull, you canuse a long-focus lens to restrict the angle ofview to parts of the scene that have maximumimpact. It is best to use a tripod and cablerelease to avoid camera shake, even if youare not working with slow shutter speeds.Remember that a landscape may look mostdramatic toward dusk or in dark stormy light,conditions that make long exposures essential.

Landscapes are constantly changing. Depending on thetime of day, and weather conditions, they can take on manydifferent personalities and moods. Learning to see andcapture on film the potential in a scene is perhaps thehardest part of landscape photography.

LANDSCAPE SET-UPA 12th-century priory in the heart of theEnglish countryside is the focal point of thislandscape picture.The camera viewpoint andthe position of the sun show some sides of theruins in bright sunlight, while other sides of thebuilding are in shadow.The camera angle doesnot show the reflections of any of the cloudsin the pool of foreground water, but it doesreveal the reflections of the higher parts of thebuilding and the ancient tree to the left.

Dramatic skiesSee pages 176–179

LANDSCAPES 155

Landscape subject

EQUIPMENT

•6 x 6cm cameraand spare film

•Range of lenses

•Cable releaseand tripod withspiked feet

300ft (90m)

Camera

Direction of light

Emphasizing elementsUsing a wide-angle lensemphasizes the pool ofwater in the foregroundand allows more of theblue sky and white cloudsto be included in the shot.

OVERHEAD VIEW

CameraA 6 x 6cm medium-format camerafitted with a 50mm wide-angle lens

TripodA medium-format camera is heavyand best mounted on a tripod for

landscape photographs

Focal pointThe priory is the main focal point;

sunlit and shadowy faces of thebuildings create tonal contrasts


VIEWING A LANDSCAPEPhotographing a landscape is more difficultthan it seems because it involves translating athree-dimensional panoramic scene completewith all its nuances into a flat image.

CHOOSING A DOMINANT ELEMENT

Any landscape is a complicated mixture ofcolors, tones, textures, forms, andperspectives. If you simply point the camerain a general way at such a potential jumble ofsubject matter it is likely to result in anuninspiring picture, so it is important to havea clear idea of how you want the elements torelate to each other. Try to be selective aboutwhat you include in the picture. By carefulchoice of viewpoint and lens focal length youcan decide which elements are important andhow you can best arrange them within theconfines of the viewfinder. This task is oftensimplified if you can identify one element asbeing the main subject.

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•If the light is notfavorable, try to find adifferent viewpoint orwait until the light is inthe right direction.

•Shooting from a highviewpoint minimizesthe foreground.

•Shooting from a lowviewpoint emphasizesthe foreground.

•A landscapecomposition needsone principal feature.

PHOTO SET-UP: High viewpointRelatively small differences in camera position can createhuge shifts of emphasis in a photograph.The extra heightafforded by shooting from the top of a four-wheel drive carlessens the effect of the field in the foreground andemphasizes the main subject – the windmill in the distance.

Platform on roofgives highviewpoint

Distant viewpointA high camera viewpoint isessential to keep the greenfield from dominating thislandscape. The 100mmlong-focus lens with itsnarrow angle of view (seepage 17) isolates the mainsubject and crops unwantedelements. This viewpointalso assigns the trees in themiddleground a subsidiaryrole as an attractive framefor the windmill.

35mm camera with a100mm long-focus lens

Tripod ensures thatthe camera is leveland steady

Distant windmill is made moreprominent by the use of a long-focus lens

VIEWING A LANDSCAPE 157

PHOTO SET-UP: Changing the angleMoving in closer to the windmill gives a different emphasisto the landscape.The merits of the camera viewpoint interms of composition and lighting are considered in theviewfinder before pressing the shutter release button.

Foreground featureInclusion of the stream inthe foreground adds shapeand color. Its curve helpsdraw the eye to the mill.

Placing the horizonA low horizon emphasizesthe sky and introduces afeeling of space (top). Ahigh horizon shifts theemphasis to the bottom ofthe frame (above). Thelandscape now seems moreenclosed than previously.

Extreme viewpointMoving in closer to thewindmill and pointing the camera up results in an architectural shot that excludes any clue as to the landscape orsurrounding elements.

Interesting cloudformations are animportant element in this landscape

Windmill is themain focal point inthis landscape view

Directional afternoonsun createscontrasting areas oflight and shade

35mm camera with a100mm lens is hand-heldto allow greater freedomof movement


RECORDING TIMES OF DAYLight is the key ingredient in a successfullandscape photograph. Its intensity and theangle at which it illuminates the subject play a vital role in conveying mood. Dawn light is of low intensity and has a gentleness thatsoftens colors and definition. As the sunclimbs, the angle of light accentuates textureand form. Toward noon the sun is overheadand the contrast between light and shade isintense. The light can be so strong that colorsare bleached out and the landscape seemslifeless. In the afternoon as the sun descends,color intensity, form, and texture improve,and by dusk the scene has a rosy warmth.

Early afternoonLight, color, form, andtexture are evident in thisscene, shot in the soft lightof early afternoon.

Mid-morningAlthough a clear morning,the sun is not yet high inthe sky, and a graynesshangs over the beach.

RECORDING TIMES OF DAY 159

PHOTO SET-UP: Time of dayOne of the best ways to see how the mood of alandscape is influenced by different light is to take a seriesof pictures of the same subject throughout the course ofa single day, perhaps at mid-morning, in the afternoon, andat sunset.To ensure the framing of all the shots isconsistent, take a careful note of your camera position,camera height, and focal length, and line each shot upwith a prominent landmark, such as this seaside pier.

35mm camera with a28mm wide-angle lens

Toward sunsetWith the sun low, contrast

is extreme. It is justpossible to discern a hint

of pink in the clouds closeto the sun, an effect thatwill intensify as the sundips below the horizon.

Day to night sequenceDawn at Rio de Janeiro’sCopacabana beach (toprow left and right). Colorsintensify as the sun climbsin the sky (bottom rowleft), until by lateafternoon (bottom rowright) the glass towers arein shadow with a blue skybehind. As night falls, thesky turns a warm reddishpink (below).

Position of the corner ofthe pier is carefully noted

so that the framing ofeach picture is identical

Low wall makes a handysupport to lean on and ensuresthat all pictures in the sequenceare shot from the same heightand camera position

160 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: LANDSCAPE

Highlight exposure, leftScenes containing large areasof water tend to be brighterbecause they reflect availablelight – even the weak lightfrom a twilight sky. Here theland is darkened by taking an exposure readingfrom the sky, which is thebrightest part of the scene,leaving the rest of the image underexposed.35mm camera, 135mmlens, Ektachrome 100, f8,1/250 sec.

Afternoon light, aboveThe mirrorlike water of this Irishestuary is broken only by theboatman’s oars.The wooden boatand finger of land provide contrastto the pastel pink-green scene.6 x 6cm camera, 150mm lens,Ektachrome 200, f5.6, 1/250 sec.

LANDSCAPE GALLERY 161

Ultra-violet light, aboveLarge amounts of ultra-violet lightcontribute to the overall coloration andslight haziness of this scene.The fact thatthe landscape is illuminated by light from adeep blue sky rather than direct sunlightalso influences the strong color-cast.35mm camera, 135mm lens,Ektachrome 200, f16, 1/125 sec.

Monochromatic landscape, leftThis aerial composition consists almostexclusively of shades of green, relievedonly by farm buildings, stone walls, andgrazing cattle.The sun is low in the sky and throws long shadows across thefields, producing almost tangible surface textures.35mm camera, 100mm lens,Fujichrome 100, f5.6, 1/250 sec.

Snow exposure, leftSnow reflects light, giving too high a light reading for the subject, whichcan result in underexposure. Here,the lens is opened by one f-stop.35mm camera, 55mm lens,Kodachrome 64, f8, 1/60 sec.

Sunset color, belowAt sunset the landscape takes on anorange cast.Wavelengths of blue lightare scattered, and longer redwavelengths illuminate the scene.35mm camera, 80mm lens,Kodachrome 64, f11, 1/125 sec.


CHANGING LIGHT AND WEATHERIn unpredictable weather, light is variable,changing from second to second, and thispresents specific problems when judgingexposure. Wet weather does not necessarilylead to bad or uninteresting pictures, and itcertainly does not need to keep you fromtaking photographs. Although you shouldalways take precautions to protect thecamera and lens from getting wet, a fewdrops of rain will not cause damage.

Storm light, misty conditions, and heavyrain can dramatically alter the appearance ofa landscape, merging and simplifying colors,distorting perspective, and creating a variedvista. Landscapes do not have to be shot infair weather – scenes shot in unfavorableconditions can result in spectacular pictures.

EXPOSURE FOR VARIABLE LIGHT

Areas of bright highlight with clear detailimmediately stand out in a landscape picture,and appear visually stronger in the frame. Inorder to record an accurate impression, youmay need to override the light meter andexpose for the highlight to keep the shotfrom being dominated by the shadow areas.

Moving shadows, aboveGaps between the clouds produce shafts oflight, so every minute different parts of thelandscape are illuminated. Here, everything is litexcept for the house in the center of the shot.

The final shot, aboveThe most successful of the three landscapepictures shows a band of shadow in thedistance. However, the house, foreground,and the hills on the horizon are well lit.

PHOTO SET-UP:Wet weather conditionsAlthough it is not raining, the air is saturated with sea mist and spray at this locationoverlooking steep cliffs. A clear ultraviolet filter (also known as a UV filter) is used toprotect the lens, which must be wiped with a soft, clean cloth to keep the glasscompletely clear of moisture.The UV filter has no effect on exposure.

Sturdy tripod is essential in windyconditions because it is impossibleto hold the camera steady

35mm SLR camera with a135mm mid-telephoto lens

Clean cloth is usedto keep the UV filterclear of moisture

Foreground in shadow, aboveA few seconds later, and the house andcountry road are now well illuminated.However, the foreground is now in deepshadow, creating a dark band across the shot.

CHANGING LIGHT AND WEATHER 163

Worsening weather, rightShot with a 135mm lens, this seascapeshows the outline of the rocks quiteclearly. A few minutes later and themood of the scene changes completely.

The mist descends, belowThe worsening weather conditions have led to a drop in light levels and a shift in color temperature, producinga more atmospheric blue tinge on thedaylight-balanced slide film. This is shotwith the same camera set-up and135mm lens.

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•In changeable weather, light variesrapidly, and you will need to shoot alot of images in order to have agood final selection.

•Ultraviolet filters protect the lensfrom rain and mist, and minimizethe blue tinge that UV light createsin coastal and mountain scenes.


BLACK AND WHITE VERSUS COLORIf you try to take landscape shots usingblack and white film in the same way youwould use color film, the resultingphotographs are likely to be disappointing.Often, it is the color content of a landscapescene that creates an exciting picture – thebright yellow of a cornfield, the myriadshades of green in a forest panorama, theautumnal reds and golds of a woodlandcarpeted with fallen leaves.

SIMPLIFIED TONES

In black and white photographs, however, itis the contrast of light and shade and thetonal gradations of white through black thatdominate the picture. What might appeardistinct and obvious in color often becomesmore ambiguous once the color content isremoved, resulting in a more subtle pictureopen to a different interpretation.

DIGITAL SOLUTIONS

Many digital camerascan record the invisibleinfra-red parts of thespectrum, giving similarghostly images as whenusing black and whiteinfra-red film.Toharness this ability, usea deep red filter (suchas a Wratten 89B).Thisblocks nearly all visiblelight, so long shutterspeeds and a tripodare necessary. Shootusing the camera’sblack and white mode.

PHOTO SET-UP: Black and white landscapeThe photographs shown on this page illustrate thedifference between a landscape scene shot in color andone shot in black and white.These images were shotwithin a few minutes of one another from the samecamera position. A tripod is useful to maintain the sameframing of shots while cameras loaded with black andwhite and color film are switched.

35mm camerawith a 300mmlong-focus lens

Color versus patternThe most striking feature of the colorversion of the landscape (left) is thecolorful russet hues of the rust on theold barn’s roof and sides. In the blackand white version (below) that samearea of the picture is dominated bystrong pattern and texture. The graphiceffect of the black and white landscapeis emphasized by the directional earlyevening sunlight.

Cable release and tripodensure that no vibration istransmitted to the camerawhen the shutter is released

Early evening lightreveals the color,texture, and patternof the landscape

BLACK AND WHITE VERSUS COLOR 165

Color versus shapeComparing these landscapepictures, it is the boldshape of the semi-silhouetted tree thatdominates the black andwhite version (top). In thecolor picture (above) it isthe foreground stubble andplowed field that attractimmediate attention.

Infra-red film, rightObjects appear to havedifferent colors becausethey absorb and reflectdifferent wavelengths of light. Infra-red sensitivefilm can capture light that is invisible to the eye, transforming imagesinto unfamiliar tones and shades.


Unreal effect, topBlack and white infra-red film givesalmost unreal tonal appearances.6 x 6cm camera, 80mm lens,Kodak IR, f8, 1/125 sec.

Tonal range, aboveDelicate shades of white through graymake up this tranquil scene.6 x 6cm camera, 50mm lens,Pan F, f11, 1/60 sec.

Storm light, rightLow clouds, failing light, and fallingrain might restrict some scenestaken on color film to just a fewindistinct hues.The same scenephotographed on black and white film reveals a wide range of tones from deep black to nearly pure white.6 x 6cm camera, 80mm lens,Plus-X, f16, 1/60 sec.


RECORDING THE CHANGING SEASONSIt is in the temperate regions that seasonalvariations in the weather are most distinct. Intropical regions the sun stays high above thehorizon and seasonal changes are betweenwet and dry rather than hot and cold.

THE CHANGING LANDSCAPE

The photographic potential of a landscapecan be transformed by seasonal changes inlight and weather. In temperate regions, thesun stays low in winter and high in summer,which affects the quality of light. It is best toshoot summer landscapes when the sun islow in the sky, which restricts photographyto mornings and afternoons. Remember thatlatitude affects the color of the sky, so that itappears a deeper blue at high latitudes.

PHOTO SET-UP: Woodland sceneA woodland clearing is the setting for this early summerscene. A wide-angle shift lens (see page 192) is used toavoid distorting perspective by tilting the camera upward.

35mm camera with a 28mm shiftlens helps avoidconverging verticals

Early summerThe light filtering throughthe tree canopy makesexposure difficult, andoverexposure by just one f-stop could rob the sceneof its color and density ofshadow. The scene is shotusing several shutter speedsto avoid any miscalculationof the exposure.

Winter landscapeA snow-covered hedgerowand icy country lane haveproduced a wintry scene ofmonochromatic simplicity.Snow scenes often needslight overexposure to keepthe whites free from anyappearance of dirtiness.

Cable release and tripod areessential to avoid camera shakewhen using slow shutter speeds

Dappled light through thetrees makes bracketing

exposures (by using differentshutter speeds)

a wise precaution

RECORDING THE CHANGING SEASONS 169

Spring landscape, leftWild forest flowers such asthese bluebells are one ofthe harbingers of spring. Bykeeping the camera anglelow, just enough of thetrees can be seen to givethe picture context.Lighting is even across thescene because the treecanopy is not yet fullygrown. Note that the coloris more saturated in theshaded foreground.

Summer landscapeViewed against the yellowfield, the old tree appearsalmost silhouetted. Thefully saturated green at thebottom of the frame andthe intense blue sky aboveepitomize summer colors.

Fall landscapeWith no foliage to obscureits path to the ground, afall sun infuses this leafycarpet with a fiery bronze.


PHOTOGRAPHING WATER AND LIGHTLight reflected from a lake, river, or pond canenhance an otherwise uninteresting landscapescene. An expanse of water in itself oftenmakes an obvious focal point around whichto build your landscape composition.

It is also important that you view the scenefrom different angles and heights. Seen fromone particular angle, an area of water mayappear emerald green as it reflects light fromfoliage on nearby hillsides. When viewedfrom a different angle, the surface of thewater may sparkle with bright blue highlightsas it mirrors the sky directly above it.

When light strikes the water’s surface, theintensity of the reflection provides extraillumination, radically altering the exposure.To record reflected light in water you willprobably have to take exposure readings forboth the highlight and the shadow and selectan aperture somewhere in between.

PHOTO SET-UP: Calm water reflectionsLooking across this landscaped pond it is obvious that the brightest highlight in the frame is the reflection of thedistant trees, vegetation, and blue sky on the water’s calm surface.The lighting is bright and even, coming froma mid-afternoon sky unobscured by clouds.

Tripod-mounted 35mmcamera with a 150mm

long-focus lens

Long-focus lens viewIn this close-up of the far bank, shot witha long-focus lens, the backlit foliage hastaken on a delicate translucency, whilelight reflecting off the water’s surfacelooks like a sheet of shimmering silver.The strong afternoon light filters throughthe trees to create a calm, tranquil image.

Distant trees are theprincipal subject of the photograph

Reflections of the trees andthe bright sky appear on thewater’s surface

PHOTOGRAPHING WATER AND LIGHT 171

Sunset silhouetteBy selecting a low cameraangle, the seated figure isaligned with the finger ofreflected light. A highercamera position wouldlessen the graphic impact.

PHOTO SET-UP: Sunset reflectionsSpectacular reflections can be seen looking across aseascape at sunset. A range of different color effects ispossible depending on the exposure selected, the mostintense resulting from a highlight exposure reading.

Hand-held 35mm camerawith 28–70mm zoom lens

Subject is rendered as asilhouette due to highlightexposure reading

Setting sun onthe horizon castsa bright reflection

on the water

Filters can be used to improve colors or eliminateunwanted reflections. Polarizing filters removereflections from water surfaces and intensify blueskies. For a warm effect, use a light red skylight filter.A light blue filter, in contrast, cools colors down.

Polarizing filter

COLOR-ENHANCING FILTERS

Light red skylight filterLight blue filter


CREATING IMAGES OF MOVING WATERLandscape scenes with moving water have a special charm for photographers. A smallarea of fast-moving water in an otherwiseplacid landscape scene introduces a strongcontrast – white against blue, turbulenceagainst smoothness and mirrorlike calm.Moving water in a landscape scene allowsyou to experiment with a variety of shutterspeed effects. A rapidly moving mountainstream shot in close-up needs a shutter speedof at least 1/500 or 1/1000 second to captureits motion. If you shoot it at 1/15 second, oreven slower, film speed and light levelspermitting, you will find that the movingwater takes on an entirely different character.

Low viewpoint, oppositeA low viewpoint isselected for maximumimpact. The inclusion ofthe shoreline in theforeground, around whichthe water is boiling, andthe menacing rock in thedistance add drama to thebreaking waves.

PHOTO SET-UP:Water movementEven very minor changes in camera position can createvery different photographs of the same subject. Compare,for example, the appearance of the sea spray in this set-up picture with the version opposite, in which a lowerviewpoint is taken. Careful selection of exposure and afast shutter speed are needed to capture and highlightthe way in which the light dances on the breaking waves.

35mm with a 28mmwide-angle lens

Frozen movementA fast shutter speed of about 1/500second is used to freeze the movement of water over the stony bed of this fast-flowing stream. A shutter speed this briefoften requires the use of fast film and awide maximum aperture.

Blurred movementA slower shutter speed results in the waterappearing soft and blurred. This picture ofthe stream was shot at 1/4 second. Use atripod (which keeps the camera steady)and a small aperture to compensate for thislength of exposure time.

Brief shutter speedeffectively stops themovement of the spray and allows a hand-held exposure

Rock formation givesadded interest to theforeground water

CREATING IMAGES OF MOVING WATER 173


PHOTOGRAPHING SEASCAPESCapturing the sea and its many moods is aconstant challenge to the photographer. Theextreme variations in appearance associatedwith the sea are due to the fact that thewater not only mirrors the changing moodsof the weather, but also magnifies themmany times over. Coastal conditions can bevery different from the weather just a fewmiles inland, so it is advisable to check onlocal conditions by telephoning the localcoastguard beforehand.

When photographing coastal scenes, timeof day is important, since this may dictate thestate of the tide, which affects the appearanceand accessiblity of the coast you want tophotograph. Remember to protect yourcamera against damage from salt water andsand by cleaning it with a dry cloth after use.

PHOTO SET-UP: Moods of the seaThe inclusion of a prominent coastal feature adds interestto what would otherwise be a picture of just the sea andsky. In this photo set-up a majestic arch of limestone rockmakes a perfect backdrop for the breaking waves.

35mm camera on atripod with a 28mmwide-angle lens

Shutter speed, aboveSelection of a fast or slowshutter speed determineshow the movement of thewaves will appear.Although the coast here iscalm, a shutter speed of1/250 second still leavessome wave areas blurred.

Sculpted rock formationis the obvious focal point of this seascape,punctuating the divisionbetween sea and sky

PHOTOGRAPHING SEASCAPES 175

SPECIAL-EFFECT FILTERSPolarizing, gradated, neutral density, andlight-balancing filters are intended to cutdown reflections and correct variations inlighting without changing the overall color.There are also filters that produce strongcolor-casts for dramatic effect. Red, yellow,and orange are the most popular filters foruse with black and white film. These filterscan darken a blue sky to emphasize thewhite of the clouds. Color filters can also beused with color film to enliven an otherwiseuninteresting landscape. Remember that allfilters absorb some light, so you must allowfor a longer exposure time.

Filter effectsStrongly colored filters aredesigned for special effectsand can radically alter ourperception of a scene. The

deep blue filter used withthis seascape produces themost normal-looking imageand the orange filter resultsin the most dramatic image.

Seascape without filter

Seascape with orange filter

Seascape with yellow filter

Seascape with blue filter

COLOR FILTERS

Color filters are available in a range of hues andstrengths for creating special effects with color film.All filters subtract some of the light that strikes theglass, making slower shutter speeds and/or widerapertures necessary to achieve a correct exposureas the filter color becomes darker.The more theimage is underexposed, the stronger the color.

Green

Red

Yellow/green

Orange

Yellow

Blue


CAPTURING DRAMATIC SKIESThe sky, which may be an importantelement in a landscape photograph, can alsomake a fascinating pictorial subject in itsown right. Not only does the sky have analmost endless capacity for color change –from the deepest blues to vibrant gold andcrimson – but the variety of cloud formationsvisible from one location in the course of asingle day may be breathtakingly wide,especially when the weather is changeable.

SUN AND CLOUD EFFECTS

The most dramatic photographic opportunitiesare when the sun illuminates banks of cloudsat an angle or when small, billowing cloudsare partially obscuring the sun. Dawn andsunset are the times of day when the colorsof the sky are at their most variable anddramatic, and usually most photogenic.

PHOTO SET-UP: Sky at sunsetIn order to photograph the sky at sunset, set up yourcamera on a tripod in advance and wait for the sun to dipbelow the horizon. Shooting the sun itself may create flarespots so it is better to wait until the sun is partly obscuredby clouds.The exposure reading is taken for the brightestpart of the sky so that the landscape appears black.

Sun is just abovethe horizon andlargely obscured

by clouds


Tripod is always necessarywhen using a long, heavylens, even if the exposuretime is brief

Close-up view, aboveThe limited angle of viewof a long-focus lens fillsthe frame with the intenseyellow of this particularstage of the sunset.

Sky and land, rightVertical framing emphasizesthe contrast between thevivid sunset colors and theblack of the landscape.

CAPTURING DRAMATIC SKIES 177

Obscured sun, leftWhen the sun is obscuredby clouds, those closest tothe camera position appeardark and menacing, whiledramatic shafts of lightpenetrate the gaps beyondand illuminate the peaksof the clouds farther away.

Stormy sky, aboveIn this picture, high banksof thunderous cumulusclouds are gathering overthe hills flanking a city,signalling the onset of arainstorm. Storm cloudformations can changefrom second to second.

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•Keep the horizon low in the frame to give the skygreater compositional weight.

•To accentuate the colors of a sunset sky, take alight reading from the brightest part of the sky.

•When using a digital camera, do not use automaticwhite balance, as this may try to neutralize the colors.Instead, use the manual setting for cloudy conditions,which will boost the warm glow of the sunset.


Scale and interestA dramatic sunset scene illustrates justhow effectively water or, in this case,wet sand, mirrors and reflects thecolors of the sky. Note, too, how thelone figure walking on the beach addsan important element of scale andinterest to the composition.6 x 6cm camera, 80mm lens,Ektachrome 100, f11, 1/125 sec.

Hidden light, below rightTiming is critical when there arebanks of moving clouds and the sunitself is in the shot. From the anglethat this picture was taken, the cloudshields the camera from the intensityof the sun.35mm camera, 135mm lens,Kodachrome 200, f16, 1/1000 sec.

Wide-angle view, below leftDramatic clumps of cumulus clouds,with cirrus formations above,transform this sunset sky into a poemof shape, form, texture, and color.Awide-angle lens gives a sense of depthand perspective to the photograph.35mm camera, 19mm lens,Ektachrome 100, f8, 1/125 sec.


Silhouette lightingFor this spectacular view of St. Michael’s Mount in Cornwall,England, a light reading was firsttaken from the brightest part of thesky.The camera was then redirectedand the scene photographed.Theresult is a stark silhouettedominating the horizon.6 x 6cm camera, 50mm lens,Ektachrome 100, f8, 1/125 sec.

Rainbow huesRainbows occur when droplets ofmoisture refract the sun’s rays andsplit them into their constituentwavelengths.To intensify thestrength of a rainbow’s colors, thisshot is underexposed by between a half and one full f-stop.6 x 7cm camera, 80mm lens,Ektachrome 100, f22, 1/125 sec.


PHOTOGRAPHING URBAN LANDSCAPESOne of the most visually rich photographicresources we have readily at hand is the city.City centers, dominated by towering glassand steel structures, can be a fascinating mixof architectural statements, especially whencontrasted with more traditional buildingstyles, or when seen in the context of urbanareas awaiting renewal. Watch for repeatingpatterns, dramatic shapes, contrasts ofnatural and artificial features, the use ofcolor, even the written word on billboards,the sides of delivery vans, and neon signs.

PHOTO SET-UP: London EmbankmentA personal view of urban life could include landmarksthat typify a city for you.The location for this picture set-up is the Embankment beside the River Thames inLondon, and the view takes in St. Paul’s Cathedral.

Brand color biasThe early evening summer light castsshadows over waterfront buildings indramatic contrast to the lit area behind.Color can vary depending on the filmbrand used (see page 31). For example,

Railings make a convenientplace to lean against tosteady the camera

Hand-held 35mmcamera fitted with a70–210mm zoom lens

these two images were both taken fromthe camera position shown in the photoset-up under identical lighting conditions.Whereas one picture (above) has a stronggreen cast and is lighter, the other picture(left) has a blue cast and is much darker.

Choose a citylandmark as the focalpoint of the picture

Early evening lightcasts strong shadowson the water’s surface

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•Choose a camera position that will give a good overall view of the city.

•Contrast between old and newbuildings may make an interestingsubject for photographs.

•Use a tripod and a longexposure to record subject detailat dusk.

PHOTOGRAPHING URBAN LANDSCAPES 181

Time of dayCityscapes change radicallywhen viewed at differenttimes of day. In this shot,taken just after dusk, thereis enough daylight toreveal details in thebuildings and streets, yetthere is also sufficientartificial light to add extracolor and interest.

Dramatic sky, below leftFraming to give a lowhorizon imparts greatemphasis to the sky in thiscityscape. The storm-ladenclouds are dramatic inthemselves, but thecomposition is full oftension, as if the forces ofnature are gathering toassault the city below.

Selected viewpoint, belowFinding a high viewpointfrom which to shoot is anexcellent way of showingtall buildings without theintrusion of convergingverticals typical of ground-level shots. Here, the highviewpoint shows anotheraspect of urban topography– the contrast betweenrecently built skyscrapersand lower, older buildings.


As night draws near, a range of picture-takingopportunities opens up. One of the best timesto shoot is at dusk. At this time there is stillsufficient ambient light to define subject detailand add color to the sky, but street lamps andcar lights start to become visible. These factorscombine to make great lowlight photographs.

EXPERIMENTING WITH EXPOSURE

As the sky becomes darker, exposure timesincrease dramatically, but with a tripod orsome other form of camera-steadying devicethis should not present a problem. Bracketingshots by experimenting with several differentexposures is essential for night photography.Make a note of your exposure times andcompare these with your processed results. Ifyou do this regularly you will soon start tobuild up an instinct for nighttime exposuresunder a range of different lighting conditions.

PHOTO SET-UP:Luminescent bridge The long shutter speeds mean atripod is necessary – the high contrastscene makes accurate metering difficult,so a bracketed sequence with exposures oftwo, four and eight seconds was taken. Note how thewater reflects the lights along the bridge and riverside.

Colored filtersThese three pictures wereall taken from the positionshown in the set-uppicture. Different coloredfilters were used fordramatic effect. For the firstpicture of the illuminatedbridge no lens filter wasused (top). The color is notentirely natural, however,because of the effect of thetungsten lights on thedaylight film. For thesubsequent images, yellow(above) and orange filters(left) were used.

PHOTOGRAPHING LANDSCAPES AT NIGHT

The structure ofthe bridge is welldefined with lights

The tripod is essential toprevent camera shake


PHOTOGRAPHING LANDSCAPES AT NIGHT 183

MOVING LIGHTS AT NIGHT

Some of the most impressive nightscapes areproduced when you include moving lights inthe frame. A long exposure turns cars intostreaks of red and white, created by theirtaillights and headlights. These trails add asense of movement and added interest to acity scene after dark. Set up your camera ona tripod at the side of the road or on a highvantage point overlooking the roadway. Thelength of the streaks of light is determinedby the length of the exposure – for the bestresults, shutter speeds of around 30 secondsor more are usually necessary.

Overview, aboveA high roof gives a greatview of London’s Big Ben.The long 40-secondexposure, using thecamera’s B-setting, makesthe view more colorful –turning cars crossing thebridge into streaks of redand white light.

Tunnel vision, belowThe dashboard of amoving vehicle is used tosupport the camera for thisshot taken inside a tunnelin New York. The tiles ofthe tunnel roof and wallsreflect the red taillights ofthe cars creating aninteresting abstract scene.

Light of the moon, belowA full moon is surprisinglybright, creating a high-contrast scene whenincluded in a nightscape.Here, the moon wasallowed to burn out, toensure that the lights ofthe city in the foregroundwere exposed properly.

DIGITAL SOLUTION

Experiment with thedifferent manual whitebalance settings to seewhich works best withthe mixture of lightsources available.

184 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: ARCHITECTURE

ARCHITECTURE

Using a wide angle lensSee pages 188–189

Using a shift lensSee pages 192–193

InteriorsSee pages 198–201

Interior detailsSee pages 202–205

Viewpoint and perspectiveSome professional cameras allow the normalfocusing screen to be removed and replacedby an architectural screen – a grid of parallelvertical and horizontal lines. This screen isused as a guide to ensure that your framingshows the subject square and perfectly upright.

Practical considerationsOutdoor architectural photography is largelydependent on available light. Take the time tosee how the light reacts with the features youwant to emphasize. Is the angle of the lightfrom direct sun casting shadows over thedetailing you want to see, or do you regardthose same shadows as a positive asset in yourpicture, creating interesting patterns of lightand shade? If the lighting is not right on oneside of the building, then it may be better onthe other, or you may have to come back at adifferent time of day. The sky is also a majorconsideration when photographing buildings.Dramatic pictures can result from cloudless orstormy skies, but overcast gray skies should beavoided if at all possible. Extreme weatherconditions, such as mist or fog, will add anew dimension to your photographs.

Working in confined spaceIf space outside or inside a building is tight,then a wide-angle lens (and sometimes a shift,or perspective-control, lens) will be invaluablefor including all of the subject in the frame.Often it will be a detail or an isolated featureof the building that catches your eye, and torecord this a long-focus lens may be theanswer. For lighting a small interior (or a smallarea of a large one), a hand-held flash unitmay be useful, but you will also need to usefast film and long exposures that require atripod or some other camera-steadying device.

Architecture is a very broad subject area, encompassingboth modern, state-of-the-art developments and traditionalbuildings; places of work and industry; religious centers;homes both suburban and stately; and bridges and dams, aswell as interiors and decorative details.

ARCHITECTURE SET-UPThis newly built shopping mall is surroundedby tall metal railings, which make it problematicto photograph.The only way to achieve anunobstructed view of the building is to standas close to the railings as possible and shootover the top of them. From this angle it is notpossible to include the whole of the building,so it had to be decided at the outset whichpart of the building to emphasize. It would alsohave been possible to shoot down from thepathway above, but from that angle views ofthe adjacent street would have beenunavoidably included in the shot.

ARCHITECTURE 185

CameraA 35mm camera with a 28mm wide-angle shift lensis used to include the domelike roof of the buildingwithout tilting the camera up and causing thevertical lines to converge.The camera is loaded withmedium-speed ISO 200 film.

Camera

Directionof light

Architecturalsubject

High-contrast lightingA highlight exposurereading from the strong,directional sunlight resultsin this contrasty image.The camera angle is suchthat the railings behindform arcs on either side ofthe dome.

OVERHEAD VIEW

18ft(6m)

EQUIPMENT

•35mm SLR camera and spare film

•Range of lenses


•Flashgun

•Reflector


VIEWING A BUILDINGMost buildings, unless they are slab-sided andfeatureless towers, have countless differentangles, faces, moods, and features to offerthe camera. As you move around thebuilding you are interested in photographing,keep a careful watch for architectural detailsboth above and below your usual eyeline.Look for the flow or rhythm that the buildingprojects and see how you might enhancethese characteristics on film, or even suppressthem for a more personal interpretation.

Look, too, at how the angle of light strikesthe building, and decide when the optimumtime of day is in terms of lighting for yourphotographs. Lenses of varying focal lengths,or different settings on a zoom, can influencethe appearance of a building dramatically.Try viewing the subject through the camerawith a series of different lenses attachedbefore you start to take any pictures.

Extreme viewpoint, aboveThe dizzying convergenceof vertical lines is producedby an extreme cameraangle, near ground leveland shooting upward. Thisapproach imparts a senseof exaggerated height.

PHOTO SET-UP: Lloyds of LondonA visually complex building such as the Lloyds Building in London provides innumerablephotographic opportunities.The overall shape of the structure makes a powerful designstatement and the geometric arrangement of steel pipes and girders is striking.

Design of building allows plenty ofopportunity for picking out interestingarchitectural details

Light comingfrom directlybehind thephotographercasts a strongforward-pointingshadow

Hand-held35mm camerawith a 28mmwide-angle lens

Glass reflects the blue skyand white clouds – a polarizing filter could be used to cut down these reflections

Usual viewpoint, leftThis picture is taken fromslightly farther back thanthe position shown in thephoto set-up. There issome convergence of theparallel lines, but thedistortion effect is minimal.

VIEWING A BUILDING 187

Implied movementThe camera viewpoint inthis shot emphasizes thevertical nature of thearchitecture and introducesmovement in the frame.

Tilting the cameraAn interpretative approachhas been achieved here byphotographing the buildingfrom an unusual angle.This effect is created bytilting the camera at anangle to the subject.

Abstract patternA striking way to portraythis modern building is toemphasize the abstractpattern produced by thegleaming steel pipes.


USING A WIDE-ANGLE LENSWide-angle lenses are essential for manyarchitectural subjects, simply because it isoften impossible or impractical to move far enough back to use a longer lens. Whenoutdoors, other structures usually restrict yourvantage point, and when shooting interiors,walls present an insurmountable hurdle.

Moderate wide-angle lenses (with a focallength of around 28mm) allow you to tacklemost exteriors. A lens with an even widerangle (16–20mm), however, is useful forshooting smaller rooms. Such ultra-wide lensesalso seem to suit modern architecture well.Lenses in this focal length range produce acertain amount of distortion that can beinappropriate with some subjects, but suits theforms found in many modern landmarks. Byframing the subject symmetrically, the bowedlines created by such lenses seem to becomepart of the design.

Handheld SLR, aboveA wide-angle lens givesenough depth of field withoutusing small apertures, socamera shake is minimized.

Barrel distortion, leftThe extreme angle of viewturns the straight pavingstones into curved lines.

USING A WIDE-ANGLE LENS 189

Unusual angles, oppositeMany grand-scale interiorslook interesting if you lookupward at the ceiling. Thismay mean lying down onthe floor, or resting thecamera on the ground asimpromptu support.

DIGITAL SOLUTIONS

•To achieve ultra-wide focal lengths ondigital cameras withbuilt-in lenses, use awide-angle or semi-fisheye attachment.

•Set the white balancemanually for interiors toallow for a mixture oflight sources.

Leading the eye, rightWide-angle lenses can beused to create a strongfeeling of linear perspective.Photographing this staircasefrom the bottom stepcreates strong, convergingdiagonal lines.

Elevated position, aboveShooting from halfway upthe structure gives a fairlyundistorted view of bothatrium floor and roof.


Sense of space, far rightIn most pictures you avoidshowing large, empty areasin the foreground. Here, thewhite floor tiles help toconvey the feeling of space,light, and openness of thispublic building.Digital SLR, 11–22mmzoom lens, ISO 200,f4, 1/60 sec.

Adding curves, rightThe use of an ultra-wide-angle lens does not alwayshave to be apparent, buthere the distortion hasbeen used to contribute tothe composition.Thestraight, rectangular barriersof the balcony have beentransformed into a curvedshape that echoes thecurves seen in the roof.Digital SLR, 11–22mmzoom lens, ISO 200,f8, 1/60 sec.

Searching for symmetry, rightOne of the most successfultechniques to use with allmodern architecture is tosearch out the shapes andpatterns used in the building – and then show these in isolation.This frequently producespowerful abstract studies.Digital SLR, 11–22mmzoom lens, ISO 200,f8, 1/250 sec.

ARCHITECTURE GALLERY 191

Ancient and modern,above rightIt is sometimes possible tocontrast different styles ofarchitecture byphotographing old buildingsreflected in the mirror-likeglass of new ones. Here aslightly different approachhas been used. Using anultra wide-angle lens, theentrance of the newbuilding becomes a framefor the neighboring church.Digital SLR, 11–22mmzoom lens, ISO 200,f8, 1/250 sec.

The Forum, aboveAll the pictures in thisgallery are taken of, orfrom, the same building inNorwich, England. It is sucha fascinating, well-lit buildingthat wherever you pointyour camera there is apicture.This view shows theentrance with the churchframed in the windows.Digital SLR, 11–22mmzoom lens, ISO 200,f8, 1/60sec.

Surroundings, rightAvoid always showingbuildings in isolation. Oftenthe neighboring landscapeand street scene areimportant to show theirimpact, as well as theircontext. By including TheForum small in the frame, itis possible to see how wellthis ultra-modern structurehas been integrated into thehistoric city around it.Digital SLR, 11–22mmzoom lens, ISO 200,f8, 1/250 sec.


The apparent convergence of vertical lines atthe top of a picture frame is most noticeablewhen a camera is tilted up to include the topof a tall building. This is caused because theback of the camera, and the film plane, are nolonger parallel with the subject. The base ofthe structure is closer to the film and seemslarger; the top is farther away and appearssmaller. This results in the sides of the buildingappearing to converge at the top. By movingback from the subject, you may be able to getall the building in without tilting the camera,but details might then look small. Using a shiftlens is the solution to this problem.

PHOTO SET-UP: Perspective problemsThis 17th-century customs house on a quayside in Kings Lynn, England, illustrates the problems of distortedperspective. If shot from close-up with a wide-angle lens,the building would appear to fall away and topple backward.

Sides of the buildingremain vertical-lookingwhen a shift lens is used

35mm camerawith a 28mm

shift lens

If a shift lens is not used,perspective distortion tends tobe more obvious toward thetops of buildings

Telephoto lens result, leftDistortion occurs if a shiftlens is not used; comparethe top of the building with the result of the set-up (right).

USING A SHIFT LENSSHIFT LENS

A shift, or perspective control (PC), lens alters theappearance of vertical lines. By turning a knob on thelens you can make the front of the lens shift upward,downward, or sideways. So instead of tilting thecamera to include the top of a building, simply shiftthe lens upward until the top of the building comesinto view on the focusing screen. Shift lenses arecostly, are only available for certain 35mm and digitalSLRs, and usually have a fixed wide-angle focal length.

Shift lens result, rightThe sides of the buildingnow appear perfectlysquare. The shift controlraised the front of thelens, which straightensvertical lines and correctsany perspective distortion.

Before and afterThese photographs takenwith a shift lens (left) andwithout (far left) show howthis lens corrects theappearance of convergingvertical lines. A shift lenshas greater covering powerthan a normal lens,allowing you to change theimage without having tomove the camera.

USING A SHIFT LENS/PHOTOGRAPHING EXTERIOR DETAILS 193

The details on the outside of a building cansometimes tell you more about the buildingthan the whole structure. An entire building,especially a large one, would appear sosmall in the frame that much of interestcould be lost or overlooked. Another pointto consider is that the lighting might beideal for features such as a doorway,colonnade, or windows, but unsuitable forthe building as a whole.

The focal length of the lens required forexterior details is dependent on the size ofthe feature to be photographed and howclose you can get to it. For example, agargoyle under the eaves of a cathedralroof may require a lens of at least 300mmfor a reasonably sized image, while toinclude all of the main entrance of thatsame building, a 28mm wide-angle lensmay well be needed. A typical standardzoom lens will provide a range of options.

PHOTOGRAPHING EXTERIOR DETAILS

Textural emphasis, aboveThe doorway in the set-up picture is lit by diffuseddaylight that helps bring out the texture of the stone.Bright, direct sunlight would result in dark shadows that would mask important detail.

Doorway is lit by diffused daylight that emphasizes the texture of the stonework

Long lens detailsUsing a long telephoto lens allows youto record architectural details that youmight easily miss with the naked eye,or with a general wide-angle shot.

Taken with a 250mm lens setting, theelaborate carving on the columns(above left) and the grotesque face ofthe gargoyle (above) fill the pictureframe, and so can be studied in detail.

PHOTO SET-UP:Architectural detailsThe subject of this set-up is the carved stoneworkof a church doorway and surround. A 28mmwide-angle shift lens is used to make sure there isno perspective distortion caused by convergingvertical lines.The doorway is lit by diffused,directional daylight from a bright sky, but with nodirect sunlight falling within the picture area.

35mm camera on a tripod with a28mm wide-angle shift lens


Introducing drama, topAn intense sun and low cameraviewpoint highlight the walls of thisCanadian granary, producingdramatic contrast against the deepshadows of the unlit surfaces.35mm camera, 28mm lens,Ektachrome 64, f16, 1/125 sec.

Foreground addition, leftThe space in front of this mosquein Istanbul is relieved by placing afigure in the foreground.6 x 6cm camera, 50mm lens,Ektachrome 64, f11, 1/125sec.

Time of day, abovePhotographs of ancient sites, suchas this of the Ramesseum (themortuary temple of Ramesses II onthe west bank of the Nile at Luxorin Egypt) are often best taken atmidday when the sun is overhead,creating strong contrast betweenhighlights and shadows.35mm camera, 35mm lens,Kodachrome 25, f22, 1/250 sec.


Intentional distortion, rightBy moving in close to the base of this building and tilting the camera back, the towering glassedifice appears almost to be toppling over, as if giving up itsstruggle against gravity.The curved gridwork adds dynamic pattern to the composition.35mm camera, 24mm lens,Ektachrome 200, f22, 1/60 sec.

Polarizing filter, top The impact of this stark, whitebuilding would have beendiminished without the use of apolarizing filter, which darkens theblue of the slightly stormy sky.35mm camera, 35mm lens,Ektachrome 200, f8, 1/250 sec.

Lead-in lines, aboveA shadowy wall guides the eyetoward the main subject of thisscene, a church on a Greek island.35mm camera, 50mm lens,Ektachrome 200, f16 , 1/250sec.

Color content, leftEven when the architectural merits of abuilding are dubious, its color content maystill make it an eyecatching subject for aphotograph. In the drab surroundings of aMoroccan backstreet, the birthday-cakepink, green, and blue color scheme of thisbuilding has immediate impact.35mm camera, 85mm lens, Ektachrome100, f22, 1/60 sec.


PHOTOGRAPHING INTERIORSPhotographing the interiors of buildings hasits limitations, primarily associated withworking in a confined space and the qualityand intensity of the lighting. Relying onnatural light can result in strong contrasts,with beams of light entering through well-defined window areas and casting distantparts of the room into shadow. If this is notthe effect you want to achieve, use a whitecardboard reflector or mirror to bounce lightinto dark corners or supplement the lightusing an add-on flash unit.

USING A WIDE-ANGLE LENS

Unless you want shots of specific details thatrequire the use of a long-focus lens, a 28mmor 35mm wide-angle lens is best for limitedspaces if your aim is to include as much ofthe room as possible in the shot. You willstill need to select the most appropriate angleand rearrange furniture if it is a vital element.

PHOTO SET-UP: Using a fisheye lensPhotographing this old-fashioned kitchen would be difficultwithout an extreme wide-angle lens.A 15mm fisheye lensfits in as much of the room as possible.This results inextreme distortion – most noticeable at the front of theframe.The front-to-back distance is also very exaggerated.

35mm camera with a 15mmfisheye lens

Objects are positioned at thefront of the frame to emphasizethe distortion effect of thisextreme wide-angle lens

Extreme views, aboveThe bowing of all verticallines positioned near theframe edges evident in thispicture is typical of imagestaken with extreme wide-angle lenses. Depth offield at every aperture is sogreat with a 15mm fisheyelens that there is virtuallyno need to focus.

FISHEYE LENSES AND CONVERTERS

Fisheye lenses give an extreme wide-angle,but distorted, view of the world.Thosethat give a full-frame image typically have a focal length of around 15 or 16mm.Circular fisheyes, with a focal length ofaround 8mm, produce a round image inthe center of the film area.The angle ofview for both is around 180°. Fisheyeconverters, which produce similar effects, are made for digital cameras withbuilt-in zooms.

Tripod is required to holdcamera steady during longexposure of two seconds

PHOTOGRAPHING INTERIORS 197

Standing figure, aboveBy positioning the subjectaway from the skylight, thepotential lighting problemsare at once lessened. Theflash lights become moreimportant, but there isnow no need to balancethem with the natural light.

Seated figure, leftPositioning the subject off-center is a useful devicewhen both the figure andthe interior are important.The figure is backlit bynatural light and the flashis just used as a fill-in.

PHOTO SET-UP:Additional flash lightingThe living room of architect Richard Rogers’ ultra-modernhome is used as a portrait setting in this picture set-up.An interior containing a figure requires an even, balancedlighting scheme to light the surroundings as well as thesubject.This means you will nearly always have to useadditional flash lighting to supplement available light.

6 x 7cm camera with astandard 80mm lens ispositioned on a high tripod

Single lighting unit close tothe subject is used tobounce sidelighting off alight-colored canvas

Two lighting units bouncesoft, indirect frontlightingonto the seated figure


WORKING IN LARGE INTERIORSWorking inside a large interior usually meansbeing selective about what you include in thepicture and what you leave out. If you cannotaccommodate everything in the frame even byusing your widest lens, then look for the anglethat shows the most revealing or impressiveaspects of the particular location.

Often you will find that the best cameraposition is directly in front of the windows,with the camera looking into the interior. Inthis way the light will be behind you and theinterior features will be lit from the front orside. If there are windows in both flankingwalls, then a more central camera positionmay result in the most flexible lighting.

High viewpointThis shot of the entrancehall is taken from a higherangle than the photo set-up. Taken from a standardviewpoint, the ceiling isexcluded from the picture.

Low viewpoint, belowThis dramatic picture resultsfrom the low camera anglein the set-up photo. Thepillars appear to converge,directing the viewer’s gazeto the ceiling. The staircaseseems far steeper from thisposition and the foregroundarea has been minimized.

PHOTO SET-UP: Camera viewpointThe marble hall of this stately home, with a grand staircaseleading up past ornamental pillars to a galleried landing, isbest viewed from the center of the ground floor to takefull advantage of the daylight entering through the windowsin the side walls above and behind the camera.

35mm camera witha 15mm wide-anglelens is positionedon a short tripod

Low camera viewpointand use of a wide-anglelens includes the ornate

ceiling in shot

WORKING IN LARGE INTERIORS 199

FLASH TECHNIQUESA single burst of light from a hand-held flash unitdoes not make much of a difference in terms oflighting a large interior, especially one with a highceiling like the church shown in this photo set-up.Rather than firing the flash just once, try setting thecamera’s shutter to T (time), then press the cablerelease to lock it open and fire the flash manuallyas many times as you think you need for a correctexposure. A tripod is essential if you use thistechnique during an exposure of many seconds.You may need the help of an assistant to shield thelens while you move between flash positions.

PHOTO SET-UP: Painting with lightTo light the high ceiling in this church, a flash unit is fired from avariety of positions around the interior to direct the light atdifferent parts of the roof.

With and without flashThe first picture (below) wastaken without flash. Anexposure of six seconds givesdetail where the light falls, butthe roof area is lost in shadow.For the next shot (below right),the shutter was held open whilea hand-held flash was fired atdifferent parts of the roof.

Camera shutter is held openthroughout the exposure

using a locking cable release

The flash gun is pointedtowards the ceiling fromvarious points around the interior

35mm camera on a tripodwith a 28mm shift lens


LIGHTING SIMPLE INTERIORSSimple interiors can make fascinatingsubjects for the camera. Whereas large public buildings are designed to project animpersonal public image, people’s homes are full of private, intimate touches that canreveal much about those who live there.

NATURAL LIGHTING

When shooting an interior you must decidewhether to rely on natural daylight fromwindows, doors, or skylights, or to useartificial lighting such as flash or tungstenlights. The color temperature of daylight andflash are the same, so color-casts are not aproblem on ordinary, daylight-balanced film.Do not, however, turn on any of the roomlights unless you want an orange cast.

PHOTO SET-UP: Directional daylightThis kitchen is lit solely by light entering through the large windows on the right. Contrast could have been a problem were it not for the white walls, which reflect light and so keep the shadows from becoming too dense.

35mm camera with a28mm wide-angle lensis positioned on atripod in one cornerof the room

Directional daylightfrom the windowsis the only source

of illumination

Church interior, leftDirectional daylight fromwindows on the left of the frame is the chiefillumination for this simplechurch interior. Naturaldaylight casts shadows intothe central aisle, adding tothe mood and atmosphereof the tranquil scene.

Country kitchen, aboveThis shot is composed inthe camera viewfinder toexclude unwanted details.The high camera positionlooks over the top of thesink unit and the framingis tight in on the cabinetsto avoid the edge of thedoor frame appearing inthe shot.

LIGHTING SIMPLE INTERIORS 201

Lit by daylightThis picture is taken innatural daylight withoutusing flash. In comparisonwith the shot taken usingflash (top), the scene looksmore natural and has anintimate atmosphere.

Lit by flashNote how evenly the scene is illuminated usingfill-in flash. However, inthis flash version some ofthe mood has been lostand the absence ofshadows removes thesense of depth.

DIGITAL SOLUTIONS

•Set the whitebalance manually,particularly if the roomis lit by a mixture oflighting sources.

•Look at the imageon the screen to makesure that there are noextraneous details.

•Minor marks onwalls, etc., can beremoved later usingcloning techniques.

PHOTO SET-UP: Supplementing lightAlthough supplementary flash can be used to light aninterior when daylight is not sufficient, the effect of evenlighting is difficult to achieve and can ruin the atmosphereof a room.To illuminate this entire bedroom with flashwould require a minimum of three lighting units. One flash unit is used here to light a corner of the room.

White-painted walland ceiling make idealsurfaces off which to

bounce light

Cable release

35mm camera with a28mm wide-angle lens is

positioned on a high tripod

Flash lighting head isangled upward

toproduce indirect,reflected illumination


PHOTOGRAPHING INTERIOR DETAILSStairwells, windows, and doorways are justsome of the interior details that often make afar more revealing and interesting subject fora photograph than the setting as a whole.

DETAILS IN PUBLIC BUILDINGS

If you are shooting in a large public building,such as a church, museum, or stately home,you may need a long-focus lens to enlarge thedetail in the frame. In addition, camera anglesmay be restricted; a 70–210mm zoom allowsyou the flexibility to adjust the size of thesubject in the frame without changing position.However, zoom lenses have small maximumapertures, limiting their use in poor light. It is best to use a fast film to avoid blurredpictures caused by slow shutter speeds and to overcome problems of shallow depth offield due to shooting at maximum aperture.Remember that you may need to askpermission to use a tripod in a public building.

Framing of detail, leftSpace is very restricted onthe upper landing of thisoak stairway, making itdifficult to position thetripod and to frame theshot correctly. In order tokeep the lens level andavoid any perspectivedistortion, a 28mm wide-angle shift lens is used.

PHOTO SET-UP: Stairway detailAlthough flash could be used for a small interior detailsuch as this stairway, it is preferable to rely on daylightwhenever possible. Natural light lends a moody andatmospheric quality that is almost impossible to achievewith flash or tungsten. Although the levels of ambient lightappear high, a long four-second exposure using fast filmmakes the use of a tripod essential.

35mm camera witha wide-angle 28mmshift lens

Tripod is essential if youare shooting a longexposure, and it is alsouseful for keeping thecamera in precisely theposition you want

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•If using an ordinary wide-angle lens, keepthe camera back parallel with the subject toavoid unwanted distortion of perspective.

•Interiors lit by natural window light alonecan be contrasty; use a simple reflector tolighten shadows.

PHOTOGRAPHING INTERIOR DETAILS 203

STAINED GLASS WINDOWSAlthough most often seen in churches,stained glass windows are also found insome secular buildings. For successfulresults, try to get as close as possible to thewindow and level with the detail you wantto record. If the windows are high up, use along-focus lens. The light coming throughthe glass is best from an evenly lit, overcastsky. The lower the light levels, the deeperthe color of the glass will appear. Always usea tripod and allow long exposure times.

PHOTO SET-UP: Stained glass detail It is best to position the camera as level with the windowas possible, so that it is neither pointing up nor down.Because of the height of the window being photographedin this photo set-up, the tripod is raised higher thannormal by placing its legs on three identical chairs.

Subdued lightingLight from a bright butovercast sky usually givesthe best results whenphotographing stainedglass. In these pictures(above) there is an even

intensity of color over the glass. Positioning thewindows in the viewfinderso that the black metalborders serve to frame the scenes strengthens the resulting effect.

35mm camera with a 28–70mm wide-angle

zoom lens Tripod is neededto support the

camera since lowlight levels require

a long exposure Chairs are used to raisethe camera level withthe windows


Powerful symmetry, rightSome of the finest architecturalfeatures in churches are to befound high above the heads of theworshippers and visitors below:majestic arches, delicate stained-glass windows, and intricatelydetailed columns and ceilings.6 x 6cm camera, 120mm lens,Ektachrome 200, f22, 1/15 sec.

Harmony of tone, belowOvercast light is often the leastflattering for architectural work.The lack of contrast in this detail,however, has created an imagecomposed of harmonious tones.The only black that can be seen isthe view into the interior, framingthe window on the other side.35mm camera, 50mm lens,Ektachrome 100, f11, 1/60 sec.

Indirect lighting, far leftThe ornately carved stonework and marble floor of this buildingare seen to best advantage whenthe sun bounces off the walls ofthe courtyard and indirectlyreaches the interior depicted here.35mm camera, 35mm lens,Ektachrome 100, f22, 1/125 sec.

Focusing on detail, leftBy selecting the appropriate focallength lens, or focal setting on azoom lens, you can isolate a singledetail of architectural merit, suchas this ancient wooden door andsurround, in an otherwiseuninteresting scene.35mm camera, 100mm lens,Kodachrome 200, f8, 1/125 sec.


Selective focusThe choice of a relatively largeaperture to focus on the opaqueglass and ironwork of this lightfixture renders the backgroundslightly out of focus so that it doesnot compete for attention.35mm camera, 90mm lens,Kodachrome 64, f5.6, 1/60 sec.

Graphic imageryBy omitting the doors, windows, andother features of this Tudor house,the black of the timbers seenagainst the white of the infill makesfor a strong, graphic image.35mm camera, 50mm lens,Kodachrome 64, f8, 1/125 sec.

Venetian detailThese candy-striped mooring polesmake the location of the image(Venice) immediately obvious to the viewer.There is no need for awider angle to communicate moreclues as to the identity of the locale.35mm camera, 135mm lens,Kodachrome 200, f11, 1/60 sec.

Interpretative resultFor this interior view of theGuggenheim Museum, New York,which has a series of spiralinggalleries, the exposure is set for thebrightest parts of the scene.Theresult is abstract.35mm camera, 28mm lens,Kodachrome 64, f16, 1/125 sec.

Selective geometry, rightAll types of architectural stylesprovide interesting details for thecamera lens. In this picture, the viewhas been chosen so that the image iscomposed of geometric shapes –squares, rectangles, and triangles.35mm camera, 85mm lens,Fujichrome 100, f16, 1/250 sec.

Domestic tungsten, aboveWhen shooting an interior, you willoften have to rely on the availablelight.This scene of a stairway is lit bya mixture of natural daylight anddomestic tungsten bulbs.Where thetungsten lighting is strongest, a warmorange color-cast is noticeable.35mm camera, 28mm lens,Ektachrome 200, f8, 1/60 sec.

206 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: NATURE

NATURE

Nature in close-upSee pages 208–209

Flowers and shrubsSee pages 218–219

Macro lightingSee pages 212–213

MacrophotographySee pages 210–211

A question of scaleThe key to successful nature photography is tomove in close to capture the many guises ofnature. Close-up photography no longerrepresents a technical problem. Many moderncameras allow close focusing with ordinarylenses and many zoom lenses also have macromode settings that let you shoot with the frontelement almost touching the subject.

Close-up equipmentAdditional close-up equipment such as bellowsunits and extension tubes allow you to getextremely close to your subject. Successfulnature photography relies to a large degree onyou, the photographer, adjusting your sense ofscale. Viewed from a distance, a bluebell patchis a subtle wash of color, but you can move incloser so that your view is of a single plant,and then closer still so that a single flower fillsthe frame, and then perhaps even closer so thata detail of a single flower is revealed.

Confined viewAlthough your view is more restricted whenworking with natural history subjects thanwhen you are photographing landscapes, thebasic disciplines that are needed to make goodpictures in any field of interest still apply. First,use your judgment to find the most appropriatecamera angle from which to photograph yoursubject. Second, think about the best possiblecomposition and adjust framing to maximizethe distribution of color and tone within theframe. Third, experiment with horizontal andvertical framing: even try framing the subjectdiagonally if that seems best. Finally, considerthe lighting for your subject and if it is notappropriate, think about returning at anothertime of day when the lighting direction andquality are more favorable.

Photography has an increasingly important role to play inrecording the natural world. As human habitation spreadsever deeper into the landscape, submerging meadows andforests, photography can reveal a unique beauty of form,color, and texture that might otherwise pass unnoticed.

NATURE SET-UPPhotographing this lily pond requires carefulframing with a zoom lens to avoid unwanteddetails.The lighting is diffused, with the sunhidden behind clouds. An overhanging treealso reduces available light. Note how thegreen of the lily pads seems to be intensifiedby the heavy shade, while the white lilies showup starkly in comparison. However, conditionschange rapidly, and later in the day the sunbroke through the clouds to bathe the lilieswith direct light and completely change theatmosphere of the scene.

NATURE 207

EQUIPMENT

•35mm SLRcamera and plentyof spare film

•Range of lensesincluding a 100mmmacro lens

•Bellows andextension tubes


Camera and tripod

6ft (2m)

Direction of light

Nature subject

Effect of sunlightDirect sunlight lessens thecontrast between the lilypads and flowers, buthighlights the differencebetween the plant and thedark, reflective surface ofthe surrounding water.

OVERHEAD VIEW

CameraA 35mm camera with a70–210mm zoom lens set at about90mm and positioned on a tripod.The camera is loaded withmedium-speed ISO 200 film

LightingDappled light from overhangingtree casts shadows over part ofthe water and intensifies the colorsaturation of the leaves andflowers beneath

208 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURE: NATURE

REVEALING NATURE IN CLOSE UPNatural history photography is not restrictedto those who have specialized macro lenses.All of the images shown on these pageswere taken using a 35mm camera with a150mm long-focus lens. Many modern zoomlenses also have a macro mode setting,which is useful when photographing smallersubjects (see page 210).

The principal problem with close-up shotsusing either a long-focus or macro lens is therestricted zone of sharp focus, known as thedepth of field. This problem is made worsebecause depth of field is even more restrictedat close focusing distances. Small aperturesare needed to make sure everything is infocus, and this often results in long shutterspeeds, which can introduce problems ofcamera shake or subject movement. To avoidcamera shake, use a tripod and cable releaseand choose fast film to speed up exposure.

DIGITAL SOLUTIONS

•Many digital camerasallow you to focusvery close to subjects,particularly if a specialmacro mode is used.The amount ofmagnification, however,may not be as great asit seems as the imagehas already beenenlarged when it isdisplayed on the LCDviewing screen.

•To magnify an imagemore, use a close-uplens, which attaches tothe front of thecamera like a filter.

PHOTO SET-UP: Close-up on flowersAlthough the subject is lit by bright daylight, a smallaperture of f22 results in a shutter speed of 1/60 second.Remember that even at this shutter speed you shouldwait for any breeze to die down before taking the pictureso that subject movement does not spoil the shot.

35mm camerafixed on a tripod

with a 150mmlong-focus lens

Natural patternThe camera looks into theopen trumpets of the lilies.The angle of view of the150mm lens excludes allother details, creating a strong composition ofcolor, pattern, and form.

Viewpoint is chosen so thatthe camera looks down intothe open flowers

REVEALING NATURE IN CLOSE UP 209

Subject and settingSuccessful natural historyshots require patience andperseverance. It is alwayspreferable to photograph asubject in a natural setting(top). Finding your subjectin the right surroundingsmay take a little time butthe results make it wellworth the effort (above).

Depth of fieldThe light for this shot isslightly overcast, and this,linked with an aperture off32 to ensure sufficientdepth of field for subjectand background, meansusing a slow shutter speed

of 1/30 second. Carefultiming of the shot so thatthe toad is sitting still on the stone results in a sharpimage (left), whereas even atiny movement of the toadwill cause the picture to beslightly blurred (above).

PHOTO SET-UP: Mobile subjectWhen photographing a mobile subject such as this toad, itis important to confine the animal within an area of itsnatural habitat. Make sure that the enclosure is sufficientlylarge and try not to handle the subject too much or keepit confined for longer than necessary.

35mm camerawith a 150mmlong-focus lens

Tripod is necessary toprevent camera shakeduring a long exposure

Natural setting provides acamouflaged backgroundfor the toad

Large enclosure to keepthe toad from escaping


MACROPHOTOGRAPHYLook at a lens when it is focusing on a close-up subject and you will see that as it movesaway from the camera body, the closer thefocusing distance becomes. Many zoom lenseshave a macro setting that extends the lensbeyond its normal range.

MACRO TECHNIQUES

Macro lenses have greatly extended focusingranges and they are used for high-definition,close-up photography. Other close-uptechniques involve using extension tubes orbellows between the camera body and lens.Lighting for macro shots can be difficult sincethe camera, lens, and tripod are so close thatthey may cast unwanted shadows. Thisproblem can be partly overcome by using alonger 100mm lens rather than a standard50mm lens on a 35mm camera. Ring flashoffers the most controllable form of lightingfor close-up subjects (see box opposite).

PHOTO SET-UP: Macro lensWhen working at very close distances, even the mostminute degree of subject movement will result in a veryblurred image.To prevent any movement of the flower inthis set-up, a white cardboard reflector is propped up onone side to act as a windbreak.The stem of the flowercan also be secured using a piece of wire (see inset).

35mm camera on atripod with a 100mm

macro lens

Cable release allows you to fire theshutter without touching the cameraand perhaps causing vibrations thatwould spoil the picture

White cardboard helps reflect light onto the subject and shieldthe subject from any air currents

PeriwinkleThe blue flower is separatedfrom the background byselecting a wide aperture.Depth of field for close-upshots is shallow, makingaccurate focusing critical.

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•Lighting the subjectsolely with flash willgive you a sharp imageif all subject movementcannot be eliminated.

•If you have a choice,use the longest focallength macro available.A 100mm lens givesgreater magnification,allowing more spacebetween the cameraand the subject.

Length of wireattached to the rearwall is used to hold

the flower steady

MACROPHOTOGRAPHY 211

Water lily, aboveRestricted depth of fieldemphasizes the flower andgives a sense of depth.

Pale rose, leftRing flash produces analmost shadowless resultand creates an exposuredifference that shows thebackground subdued byslight underexposure.

Rose and dew, far leftThe beads of dew add extrainterest to this picture of arose. The effect is easilyachieved by misting theflower with a water spray.

Bellows unitFitting a bellows onto yourcamera gives you a widerange of possible imagemagnifications. One end ofthe bellows fits into thecamera while the otheraccepts a normal lens.Moving the bellows alongits track takes the lenscloser to or farther awayfrom the subject to altermagnification.

Extension tubesExtension tubes, usuallyavailable in sets of three,can be used individuallyor in combination to alterlens-to-film distance, andso produce fixed degreesof subject magnification.

Ring flashThis specialized unit hasa circular flash tube thatfits around the frontelement of the lens.Designed for use withsmall close-up subjects, it gives an almostshadowless light effect.

The term macrophotography describes film images thatare life-sized or larger. For 35mm SLRs and the variousmedium-format roll-film cameras, the most flexiblesystems for macro and general close-up work includemacro lenses, bellows, and extension tubes.

MACRO AND CLOSE-UP EQUIPMENT

Macro lensesMacro lenses for 35mm wSLRs range from 50mm to 200mm. Although theycan be used for ordinarywork, they are designed togive best resolution forsubjects very close to thelens. Sharpness is slightlypoorer for distant subjectsin comparison with anordinary lens. A macro lensis expensive and should beconsidered only forspecialized close-up work.

27.5mm extension

14mm extension

Standard bellows

105mm extension

Ring flash for 35mm camera

60mm macro lens

100mm macro lens


LIGHTING FOR INDOOR MACROIn order to take close-ups of small subjectssuch as butterflies, insects, coins, or jewelry,you often need to position the camera lensextremely close to your subject. This can resultin problems, since the camera and lens are soclose that it may be difficult to get sufficientlight where it is needed. A 100mm macro lensmakes lighting easier since it allows you towork farther away from your subject.

Enhancing the subjectIt is important to use theright lighting to enhanceyour subject’s form, color,or other characteristics.The differences in thesepictures are startling, withsidelighting used for thefirst image (far left), anddiffused toplighting for the second image (left).

Directional lightStrong, directional lightfrom the right-hand side ofthis small red butterflyemphasizes the texture and

Soft lightingThis time the small redbutterfly has been lit withsoft light from above. Itscolor and shape are now

color contrasts. Sidelightingalso highlights the deeplygrooved surface of thewood on which the insecthas been placed.

PHOTO SET-UP: Diffused toplightingToplighting is provided by a flash unit fitted with a softbox diffuser.Although this amount of light may seem overpowering for a small subject, much of the light is lost due to the proximityof the camera, lens, and tripod.

PHOTO SET-UP: Directional lightingA single flash lighting unit is used in this set-up.The

light is positioned low down to give a strongly directional effect.The snoot attachment

ensures that a concentrated beam of light falls onto the subject.

Adjustablelighting stand

Power pack

Adjustablelighting stand

Cable release

Flash lighting unit with a snoot

attachment

35mm camera with a 100mm

macro lens

Flash lighting unit with asoftbox diffuser

Cable release


35mm camerawith a 100mm macro lens

more obviously the subjectof the photograph, thewood background is lessintrusive, and the effect ofthe toplighting is warmer.

Power pack Synchronization lead

LIGHTING FOR INDOOR MACRO 213

Blue butterfly, leftWith some subjects, thedirection of the lightingwill have a profoundeffect on the way theircolor is recorded. For thisimage, diffused toplightingwas used so the brilliantblue and black-edgedcoloration of the butterfly’swings is highlighted.

Gray butterfly, aboveAlthough the subject is thesame blue butterfly (left),strong sidelightingproduces a very differentpicture. Here the insect isilluminated by lightreflected up through itstranslucent wings from thesurface of the stone, ratherthan from above.

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•If you do not have a snoot, cut a hole in the centerof a piece of card to create a narrow beam of light.

•Lighting is easier using a long lens and bellows sinceyou are able to work farther away from the subject.

•Extremely shallow depth of field associated withclose-ups means working with a small aperture.

•A ring flash is useful for lighting a small subject.


Light and texture, far leftIn this shot, intense sunlight falls atan angle that accentuates the richcolor of the fungus and the textureof the supporting bark.35mm camera, 90mm lens,Fujichrome 100, f16, 1/125 sec.

Abstract effect, leftAt first glance, this picture seemsto be an abstract pattern of shapesin the long grass. In fact, thesubject is a field of fallen apples.35mm camera, 50mm lens,Ektachrome 100, f11, 1/60 sec.

Wide apertureA large flower can be photographedwithout specialized equipment.Tokeep the background from being tooprominent, use a wide aperture.6 x 6cm camera, 150mm lens,Ektachrome 200, f4, 1/60 sec.

NATURE GALLERY 215

New lifeA few days before beingphotographed, this fern barelyshowed above the soil. Part of thefascination of nature photographyis the awareness it gives you of thenatural cycle of growth and decay.35mm camera, 80mm lens,Fujichrome 100, f8, 1/30 sec.

Color renditionThe color of the toadstools variessubtly, from near white to blue,according to where the sunlightand shadows fall.35mm camera, 135mm lens(plus extension tube),Kodachrome 64, f16, 1/15 sec.

Supplementary lightingWith a tightly framed subject, it ispossible to supplement lighting witha flashgun.The angles of the flash andnatural light must correspond toprevent a double set of shadows.35mm camera, 100mm macro lens,Ektachrome 100, f22, 1/60 sec.

Early morningCrisp, clear, winter sunshine has a particular steely clarity not foundat other times of the year.To recordthe frost still clinging to evergreenleaves, however, you need tophotograph your subject early in themorning before the sun has warmedthe surrounding air.35mm camera, 135mm lens,Ektachrome 200, f5.6, 1/30 sec.


PHOTOGRAPHING GARDENSWhen taking a picture of a garden setting, thedetails of the location are less important thanthe way in which they interact with eachother to create a unified whole. A standardand a wide-angle lens are generally moreuseful than longer focal lengths, though thisdepends on the size of the garden and thevantage points its design and layout allow.

THE GARDEN AT ITS BEST

Gardens are at their best at different times of the year, depending on the plants – someare spectacular in early summer when in fullbloom, while others may be spring or fallgardens. The time of day is also important. To the naked eye, a garden may look mostimpressive in bright, midday sunlight; on film,however, early morning and late afternoonlight usually produce the best results.

PHOTO SET-UP: Garden as a settingThis is a mature garden, and the house is an integral partof the overall setting. By positioning the camera on theriverbank opposite the house, it is possible to conveysome of the atmosphere of the scene.

6 x 7cm camera ona tripod with a90mm standard lens

Fast-moving wateradds vitality to

the scene

Direction of the shadowsindicates afternoon sunlight,which tends to be better forrecording the color andtexture of plants

House and garden, aboveThe vantage point shownin the photo set-up resultsin this charming image ofan idyllic country housesurrounded by its garden.

PHOTOGRAPHING GARDENS 217

Use of color, aboveAt first glance, this formalgarden setting at Villandry,France, appears to be ariot of random colorseparated by hedges.However, the repetition ofcolors, notably the yellow,leads the gaze back towardthe château.

Leading the eye, leftMany devices can be usedto direct attention to aspecific area of the pictureframe. It could be therepetitive use of color or,as here, a statue thatseems to compel you tofollow its gaze into asheltered corner of a muchlarger garden setting.


PHOTOGRAPHING FLOWERS AND SHRUBSUnless carefully considered, photographs offlowerbeds and planted borders can be adisappointing amalgam of discordant colorwith no particular center of interest, form, orstructure. Avoid this pitfall by finding anindividual plant or group of plants aroundwhich to build your composition. Once youhave this focal point, look for angles thatshow other parts of the garden in supportingroles to give your picture a coherent structure.

EQUIPMENT AND CONDITIONS

The selective angle of view of a long-focuslens is best for filling the frame with anindividual plant. Wind is the main problemwhen photographing flowers. Gusty conditionsrequire a fast shutter speed to avoid subjectmovement, and this in turn requires a wideaperture, resulting in shallow depth of field.

Still image, oppositeAny slight movement willbe noticeable when youtake photographs offlowers and plants. If youdo not use a windbreak toprevent movement, waitfor the wind to die down,or use a fast shutter speed.

PHOTO SET-UP: Coordinating colorBy concentrating on flowerbed and planting details youcan create an interesting picture, even if the garden as awhole does not have photographic potential.The chiefattraction of the flowerbed shown in this photo set-up isthe coordinated color theme.The flowerbed is in shade,which accounts for the slight intensifying of the color.

Intensity of color in thefront part of flowerbed isdue to the angle of light

Kneeling down onone knee creates a steadycamera position

Area of flowerbed in directsunlight contrasts well with the shadowy areas

Flowerbed detail, aboveA harmonious theme oflilacs, mauves, pinks, andreds unites this flowerbeddetail, with the whites andgreens acting to cool thewarmth of the other colors.

Hand-held35mm camerawith a 90mmlong-focus lens

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•Use large boards aswindbreaks to stopflowers swaying.

•A telephoto lens canbe used to makeplanting look denserthan it is in reality.

PHOTOGRAPHING FLOWERS AND SHRUBS 219


Frame-filling formLarge flower heads, such as that ofthis sunflower, allow you to takedetailed, frame-filling close-upswithout going to the expense ofusing specialized macro equipment.Here the bloom dominates theframe, even though it was takenusing only a moderately long lens.35mm camera, 90mm lens,Kodachrome 64, f11, 1/125 sec.

Indoor light levels, belowAn exotic clivia photographed in alarge, glass-covered conservatoryrequires a slow shutter speed.Awide aperture ensures correctexposure for the dim conditions,since the flower is surrounded by other plants and lit only bydaylight filtering through the glass.6 x 6cm camera, 80mm lens,Ektachrome 100, f4, 1/15 sec.

Controlled imagery, aboveA combination of aperture, focallength, and camera distanceproduces this image of a brilliantred hibiscus flower.The greenleaves are softened and out offocus, but add extra informationand interest to the picture.35mm camera, 70mm lens,Fujichrome 100, f5.6, 1/60 sec.

Ring flash, oppositeBy fitting a ring flash to the lens,exposure on the orchid bloomalone is increased, making thebackground appear much darker incomparison.The ring flash givesalmost shadowless illumination ofthe orchid itself.35mm camera, 100mm lens,Ektachrome 100, f11, 1/60 sec.

NATURE GALLERY 221


PHOTOGRAPHING GARDEN ARCHITECTUREIt is quite common to find ornate structures,such as dovecotes, summerhouses, follies, andeven classical temples in large gardens. Thebest way to photograph garden architecturedoes not differ from that used for any otheroutdoor architecture, except that the setting –the garden itself – should be an integral partof the photograph. For the most harmoniouscomposition, try to imagine how thelandscape designer planned the garden to beviewed, and visit it at different times of theday to capture the best lighting effect.

Before shooting, try to find the vantagepoint that shows the garden to best advantage.The garden may vary at particular times of theday, from different viewpoints, in certainseasons, or when seen from a distance.

Symmetry, aboveThis viewpoint records thesymmetrical arrangementof clipped box hedges, thecircular fish pond, and theavenue of trees leading tothe large brick dovecote.

PHOTO SET-UP:Afternoon lightA low, bright afternoon sun in a sky strewn with whiteclouds provides the perfect illumination and backdrop for this building – a large dovecote, with box hedges and an ornamental fish pond in the foreground.

Hand-held 35mmcamera with a 28mmwide-angle lens

Directional sunlight onthe roof of the

dovecote creates planesof light and shade

Central viewpointresults in symmetrical

composition

Long shadowsindicate that the sunis low in the sky

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•Avoid shootingwhen the sun is high inthe sky, since this tendsto produce excessivecontrast and poorcolor saturation.

•Look for a cameraangle that correspondsto the way the gardenwas originally intendedto be viewed.

PHOTOGRAPHING GARDEN ARCHECTECTURE 223

PHOTO SET-UP: Ruined follyThe position of this folly in a quiet, shady corner of the gardenmakes a slow shutter speed and the use of a tripod essential.Although the day is bright, much of the light is obscured by theoverhanging foliage.The need for a small aperture to ensureadequate depth of field results in a long exposure time.

Romantic image, leftThis image successfullycaptures the romantic andsecluded atmosphereevoked by the ruined,medieval-type folly.

Silent grotto, aboveFramed by lavender androses, this folly is theperfect backdrop for thissmall garden. The angle ofthe light adds impact.

Flower colors help brighten the

resulting image

Tripod-mounted 35mmcamera with a 50mmstandard lens

Overhanging foliagecasts dappled shadeover the folly


RECORDING GARDEN FEATURESThe finishing touches to a landscaped gardenare the ornaments used and the focal pointscreated by them. Statues, urns, garden seats,pergolas, rose arches, and similar devices arethe nonorganic features intended by thegarden designer to enhance the beauty of thesetting, and they can make ideal subjects.

For small garden features and close-ups oflarger ones, a 35mm SLR camera fitted with a100mm lens is useful. This lens allows you toexclude extraneous detail, but the angle ofview is not so narrow that it removes all tracesof the setting.

Decorative urn, aboveA low camera angle isessential to show thedecorative basketweavemolding on this garden urn.

PHOTO SET-UP: Garden statueTo photograph this garden statue, it is important to waituntil the sun is low in the sky so that the bust is lit from anangle of about 45°.This lighting direction is best suited toshow the bust’s texture and form, which are emphasized bythe interaction of light and shade (see page 46). Early evening light is striking

the statue from an angle ofabout 45°, apparent in the

direction of the shadow

35mm camera with a70–210mm telephoto

zoom lens

RECORDING GARDEN FEATURES 225

Garden statueThe lichen-covered gardenstatue in the photo set-upis made to stand out fromthe surrounding greeneryby using a long lens with arestricted angle of view.

Selecting a detail, aboveA telephoto zoom is usefulfor isolating a gardendetail and adjusting subjectframing without changingthe camera position.


Sculpted beauty, belowThe formal topiary shapes in thisgarden create large blocks ofdense, hard-edged greenery,unlike the softer, more organicshapes normally associated withgarden photography.A carefullychosen camera angle allows atunnel-like view through to therear of the garden.35mm camera, 50mm lens,Ektachrome 200, f16, 1/30 sec.

Informal plantingA rich and varied planting themeusing a mixed color palette hasbeen created by the designer ofthis garden.The yellow rosebushes in the background create afeeling of depth and distance.35mm camera, 35mm lens,Fujichrome 100, f16, 1/250 sec.

NATURE GALLERY 227

Water viewThe early morning light shows upperfectly the shades of green and stillwater in this shot of the gardens atStourhead, England.35mm camera, 35mm lens, Fujichrome100, f16, 1/250 sec.

228 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: ANIMALS

ANIMALS

Wild animalsSee pages 230–231

Pets on locationSee pages 234–235

Pet portraitsSee pages 234–235

BirdsSee pages 232–233

Early cameras and lensesUntil the early years of the twentieth century,the only pictures you were likely to see of wildanimals were of dead specimens. Cameras andlenses were bulky and film so insensitive andslow that long exposures of several minuteswere common. Rather than seeing a picture ofa bird in flight, you were more likely to beconfronted by a photograph of a stuffedcollector’s specimen behind a protective glassdome. Today, with cameras a fraction of theirformer size, and lenses and film hundreds oftimes faster, the scope for photographing wildanimals in their natural habitat is vast.

Wild animalsMost of us normally see wild animals only inzoos, nature reserves, wildlife and safari parks,and animal sanctuaries, but the spread ofhuman habitation into the countryside andwilderness areas has brought humans intocloser contact with many animal species. Evenif accustomed to the presence of people, wildanimals should always be approached withcaution. Long-focus lenses allow you to standback from your subject, and fast film permits a brief shutter speed or small lens aperture forfreezing subject movement or creating thenecessary depth of field.

Domestic animalsThe most readily available animal subjects forphotography are, of course, pets. Since mostpets, especially dogs and cats, are not at allcamera shy, you will be able to move in muchcloser and use a shorter lens. Try for portraitsthat show your pet’s facial expression, andremember that shots taken from the animal’seye level usually work better than ones takenfrom standing height. Be prepared to shoot alot of film and select the best shots afterward.

Animals have long held a fascination for the photographer.While luck can play a part in taking a successful wildlifephotograph, a knowledge of animal behavior is essential, asare patience and perseverance. When the opportunity for agood shot arises, you should be prepared to act quickly.

ANIMAL SET-UPThe location for this set-up picture is thereptile house in a safari park. Light levels arenot high in the glazed building due to thedense vegetation.The rail surrounding theobservation platform makes an ideal surfaceon which to steady the camera during the long exposure.

ANIMALS 229

EQUIPMENT

•35mm SLR cameraand fast film

•Tripod if necessary

•Range of lensesincluding long-focuslenses and converters

Tight framingUsing a zoom lens allowsyou to adjust framing toexclude unwanted detail.Low ambient light levelsresult in a slow shutterspeed of only 1/60 second.

Animal subjectCrocodile is asleep andoblivious to the cameraso subject movement isnot a problem, allowinga slow exposure

Camera supportSafety rails surrounding theplatform make a suitable surfacefor steadying the camera

CameraHand-held 35mmcamera fitted with a70–210mm zoomlens.The camera isloaded with fast ISO400 film

SurroundingsOverhanging palmleaves and othervegetation shadethe subject andreduce light levels

Camera

Animalsubject

Direction of light

12ft (3.5m)camera-to-

subject distance

OVERHEAD VIEW


PHOTOGRAPHING WILD ANIMALSAlthough bars and wire fences can present aproblem when photographing wild animalsin captivity, modern enclosures with highobservation walkways offer superb picture-taking opportunities. As with all animalphotography, the most important attributesrequired are patience and timing.

ELIMINATING UNWANTED ELEMENTS

A high camera position can often eliminatean unattractive background by showing theanimal subject against a backdrop of grass orstone. If this is not possible, use a long-focusor zoom lens and a wide aperture to restrictangle of view and depth of field. A motordrive is useful since you do not have to lookup from the viewfinder to advance the film.

Overhead viewpointThe viewpoint shown in the photo set-upresults in these photographs in which thesubject is seen against a background ofgrass and foliage. The diffused sunlight isexcellent, because it ensures that the richcolor of the tiger’s coat is well recorded.

Timing, oppositeA slight change in thetiger’s posture or facialexpression can make allthe difference between anordinary or an outstandingshot. Working with anunpredictable subjectmeans that you have tokeep your finger on theshutter release at all times.In this shot the tigermomentarily looks backtoward the camera.

PHOTO SET-UP:Wildlife parkThe high walkway at a wildlife park is the perfect vantagepoint for this photo set-up overlooking a large enclosure ofSumatran tigers.A long-focus lens with a x2 converterensures that the framing is tight on the tiger and that noneof the resulting shots reveals the encircling safety fences.

Safety rail makes a convenientsupport to steady the hand-heldcamera – camera shake, even at

fast shutter speeds, is always a riskwhen using a long-focus lensPatience is required to

wait for the subject toadopt a suitable pose

Background is excludedfrom resulting picture

by tight framing ofanimal subject

Hand-held 35mm camerawith a 135mm long-focuslens and x 2 converter

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•In a wildlife park,obey all the safetyrules and take no risks.

•Take the minimumequipment if you arestalking wildlife.

•A motor drive maydisturb the animals.

•Bring out the colorof your animal subjectby including contrastingvegetation in the shot.

PHOTOGRAPHING WILD ANIMALS 231


PHOTOGRAPHING BIRDSWith their senses of hearing and sight farsharper than our own, wild birds can bedifficult subjects to observe and to photograph.Whether or not your intended subjects will letyou come within camera range often dependson whether they regard you as a potentialthreat or just as a harmless observer.

OBSERVING BIRDS

Many birds, such as common garden visitors,and others found in parks, sanctuaries, andlakesides have developed a tolerance of people and can be easily approached.However, it is best to assume that all wildbirds will be cautious, making a long-focuslens and tripod essential for detailed close-ups.To avoid scaring birds, keep out of sight, usingnatural cover or a manmade shelter ifavailable, and make as little noise as possible.

Canada gooseAlthough in a sleepingposition, with its headresting on its back, thisgoose is alert to danger. A 300mm long-focus lenswith a x2 converter is usedto avoid getting too closeto the subject and possiblyfrightening it.

White swanSurrounded by tall reeds,this swan’s nest is sunlit foronly a short period eachday. Without this directsunlight, the swan’s whiteplumage would take on agray coloration, and thesurrounding plants wouldlose their vibrancy of color.

PHOTO SET-UP: Nesting birdsYou cannot approach too close to nesting birds since theymay damage the eggs or even abandon the nest.A long-focus lens and converter is useful for recording detailedimages of the birds without causing unnecessary stress.

Canada goose’s nest is wellhidden in tall grass, with thebird keeping very still

35mm camera with a300mm lens and fittedwith a x2 converter,which increases thefocal length to 600mm

Tripod is essential forsharp images because ofthe slow shutter speedand the weight of thelong-focus lens

PHOTOGRAPHING BIRDS 233

PHOTO SET-UP: Natural camouflageThe less obvious your presence, the more natural the behavior of thebirds that you want to photograph will be.These geese are aware of theintruder, but with the lake nearby for a quick escape they are not tooconcerned. A 500mm long-focus lens makes it possible to use naturalcover and to be positioned some distance from the subject.

Family outing, aboveThis family scene showsa clutch of goslingsunder the guardianshipof two adult geese.Depth of field with the500mm lens is shallowand isolates the birdsfrom the surroundings.

Lighting direction, abovePatient observation and aconcealed position resultsin natural-looking pictures.

35mm camerawith a 500mm lens

Tripod is essential to avoid camerashake because of the combinedweight of the camera and lens

Conveniently located tree provides cover

Geese congregate nearthe water for a swiftescape if necessary

DIGITAL SOLUTIONS

Use a teleconverter toextend the telephotorange of a digitalcamera with a fixedzoom.These canincrease the focallength by 1.4–3 times.


Many people regard their pet as one of thefamily, so it is not surprising that ownersoften want an animal portrait and that this is a popular area of photography. The maindifficulty is persuading the animal to stay stilllong enough to be photographed.

DECIDING ON A SETTING

The controlled environment of an indoorsetting is ideal if you want a detailed, well-illuminated, and carefully composed imageof your pet. However, if you are workingwith an animal that you do not know, makesure the owner is present and that it is welltrained and not of a nervous disposition. Formore informal portraits you can choose anoutdoor location. Depending on the animalbeing photographed, your back yard, a localpark, or a beach could make a perfect setting.

PHOTO SET-UP:Working with petsAnimals can be very difficult to photograph in an unfamiliarenvironment and may need to be restrained.A large dogcan be a danger to those around it if it becomes frightened,and it could also damage equipment.A useful tip is toremember that most pets respond to their owner. In thisset-up, the dog’s attention is focused on its owner, who isstanding out of shot, and on the rubber ball she is holding.

Power packprovides thenecessarypower forthe lightinghead

Full-length portrait This portrait of a Boxershows the dog’s stanceand facial expression, as well as its distinctivemarkings and coloring.

Close-up portraitAn endearing image isachieved by closing in onthe dog’s face. The bubbleat the corner of his mouthmakes the portrait amusing.

PHOTOGRAPHING PETS

Cloth coveringthe table helps

reflect additionalillumination

6 x 6cmcamera with a120mm long-

focus lens

White reflectorboard is positionedto return light from

the flash opposite

Single lighting headfitted with a softboxdiffuser producessoft, even illuminationon the table

Owner makes surethe dog is looking inthe right direction foreach shot

PHOTOGRAPHING PETS 235

A boy and his dog, leftThis close-up image of theboy and dog was takenusing a long-focus zoomlens to alter framingwithout having to changethe camera position, whichmight distract the dog.

Dog on the move, aboveThe Dalmatian’s high spiritsare illustrated in the firstimage, as the dog pullsagainst the leash. The boylets the dog run along thesand, the surface of whichthrows back reflections.

PROFESSIONAL TIPS

•Be ready to reactquickly to an animal’schangeable andunpredictable moods.

•Using an autofocusand autoexposurecamera, you can giveyour completeattention to the animal.

•Use a long-focuszoom lens to takemany shots in rapidsuccession.

35mm camera witha 70–210mm long-focus zoom lensallows a range offraming options

Boy squats down beside the dog to restrain him, bringing their faces level

Wet surface of the sandacts as a mirror, reflectingthe images of the boyand the spotted dog

PHOTO SET-UP: Pets on locationEarly morning is chosen for the photographic sessionbecause at this time of day the beach is nearly deserted.The dog’s young owner helps to keep his pet’s high spiritsin check, and a low camera angle ensures that both facescan be clearly seen. A long-focus zoom lens is especiallyuseful when the dog is off the leash and running freely.


Exposure override, aboveTo prevent overexposure of thistoucan perched in sunlight with thedark forest behind, the exposurereading is overridden by increasingthe recommended shutter speed byone f-stop.35mm camera, 135mm lens,Ektachrome 200, f11, 1/60 sec.

Shooting through glass, leftSome zoos and wildlife parksprovide observation windows sothat the public can see a differentview of the animals, such as thispair of seals.The water is clear andshallow enough to allow sufficientlight to filter through from thesurface for a hand-held exposureusing medium-fast film.35mm camera, 135mm lens,Fujichrome 400, f8, 1/125 sec.

Shooting through mesh, far leftThe mesh surrounding this tiger’szoo enclosure is rendered invisibleby placing the front of the cameralens close to the wire and thenselecting a wide aperture.35mm camera, 300mm lens,Ektachrome 200, f8, 1/60 sec.

Camera angle, leftAn unusual camera angle can oftenhide an unwanted background.Todisguise its zoo enclosure, a highvantage point is used for this shot ofa swimming tiger.35 mm camera, 100 mm lens,Ektachrome 200, f4, 1/30 sec.

ANIMAL GALLERY 237

Choice of aperture, aboveA wide lens aperture is selected for this shot of a tree frog.Theshallow depth of field resulting from the aperture separates thesmall creature from a similarlycolored background.A very fastshutter speed is used to arrest anysudden movement of the subjector hand-held camera.35mm camera, 135mm lens,Ektachrome 200, f2.8, 1/2000 sec.

BacklightingWhen any subject is backlit, suchas this puma sunning itself on a logplatform, you need to select a wide aperture (or use a slowshutter speed) to avoid any risk of underexposing the subject.35mm camera, 210mm lens,Fujichrome 100, f5.6, 1/125 sec.

DIGITALMANIPULATIONDigital imaging is not just about using filmless

cameras. One of the main advantages of

having pictures in a binary form is the ease in

which images can be tweaked, improved

upon, or completely reconstructed using a

computer. The amount of control you have

over the result is far greater than that ever

enjoyed in a traditional darkroom.

240 DIGITAL MANIPULATION

SETTING UP A DIGITAL DARKROOM

THE DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHER’S DESKThe ideal workstation has everything positionedwithin easy reach. However, if you do not have muchspace, items such as scanners and back-up drivesneed only be plugged in to the computer as andwhen they are required.

LaptopAn alternative to thedesktop computer – andcan be taken on location.Some pro digital camerascan record images directto a PC, and can becontrolled from it

PrinterInkjet models are the mostpopular choice – but thepaper used is key to gettinggood results

Slide scannerProduces high-resolution imagefiles direct from mounted slides

or from negative strips

Disk burnerRecords blank CDs which store up to 700MB

of data. CD-Rs can only be used once, butare more affordable than rewritable CD-RWs.

External hard driveLow-cost solution forincreasing the storage

capacity of your computer

Computer monitorFitting a hood around thescreen helps minimizesurface reflections.This canbe made from black card

Work surfaceIf possible, choose a working environmentaway from windows. Or ensure they haveefficient blinds or curtains

Zip driveEach rewritable disk can store up to250MB of data. Less popular since CDburners have become so inexpensive.

KeyboardThe use of time-saving keyboardshortcuts minimizes effort andresults in less strain on the wrists.

SOFTWARE

•Adobe Photoshop isthe best-known imagemanipulation program.But since it is designedfor pro use, it is costly.

•Adobe PhotoshopElements is moreaffordable – but stillprovides a great dealof creative control.

•You can downloadtrial versions of theseand other programsfrom the web. Oftencameras and scannersare sold with editingsoftware.

Whether you use film or a digital camera,digital manipulation provides a degree ofcontrol and craftsmanship over your picturesthat is simply not possible in the traditionaldarkroom. The key piece of equipmentrequired is a computer. To get started indigital image editing, practically any relativelyrecent PC or Mac will be more than sufficient.The only other essential requirement is thesoftware (see box). The images can bedownloaded direct from your digital camerato the computer’s hard drive.

To work on conventional photographs, theslides, negatives or prints need to beconverted into digital form. This can be donecommercially, with the images supplied onCD – or accessed from a password-protectedwebpage. Alternatively you can use a desktopscanner. Flatbed models are ideal for prints,

and some models have built-in transparencyhoods handle negatives and slides;alternatively use a special film scanner.

As you will use the computer screen tojudge how much correction an image needs,it is essential that the screen is set up to showthe image as accurately as possible. Somecomputers and image manipulation packageshave utilities that allow you to calibrate themonitor correctly – and as the screen’s colorchanges over time, this set-up procedure mustbe carried out periodically. To ensure thatyour eyes see the image without anydistraction, it is sensible to choose a plaingrey background as your desktop pattern –bright patterns and pictures may lead you tomisjudge colors. You should also ensure thatdesk lights and windows do not createreflections on the screen surface.

SETTING UP A DIGITAL DARKROOM 241

LoupeMagnifying glass allows you tocheck slides and negativescarefully before they arescanned

CD rackKeep CDs in cases or sleeves toavoid scratching. File each with anindex print so you can see whichimages are on which disk

ComputerThe main processing unit ofthe computer can bepositioned on the floor tocreate more desk space

MouseMouse needs to operate smoothly, as itwill be used as a painting tool. Clean ballmechanism regularly – or use optical type

LightboxAllows you to view and select thetransparencies that you want toscan more easily

Graphics tabletAn alternative to the computermouse. Using a pen to ‘draw’ on aspecial mat gives you greater control

OTHER ITEMS

•Comfort is a keyrequirement if you aresitting at your computerfor long periods.Yourchair must supportyour back and shouldbe at the correctheight so that yourforearms are horizontalwhen you are working at the keyboard.

•Old slides andnegatives are likely tobe covered in a layerof mold, fingerprintsand grime.Theseshould be removedusing a special cleaningsolution and lint-freecloth – such as PEC-12and PEC Pads.This willminimize digital touch-up work after scanning,and will maximizeimage quality.

•A blower brush, orcompressed air, is alsouseful for removingdust immediatelybefore scanning.

An alternative to plugging your camerainto your computer is to downloadyour images using a card reader. Multi-format designs can read severaldifferent card types. Also a solution forcomputers which have ‘wrong’ sockets,or operating system, for the leads orsoftware supplied with the camera.

CARD READERS

Recordable DVDs and drivers continueto fall in cost, making them an increasinglypopular storage medium for slides.Witheach disk having a capacity of ninegigabytes, they are more space-efficientthan CD-Rs – particularly for thoseworking with large image file sizes.

DVD’SCHOOSING A PRINTERAlthough digital images could be viewedentirely on PC and TV screen – and shownto others using email and the web – mostphotographers like to have a hardcopy of atleast some of their images. Prints can bemade from your digital files by commerciallabs, but can be output at home easily.

A standard desktop color inkjet printer canproduce very reasonable results, especially ifprinted on photo-grade paper. Special photoprinters use additional inks to the standardcyan, magenta, yellow and black, to create aricher range of tones. Some models also offer‘bleed’ printing, so that shots are printed upto the edge without a white border. Dyesublimation printers provide prints that lookmore like traditional photographs byvaporizing colored ribbons so that the dyepenetrates the surface of the specially-coatedpaper. These can be expensive to run.

Flatbed scannerFor digitizing prints – although some modelscan also handle negatives and slides. Keep theglass surface clean and scratch-free

Desk lampEnsure this is adjustable so that it can be angledaway from the computer screen, to avoidunwanted reflections


COMPUTER RETOUCHINGDigital image manipulation software canchange pictures in many different ways, but it is often the straightforward techniquesthat are the most useful. Whether you shootyour pictures on film or with a digital camera, nearly all shots benefit from minoradjustment. Small blemishes to the film or thecomposition can be removed with the use ofthe cloning tool, which copies neighboringgroups of pixels over an offending scratch orunwanted element in a picture.

Exposure can usually be improved, eitherglobally or just in small areas of the image,in ways that simply are not possible withconventional darkroom techniques. Forinstance, areas of a picture can be selectedby color, and then the hue changed to get amore pleasing composition.

When retouching images on screen youcan see exactly what you are achieving ateach stage and can go back one or moresteps if you are not happy with the result.

Change of angle, belowThe original image (seepage 237) has beenrotated, reversed, andrecropped for this version,and the feeling ofmovement has beenemphasized by theaddition of blur lines.

Change of scenery, leftIn this image the backdropcolor has been changed tocreate a stronger contrastwith the color of thedancer’s dress. Comparethe image with the original(see page 129). This isachieved most easily using the hue/saturationcommand in a programsuch as PhotoshopElements. An effect similarto using a slow shutterspeed has also been addedby using a blur filter.

COMPUTER RETOUCHING 243

Original shot, aboveThis still life shot is slightlytilted. The image could becropped traditionally, butmuch of the window inthe background would belost from the composition.

Corrected version, rightUsing digital techniques,extra areas of table andwindow can be added tothe shot, by cloning themfrom other areas. The shot can then be rotated so the verticals are uprightwithout losing any of thephotograph’s setting.

Removing pictureelements, far left & leftOne of the advantages ofdigital manipulation is theease with which minortweaks can be made to acomposition. Litter, roadmarkings, advertisinghoardings, and unwantedpassers-by can be removedwith relative ease. In thisshot, cloning techniqueshave been used to removethe wooden piles from thewater, and to increase thearea of blue sky. Even oldpictures shot on film canbe manipulated in this way once they have beendigitized using a scanner.


DIGITAL FILTER EFFECTSMost digital manipulation software comeswith a variety of special effects that can beadded to an image with a single mouse-click.Inevitably, a number of these effects recreatethose that have been available for decades tophotographers using darkroom techniques oroptical filters. The advantage that thecomputer brings is in the amount of controlthat is available over the final result.Moreover, once the desired effect is achieved,the image can be printed again and againwithout further work, and the chosensettings can also be applied to other shots.

As with all special effects, most digitalfilters are best used only occasionally. Butthere are some that merit more regular use,such as blur and sharpening controls.Gaussian blur, for instance, allows you tothrow out of focus details that were notpossible to hide when taking the originalshot. The unsharp mask (USM), meanwhile,can be applied in varying degrees topractically every picture once otheradjustments have been made, to improve the apparent sharpness of the shot.

Going for grainTraditionally, a grainy effect is created byusing a fast film, by push processing, orby selective enlargement of a print.Digitally, however the original shot wastaken, the effect can be achieved byselecting a filter from a pull-down menu.The original still life (above), was shot onslow film in the studio, but when scanneddigitally the shot can be given a grainy,atmospheric look (right). The programwill often allow you precise control overboth the size and the pattern of the grain.

Mono conversion Creating a black and whiteprint from a color originaltraditionally involvescopying the film to createan interneg, then printingthe result. On screen, amonochrome shot can becreated almost instantlyfrom a color file. Withsome programs it is alsopossible to control theexact tone of gray thateach hue becomes.

DIGITAL FILTER EFFECTS 245

Gaussian blur In the original shot (above), the people in the background are not sufficiently out of focus and create a distraction tothe main subject of the portrait. Usingdigital manipulation software it is possibleto work on a very specific area of apicture. In this case, the background isthrown out of focus using the Gaussianblur filter (left). The amount of blur canbe adjusted until the effect looksconvincing; sometimes it is necessary to blur different elements by differentamounts in order to achieve this.

Watercolor filter There is a wide range of filters availablethat can be used to add artistic effects toimages. The filters are supplied eitherwith popular programs or separately asplug-ins. The effects can give photographsthe appearance of oil paintings, etchings,stained-glass windows, or charcoalsketches, for instance. In this example,the original image (above), has beentransformed to look like a watercolorpainting (left). Always keep a copy of theoriginal photograph (as a separate file orlayer), when using this type of effect,otherwise it is impossible to revert to the original digital image.

Digital darkroom software provides powerful tools for combining twoor more images into one picture. Not only can different elements becut from one image file and seamlessly inserted into a differentpicture, but many programs offer the ability to work in layers. Layersallow you to work on different elements separately, and to includemultiple copies of the image, with slight differences between each.This allows you to check whether the image has improved byswitching layers on or off, and also means that you can return to aformer state by deleting unsuccessful layers. The transparency of eachlayer can be altered, and it can be combined with the layer below indifferent ways. These layer blending modes can be used for a widerange of creative effects, even when two layers are identical.

Whatever your artistic intent, layers are an important way ofstructuring your manipulation work. They allow you to undo eachstage of your work and avoid irreparable mistakes.


COMBINING IMAGES ON COMPUTER

Finished image, rightCombining the three different pictures creates a perfectportrait of the children. Each shot was put on a separatelayer, cropped, and adjusted in size, color, and exposureso that they matched well. The visible joins betweeneach of the elements were hidden by careful use of the cloning tool.

The template, aboveWith groups, it is hard to get everyone looking perfect.This is the best shot of the session, but the girl’s poseand boy’s expression are not quite natural. The solutionis to combine elements from more than one shot.

The original shots, aboveTwo charming individual portraits of brother and sister,with great smiles. It would be nice to capture the twoexpressions in the same frame. Fortunately, digitalimaging allows you to do this without too much difficulty.

COMBINING IMAGES ON COMPUTER 247

Top layerThis is a nice portrait, butthe backdrop is bland, andthe horizon line distracting.

Bottom layerSpectacular sunsets likethis make ideal backdropsfor using with other images.

Combining layers, rightThe two original pictureswere put on separatelayers. The background ofthe portrait was removedusing the digital rubber sothe sunset showedthrough. The efficiency ofthe eraser tool wasreduced near the outlinesof the girls to ensure aseamless result.

Action shot, rightThis photograph usessimilar techniques to theabove, with picturescombined on separatelayers. In this case, theimage sizes were adjustedto give a feeling of depthand movement.

TRADITIONALMANIPULATIONA wide range of photographic techniques can

be used to create special-effect photographs

that are far removed from normal images.

This section shows effects that can be

achieved by using special films, by darkroom

manipulations of both color and black and

white originals, and by combining traditional

photographic chemistry with software.

250 TRADITIONAL MANIPULATION

SPECIAL FILMSUsing special films is a simple way to createunusual imagery. Special films include blackand white and color infra-red-sensitiveemulsions and high-contrast recording film.

Infra-red film is sensitive to the infra-redregion of the electromagnetic spectrum andcan therefore record images by light that isnormally invisible. The film is usually used inconjunction with an infra-red-transmittingfilter over the camera lens, which blocks allvisible lightwaves. Infra-red radiation comesinto focus on a slightly different plane thanvisible light, so you may need to adjust yourlens according to the infra-red focusing index(a red or orange line engraved next to theordinary focus index on the lens barrel).

Special recording film mainly registersblack and white, rather than the interveningshades of gray. To achieve a similar effect,use regular black and white emulsion film,then use high-contrast film developer andprint onto high-contrast lith paper.

Color infra-red, leftThis film can be used inconjunction with coloredfilters for a range of special effects. The resultwill depend on how muchindividual elements in ascene reflect infra-redradiation, as illustrated (left)and (above left). Someelements reflect no infra-red, appearing near-black.

Striking tones, aboveAtmospheric haze isinvisible to black and whiteinfra-red film, so imagestaken with it are oftenrendered with great clarity.In addition, striking tonesare made apparent, notablythe snowy white foliage inthis scene, which seems togive the image an almostsurreal appearance.

Grain effect, oppositeFilm manufacturers go togreat lengths to produceultra-fast emulsions withthe minimum amount ofgraininess. However, if youwant to achieve the type of impressionistic resultshown here, use a fast ISO 3200 emulsion andthen develop the film in agrain-enhancing developer.

SPECIAL FILMS 251

Streaky light effectThe atmosphere of thiscarnival scene at dusk wasenhanced by using artificial-light film. Using a slowshutter speed has recordedthe fairground lights ascolorful blurred streaks.

High-contrast treatmentA scene that is inherentlycontrasty provides the beststarting point for thistechnique. Photographedon ordinary black andwhite emulsion, this imageof a horse and young riderin the burned ruins of abarn was developed in ahigh-contrast developer tosuppress most of the half-tones and then printedonto lith paper.

DIGITAL SOLUTIONS

Most digital camerasare sensitive to infra-red light.They produceeffects similar to black-and-white infra-redfilm if you use a deepred or special IR filterover the lens – thenconvert the recordedresult to monochrome.


MULTIPLE IMAGESThere are many ways to create multipleimages on film. One simple method is to use a mini-strobe flashgun, which fires arapid burst of flashes during a singleexposure. A moving subject will be caught ina different position every time the flash goesoff. However, too much ambient lighting willcause blurring in the final image. On somecameras it is possible to reset the shutterwithout advancing the film; you can thenmake repeat exposures either on top of eachimage or in selected areas.

SANDWICHING

The traditional and easiest technique forcreating multiple images is to sandwich filmoriginals together in a single slide mount andproject the result onto a screen. This canthen be rephotographed directly. Alternatively,the film sandwich can simply be loaded intoan enlarger and printed in the normal fashion.

Slide sandwich, above lA slide of windmills and one of reflectionsin water were sandwiched to make thisimage. First experiment by combiningdifferent slides on a light box, thenmount the chosen slides for projection orreshooting, or to use in the enlarger.

Double exposure, belowMany film and digital SLR cameras allowyou to combine two or more exposuresin the same frame. Here a shot of a driedriver bed has been combined with aclose-up portrait. Such multiple exposuresgive a textured canvas to an image.

MULTIPLE IMAGES 253

Strobed action, aboveThe flash used to take thismultiple image of a boxeris an amateur unit capableof only six rapid flashes.Professional plug-in strobeunits are also used byathletes to make detailedphotographic records oftheir events, which arethen used to analyze howslight changes in techniquecould improve theirperformance.

Seeing double, leftFor this image the modelwore black clothes and wasplaced in a dark room. Aseries of flash-lit shots wastaken with the shutter heldopen on setting B. Themodel shifted position foreach shot. When super-imposed, the images makea dramatic composition.

DIGITAL SOLUTIONS

Digital manipulationprograms allow you tocombine images in anumber of ways. Eachelement is put on adifferent layer – andcan be resized, colorcorrected, and so on,to suit. By changing theopacity of each layer,and by experimentingwith different blendingmodes you can createeffects that are similaror very different tothose with traditionaltechniques.


BLACK AND WHITE DARKROOM TECHNIQUESThere are many techniques available forworking in black and white; the few radicaleffects here are just a sample. These includeprinting a negative in combination with apatterned screen to break up the image, orintroducing color into a print by hand or bychemical toning.

Changes you may want to make to animage include rectifying tonal imbalances. Thesky in a landscape, for example, may havebeen overexposed if the land required extraexposure to define enough detail. In this case,give the sky on the negative extra exposureunder the enlarger to balance the picture.

Patterned screens Various effects are possibleby printing with patternedscreens. The chimneys(below) were printed with a linear screen and theponies with a mezzotint(below right). Screens canalso be used for color.

Local density, rightA shaped piece of darkcardboard known as adodger was held over thethe image of the sculptorElisabeth Frink on theprinting paper for the lastquarter of the exposuretime under the enlarger.

Hand coloring, oppositeAny black and white printproduced on fiber-basedpaper can be selectivelycolored – using specialdyes, pens, or crayons.

Color toning, leftToning solutions not onlyadd color to a print, theycan help to preserve theimage. The toners usedhere are sepia, copper, andblue, respectively.

DIGITAL SOLUTIONS

Most darkroom effectscan easily be achievedon a computer usingediting software. Animage can be toned,for instance, inseconds withoutchemicals, and theeffect saved so that itcan be printed again.

BLACK AND WHITE DARKROOM TECHNIQUES 255


SOLARIZATION AND LITH FILM SANDWICHINGSolarization (also called the Sabattier effect)is a technique for producing a black andwhite or color image that is part positive, part negative. This is done by exposing thepartially developed image (on paper or film)to white light. For the best results, an imagewith contrast should be used, because there-exposure flattens contrast considerably.

To solarize, introduce light selectivelywhen a print is partially developed in a tray– using a small flashlight is a handy way todo this. A more advanced technique is tosolarize a film negative or positive. You canthen make as many prints as you want.

Lith film sandwiches are made by contactprinting a lith film negative to form a lithfilm positive, then placing the two togetherin register. You can then make prints fromthis sandwich onto either black and white or color printing paper, with good results.

Black and white effectA normal black and whiteprint was the starting pointfor this image. A black andwhite copy negative wasthen made from it. Thenegative was then solarizedand used to make a printon regular black and whiteprinting paper.

Color solarizationFor this striking image, acopy negative was madefrom a 35mm transparency,then solarized using acolor head enlarger. Thecolor of a film image canbe altered by adjusting thefiltration of the light usedfor solarization.

SOLARIZATION AND LITH FILM SANDWICHING 257

Black and white lith, leftFor this print, a lith filmpositive was made, thencontact printed to make alith film negative. Thenegative and positive weresandwiched in register.

Color lith, belowFor this color result, thenegative/positive lith filmsandwich described abovewas used together withcolor printing paper.

DIGITAL SOLUTIONS

The easiest way tocreate a solarizedimage digitally is to usethe “Curves” controlfound on programssuch as Photoshop.Theline of the on-screengraph is simply pulledinto a U-shaped curve.


COLOR MASKING TECHNIQUESAll the images shown here were printedfrom slides onto positive/positive colorprinting paper, which is designed to producea positive print from a positive original. Thecolor response of the prints was manipulatedusing different types of mask.

A highlight mask is made by contactprinting a slide onto high-contrast lith film.The slide and lith mask are then combinedin register and printed. The highlight areas ofthe slide print as black or gray depending onthe density of the lith; other areas appearnormal. To adjust the colors of the shadowareas, first make print-sized negative andpositive masks from the slide. With the slidein the enlarger and the positive mask incontact with the printing paper, make a firstexposure. Remove the positive and registerthe negative mask in contact with the paper,then expose to light to tint the shadows.

Shadow mask, aboveThe shadow colors herewere created by first usinga positive mask in contactwith the printing paper.This covered the shadowareas, but the rest of theprint was normallyexposed. Another exposurewas made with a negativemask, and the enlargerfiltration controls setappropriately.

Flat area mask, far leftA negative and a positivemask were contact-printedin register to produce thiseffect. With the slide in theenlarger, the paper wasexposed for three-quartersof the correct exposuretime. The positive maskwas then removed and theexposure completed.

Solarization effect, leftThis print was made in themanner described above,but the enlarger lensaperture was opened onestop, doubling the amountof light reaching the paperand creating a pseudo-solarization effect. Coloredfiltration was used to getthe eerie, surreal result.

COLOR MASKING TECHNIQUES 259

Highlight maskingThis technique involves alith film negative maskbeing printed in registerwith the slide original.Depending on the densityof tone, the mask keeps acertain amount of lightfrom shining through thehighlight areas of the slide.However, if the mask istinted rather than left as agray tone, as it was here,dramatic prints with amixture of real and unrealcolors can be produced.

DIGITAL SOLUTIONS

•Digital manipulationpackages allow you to“sandwich” differentversions of the sameimage together indifferent ways.Thereare many possibilities,and you can try outdifferent effects untilyou get the image yourequire on screenwithout wasting paper.

•To get the effectsshown here, open upyour image and copy itonto a separate layer.Convert this layer intoa “lith” negative byusing the “Invert”command. Increase thecontrast, then reducethe color saturation tozero. Combine the twolayers using a blendingtool such as theDifference or Multiplyoptions in Photoshop.Also try altering theopacity of the layer.

DARKROOMAND STUDIOEQUIPMENTIn a studio environment you have complete

control over the lighting, which allows you to

concentrate on producing precisely the type

of image you want.Taking the picture is only

half the creative process, however. It is in

the darkroom that you can exercise ultimate

control over the final appearance of the

image.This section shows all the basic

equipment you need to set up a home

darkroom. Also included is useful information

on systems for viewing and storing slides,

negatives, and prints.

262 DARKROOM AND STUDIO EQUIPMENT

THE HOME STUDIOMany amateur photographers would like tocreate their own studio but are discouragedfrom doing so because they mistakenlybelieve that a studio necessarily requires alot of space and that this area would have tobe permanently set aside.

SPACE REQUIREMENTS

The size of a home studio depends on whattypes of subject you intend to photograph. If most of your photography involves table-top subjects, such as small still life objects,then an area measuring about 8 x 8ft (2.5 x2.5m) will usually be sufficient. For portraits,however, especially full-length shots, youwill probably need an area about twice thatsize at least. Generally, square rooms arebest, since they give you the greatestflexibility in positioning lights and reflectors.

A spare bedroom is excellent for setting up astudio because you can leave camera, tripod,lights, reflectors, and background paperspermanently in place. If this is not possible,equipment can be stored in a large closet andassembled in about 30 minutes when required.

WINDOWS AND LIGHTING

In a room with large windows (and ideally a skylight for additional lighting), you may notneed to use flash or other lights if you restrictyourself to working during daylight. Ifpossible, a home studio should have a good-sized window to supplement any lights used.A darkening shade or blinds can be used toexclude all window light when necessary.

STUDIO REQUIREMENTS

•White walls and ceiling to maximize ambientlighting levels and to double as reflectors withoutcreating unwanted color-casts.

•Storage shelves or closets to store accessories andequipment when not in use, so that the working partof the studio can be kept free of clutter.

•A solid floor to stop vibrations being transmittedthrough the tripod to the camera.

•A ceiling high enough to allow you to positionlighting units above the height of a standing figure.

FloorSolid floor is essential

to keep movement on the set from causing

vibrations that might affect the camera

Make-up tableTable for cosmetics,

hair accessories, and brushesis useful for portraiture and

all shots involving life models

Storage shelvesExtra storage areas are always

useful for camera and lensaccessories, props, clamps,

tape, reflectors, and numerousother items

Make-up mirrorThe camera is critical of

imperfections, so a well-litmake-up mirror is essential

Neutral-colored wallsWalls and ceiling should be paintedeither white or a pale neutral color

so that they reflect light withoutintroducing an unwanted color-cast

Flash unitMain light is positioned

about 45° to thesubject

Synchronization leadLinks camera to the power pack

so that the flash fires at the sametime as the shutter is released

THE HOME STUDIO 263

OTHER ITEMS

•Strong clamps forpositioning small lightson shelves and backsof chairs, etc.

•Dulling spray forminimizing reflectionsfrom shiny objects.

•Different-length flashsynchronization leadsand shutter cablereleases for differentset-ups.

•Double or multiplugadaptors for additionalpower points.

Umbrella diffuserLight is diffused throughthe umbrella to providea softer light source

Camera and tripodThe camera should, wheneverpossible, be mounted on asturdy, adjustable tripod

Flash meterIf possible, choose a lightmeter that can also beused as a flash meter

Power packHeavy-duty power source is requiredfor the high output and rapid recyclingtimes required of studio flash units

TapeMasking or black tape can be usedto attach filter gels to lights orwindows and to adjust theposition of background paper

Spare lighting head Range of spare heads allowsyou to adjust the lighting foreach subject

Compressed airCan with compressed air is useful forcleaning filters and lenses, and forremoving any dust from the surface ofstill life objects before shooting

Reflector boardsDifferent-sized reflector boardsand surfaces give flexibility

Colored gelsLarge sheets of colored gels areuseful for special lighting effects andfor filtering daylight to match anytungsten lighting being used

SnootConical snoot fits over the lightinghead and restricts the spread oflight to a narrow beam

WindowThis gives you the option of using daylight alone orcombining daylight and flash

BlindAn adjustable blind gives arange of lighting options. Italso excludes daylightaltogether if necessary

Background supportsTelescopic metal supportshold the roll of backgroundpaper at various heights

Subject on adjustable tableA stand or table on whichheight can be readily adjusted isuseful for small-scale subjects

Background paperSelection of different-

colored backgroundpapers is essential


THE HOME DARKROOMthe area around the enlarger, which should beblack. Proper ventilation, so that there is aflow of air through the darkroom, is essential.

FILM AND PRINT PROCESSING

Total darkness is required when removing anexposed film from its cassette and loading itonto a spiral. Once the spiral is inside aprocessing tank and the lid is firmly in place,the room lights can then be turned on.

The chemicals used in film and printprocessing must be diluted in exactly theproportions stated, and solutions must bebrought to the correct temperature, and keptin contact with the film or printing paper forexactly the right time. Consistency of timeand temperature ensures standardized results.

PRACTICAL ADVICE

•All light sources in the darkroomshould be operated by pull-cords. Ordinarylight switches usedwith wet hands arepotentially dangerous.

•Use correct strengthbulbs in safelights toprevent film fogging.

•All ventilation unitsshould be sealed to keep outside light from entering the darkroom.

DARKROOM PROCESSING SIDE

Measuring beakerFilm dryerThis unit has athermostaticallycontrolled heatingelement, and a longplastic tube thatsurrounds the filmafter processing

Chemicals

Processing tanks Exposed film isloaded onto spiralsbefore being put inprocessing tanks

Plastic funnels

Storage bottlesConcertina bottles can be

compressed to excludeair ; this helps extend the

life of the chemicals

Mixing pitcher

Spirals Measuring cylinders

Work topSurface should be resistant tochemical spills

Processing traysThese are used for

black and white prints.Trynot to splash chemicals

onto surrounding surfaces

Processing tongsUsed for lifting

paper between trays

Heated print dryerThis greatly speeds up the print drying process

Spare processing traysKeep a supply of different-

sized processing trays tosuit various printing

paper sizes

Squeegee tongsFor removing water

from film afterwashing.Tongs must be kept very clean

ThermometerTo check solution

temperatures

Mixing rodEnsures solutions

are properly mixed

TimerEssential for timing

processing stages

Color processing unitThis thermostaticallycontrolled unit has slotsfor processing chemicalsas well as a motor tokeep the film tank orprint drum rotating

Storage spaceLarge cabinets foraccessories andequipment

Hoseattachment For washingprints

Large sinkwith tapsFor washingfilm, prints, andequipment

SafelightPlaced above

processing trays

All you need to set up a home darkroom is a windowless area, such as a walk-in closetor a spare room that can be sealed againstoutside light. The essential equipmentrequired is shown on these pages. Arrangeyour darkroom to separate the wet and drydarkroom processes as much as possible. The wet side of the room is where all thefilm and paper processing and washing takesplace and the dry side is where unprocessedand processed film and printing paper arehandled, and where the enlarger is found.

It is best to have running water, but youcan use a room that does not have a sink ifyou use a pail to move processed prints forwashing elsewhere. The walls and ceiling ofyour darkroom can be a light color except for

THE HOME DARKROOM 265

BenchWork top should have

an easy-to-clean surface

TimerEasy-to-read timer to check

the length of exposure of the printing paper

Focus magnifierMagnifies a small section

of the projected imagefrom the enlarger to

ensure focus is accurate

Compressed airUseful for removing dust andhairs from negatives and for

cleaning the enlarger lens

LightWall-mounted white

light with string pull-cord

Wall colorThe dry side of the darkroomwhere the enlarger is located

should be painted black

Color analyzer sensorThis is held under the lens

when a color original is beingprojected by the enlarger. Itanalyzes the color content

of the image and recommendsexposure times and filter settings

Printing easelThis holds the paper flat on theenlarger’s baseboard duringexposure; the metal arms can be adjusted to give different-width white borders around thefinished print

Contact printing frameStrips of negatives are loaded intoslots on the glass cover and thenbrought into contact with a sheetof printing paper on the base

Negative carrierIndividual negatives, or shortstrips of negatives, are held inposition between the enlarger’slight source and the lens

Enlarger columnThe enlarger head can be movedup and down on the column tomake different-sized enlargements

Enlarger headThis contains the light source and mixesthe light before it reaches the film originaland the lens. It also houses coloredprinting filters of varying strengths

Printing papersDifferent sizes of printing paper arerequired and, for black and whiteprinting, different contrast grades

Print trimming equipmentGives a straight, clean edge; asharp craft knife can also be used

Additional printing papersStore little-used or large-sizedpapers on shelves out of the way

FloorHard wearing, easy-to-clean floor

made of a nonslip material

DARKROOM PRINTING SIDE


SLIDE CHECKING, SELECTION, STORAGE,AND PROJECTION

VIEWING AND STORING IMAGESAs your interest in photography develops,you will need to create an effective systemfor storing and cataloging your increasingnumber of slides, negatives, and prints.

Slides generally come from the processinglaboratory ready-mounted and packed inconvenient plastic boxes to protect themfrom dust. If you want to be able to see all

of them at a glance, file them in clear plasticsleeves. Slides can also be convenientlystored in projector trays, but these can becostly and they take up a lot of space.

Keep negatives in acid-free paper sleeves in a file, and, for quick reference, file thenegative contact sheets alongside. Prints arebest displayed in albums, mounts, or frames.

Checking and selecting Although subject colorsand tones are unlikely tohave been altered duringprocessing, it is best tocheck all slides with amagnifying glass for imagequality. The best way tocompare and select slidesis on a light box.

DIGITAL ARCHIVING

Quality digital images use a lot of memory,and will soon fill your camera memory cardand PC hard drive.To make room for moreshots you must archive your images. A cost-effective solution is to copy them to CD-Rusing a disk burner.When traveling, a battery-run mini hard drive lets you to store andback-up the contents of many memory cards.

StorageMounted and unmountedslides can be stored inplastic sleeves, which, for35mm slides, usually haveabout 20–25 pockets. Byinserting a metal hangerthrough the top, sleevescan be put in a suspensionfile system. For display,mount slides in black card.

ProjectionProjection is the only wayto get maximum impactfrom your slides. Projectorsaccept either roundmagazines (holding up to100 slides) or straight ones(holding up to 50 slides).Some accept both.

Mounted slide Magnifying glass Light box

Slides mounted in black cardSlides in plastic viewpack

Slide projector Circular slide tray

RecordableCDs

Miniportablehard drive

Slots for upto 50 slides

Slots for upto 100 slides

Circular slidetray in placeLens

Individualsleeve

35mm color slide

35mm colornegative strip

On/off switch Opaque surface

Glasslens

Durableplasticmount

21⁄4in color slide

Window for eachtransparency

Laser-readablesurface

Screen showsimage stored

on drive

Cursorkeys

DIGITAL SOLUTION

Keep back-up copies ofall your digital images –as hard drives can fail,CDs break, and files canbe accidentally deleted.

Standard slide tray

VIEWING AND STORING IMAGES 267

VIEWING AND STORING NEGATIVES

Viewing negativesEven with careful scrutinyit is often difficult to makeout the details of an imageon a negative, and almostimpossible to compareimage quality. Contactsheets are very useful forselecting the best image,as they give anapproximate idea of whatyour negatives will looklike when printed and theycan be stored adjacent tothe negatives in anordinary ring binder.

Ring binder with paper negative sleeves and contact sheet

Storing negativesNegatives should always behandled and stored very carefully. To keepthem from getting dirty ordamaged, special acid-freepaper sleeves are available.

Color negatives in paper sleeve

Individual sleeve

Negativestrip

Contact sheets ofminiature prints can be

filed alongside theircorresponding negatives

Each paper negative sleevecan accommodate a strip of

six negatives; the paper isacid-free, so will not damage

the film emulsion

Hard ring binder protects the contact sheets and

negative sleeves; mark eachpage with a date or

reference number so thatall the images can be

readily identified

Viewing printsAlbums for standard-sizedprints include those withsticky pages to hold printsin place, in which everypage is covered with aplastic overlay. Othersrequire adhesive “corners”to hold prints in place.

VIEWING AND FRAMING PRINTS

Spiral-bound album with color prints arranged beneath plastic overlay

Framing printsPrints can be enlarged,then mounted in framesfor display. Of the manyeasy framing and mountingkits available, those shownhere use clips to hold theglass and backboardtogether. Others havewood or aluminum frames. Framed prints

Lightweight glassframe is securedonto backboardwith metal clips

Prints are held in place by athin plastic overlay in

this spiral-bound album;the dark album pages

enhance the photographs

Dark card canbe used to

create aborder around

an image

Print can becut to size tofit the frameif necessary

268 FAULT FINDER

PICTURE-TAKING ERRORSModern camera film is made to very high standards. It isunusual for there to be anything wrong with quality orconsistency when it leaves the factory. Even own-brandand promotional packs of film should present fewproblems – they have more than likely been produced bya leading film manufacturer. Remember that film shouldalways be kept in a cool place, out of direct sunlight, inlow humidity, and away from all sources of chemicalfumes, such as household cleaners and bleaches. Manyphotographers store their film in a refrigerator. Alwaysuse and process film by the date indicated on the carton.

COLOR AND EXPOSURE PROBLEMS

Some pictures display odd color faults, such as an orangeor blue color-cast. Such faults usually have nothing to dowith film quality; color-casts are caused by exposing filmdesigned for specific lighting conditions incorrectly. Oncolor print film, casts can be corrected or minimized by theprinter. With color slide film, however, there is no printingstage, so always use the correct film for the light source, oruse a correcting filter over the lens. A green color-cast canresult from using old or badly stored film. Most moderncameras have an automatic exposure control that will

generally produce good, well-exposed images in averageconditions (where the subject is frontally lit and the entireframe has evenly distributed light and dark tones).Autoexposure problems are most likely to occur if thesubject is lit from behind or if it is much lighter or darkerthan its surroundings. If you consistently experienceexposure problems, have your camera tested and serviced.

CAMERA CARE AND USE

Faults such as tilted horizons, lens obstructions, andframing problems that often result in a subject beingchopped in half, are the typical errors of inexperiencedphotographers or those working with a camera that is newto them. The only cure is patience and attention to detail.Before exposing each frame, take extra care that the imageyou see in the viewfinder is the way you want it and thatthere is nothing obscuring the lens. Your fingers or thecamera strap can get in the way, especially if you areusing a compact camera. Establish a simple routine forcamera care, checking that the lens is not dusty orsmudged, and that the inside of the camera is free of hair,dust, and grit. This will guarantee a high percentage ofsuccessful, sharply focused, blemish-free photographs.

Overall blue color-cast (ii)A strong blue cast can be causedby a very smoky atmosphere in theroom where a shot is taken orexcessive amounts of ultra-violetlight, which are particularlyassociated with coastal areas andmountain landscapes. Attach a clearUV filter to the lens to minimizethis problem. A polarizing filter cansometimes have a stronger effectthan a UV filter, but it will result inincreased exposure times.

Blue color-cast

Overall orange color-castThis usually occurs when filmmade for use in daylight or flashis exposed indoors by domestictungsten lighting. Be sure to usethe correct film for the lightingconditions or use a correctionfilter over the camera lens or lightsource. An orange cast can alsooccur if flash is bounced off anorange-colored surface beforereaching the subject. Use neutralsurfaces for bouncing light.

Orange color-cast

Overall blue color-cast (i)This problem is rare and usuallythe result of exposing tungsten-balanced film by daylight or byflashlight. Again, use the right filmfor the lighting conditions, or usean appropriate correction filter. Ablue cast can also occur if flash isbounced off a blue-colored surfacebefore reaching the subject. Useneutral surfaces for bouncing light.

Blue color-cast

Overall green color-castIn outdoor shots, this usuallymeans that the film is old or hasbeen badly stored. Always checkthe use-by date on film cartons. Agreen cast on photographs takenindoors may mean that daylight-balanced film has been exposedby fluorescent lighting. Overcomethis problem by finding outprecisely what type of fluorescentlighting is being used, then usethe a correction filter, if available.

Green color-cast

COLOR-CASTS

PICTURE-TAKING ERRORS 269

ObstructionIf you are using an SLR camera,always check the viewfinderbefore taking a photograph to seeif there is anything obscuring thelens. If you are using a compactcamera, be sure that your fingersand camera strap are well awayfrom the lens, because they will not appear on the directvision viewfinder.

Lens obstruction

Image distortionDistortions can be caused byusing the wrong type of lens to photograph a particular scene –for example, when a wide-anglelens is used too close to a subjector when a converging verticaldistortion results from tilting thecamera up to include the top of atall building. To avoid distortion,be sure always to select thecorrect lens and camera position.

Distorted image

Flash-lit subject overexposedThis occurs when the flash isused too close to the subject, ifthe wrong aperture is used, or ifthe flash has been set with thewrong film speed. Follow yourflash instructions regarding thecorrect working distance andaperture required for your unit,and make sure that you set thecorrect film ISO number onnonautomatic flash units.

Subject overexposed

Unsynchronized flashThis results in all or part of theimage being black, and is mostoften associated with SLR cameras;it is caused by the flash firingwhen the shutter has only partiallycleared the film plane. On manualcameras, check that you have setthe flash-synchronization speed(usually 1/125 or 1/60 second) orthe lightning flash symbol on theshutter speed dial correctly.

Image partially blacked-out

Parallax errorThis occurs when parts of a subjectare accidentally omitted. Thisusually happens when the parallaxcorrection marks in the viewfinderof a compact camera are not takeninto account, or the shot is takentoo close to the subject. Frame yoursubject within the marks and do notcome in closer than the nearestrecommended focusing distance.Also examine your negativescarefully to check that this problemis not due to a printing error.

Subject partly obscured

Flash fall-offThis describes underexposure of allor part of a flash-lit subject. Checkthat the subject is within therecommended working distance foryour flash unit (assuming that youare shooting indoors with enoughreflective surfaces to bounce thelight back). Outdoors, flash fall-offis rapid, so move closer to thesubject or select a wider aperture. Ifyou are using a manual flash, set itto the correct film ISO number.

Subject underexposed

Tilted imageTo avoid this problem, lookcarefully through the viewfinderbefore taking a picture to makesure that the horizon is parallel tothe top or bottom of the frame.

Subject tilted in frame

VignettingThis shows as dark edges andcorners on an image and can becaused if the spread of light from aflash is inadequate for the angle ofview of your lens. Fitting a diffuserover the flash or bouncing a flashoff reflective surfaces helps.Vignetting on nonflash images canbe caused by using the wrong lenshood on a wide-angle lens, usingmore than one filter on a lens atthe same time, or if a polarizingfilter is fixed to a lens. Vignetted image

FLASH FAULTS

COMPOSITIONAL ERRORS

270 FAULT FINDER

OverexposureThis is when too much lightreaches the film, causing lightshadow areas and bleached-outhighlights. The fault lies inselecting the wrong shutterspeed/aperture combination forthe film speed. If overexposurehappens consistently on anautoexposure camera, there maybe a problem that needsprofessional repair.

Image overexposed

Flat contrastThis is when there is very littledifference between the brightestand darkest areas of the image or subject, which is a problem ifthe photographer is relying onshape to make the imageinteresting. This problems occursoften in twilight shots. To light anappealing foreground or subjectin such conditions, use a fill-inflash to create artificial contrast.

Image with flat contrast

Pale image or colorsAssuming that it is not a lightingproblem, washed-out colors or adistinct lack of image contrast areoften caused by a dirty lens orlens filter. Make sure all front lenselements, filters, and, on an SLR,the back lens element, are cleanand free of scratches.

Image with washed-out colors

UnderexposureLike overexposure, this is whenthe wrong shutter speed/aperturecombination has been selected forthe film speed, resulting in toolittle light reaching the film, whichcauses heavy shadow areas anddull highlights. If underexposurehappens consistently on anautoexposure camera, there maybe a problem that needsprofessional repair.

Image underexposed

Camera shakeThis results in multiple images ofthe subject and general blurring.Adopting a steady, relaxedshooting posture is the best wayto avoid it. If the shutter speedbeing used is very slow and likelyto result in camera shake, supportthe camera on a tripod or levelsurface, such as a wall or the roofof a car. Using a fast film oftenallows a sufficiently fast shutterspeed to be selected, which willavoid the problem altogether.

Blurred image

Subject movementPart of the subject is blurred butall stationary parts of the sceneare sharp. This occurs when theshutter speed being used is tooslow to arrest the rapid movementof part of the subject. If possible,use a faster shutter speed, or finda more head-on camera viewpointso that subject movement iseffectively minimized.

Moving subject blurred

Multiple exposureMore than one image recorded onthe same film frame indicates thatthe film has not been correctlyloaded and is therefore notadvancing properly. Be sure tofollow the loading instructions inyour camera manual carefully. Ifyour camera has a rewind crank,check that it turns in the oppositedirection from the direction thefilm is wound (this means that thefilm is loaded properly).

Double exposure

Excessive contrastThe shadowy areas of the printare too dark or highlight areas toobright. Unfortunately, therecording ability of film cannotresolve detail in both very brighthighlights and deep shadows.Decide which is more importantfor the composition of the imageand set the exposure accordingly.Alternatively, wait until contrast isless extreme, or, for close-ups,artificially lessen contrast by usinga flash or a reflector.

Excessive contrast

CONTRAST AND EXPOSURE

PICTURE-TAKING ERRORS 271

Unexposed filmProcessed film that is perfectlyclear has never been exposed.This happens as a result of thefilm not advancing. Follow theloading instructions in yourcamera manual carefully andalways remember to wind the endof an exposed film back insidethe cassette.

Unexposed film frame

Blemishes on printThese usually take the form ofspots, lines, and scratches on thefilm caused by dust, dirt, hair, orgrit inside the camera. Check theinside of the camera wheneveryou remove a film. Blemishes orout-of-focus spots are also oftendue to raindrops on the lenswhen the photograph was taken.

Out-of-focus spot on image

Film foggingThis happens when non-image-forming light reaches the film,usually when you open the backof a camera before rewinding thefilm. Remember always to rewindthe film before removing it. An ill-fitting or loose camera back canalso allow enough light in tocause fogging.

Film fogged by light

Grainy imageUsing the wrong film speedresults in an overly grainy image.This usually occurs if extremelyfast film is used. It is mostapparent when an image isgreatly enlarged – a smaller printminimizes it. To avoid excessivegraininess, use a slower, finer-grain film with an increasedexposure time, or add extralighting. Grain shows up more inthe neutral and light-toned areasof an image. Overly grainy image

Image out of focusIf the final image is partiallyblurred, the aperture selected mayhave resulted in insufficient depthof field. Autofocus cameras mayfocus incorrectly through glass orif the subject is not center-frame.If the subject is off-center, use thefocus lock (if your camera hasone) and consult your cameramanual regarding potentialautofocus problems. If the shutterspeed is below 1/30, slight camerashake can also cause this problem.

Image out of focus

FlareNever point the camera directly ata bright light source unless thelens is adequately shaded,otherwise bright patches of light(flare) will obscure parts of thefilm and produce a washed-outimage. Flare can also be causedby fine scratches on the mat-black interior of the camera.

Flare surrounding light source

Red eyeA subject’s eyes glowing redusually happens when the built-inflash on compact cameras andSLRs is very closely aligned withthe lens. If you cannot bounce theflashlight from a nearby wall orceiling before it reaches thesubject, use a film that is fasterand correct for the available lightminus the flash.

Subject’s eyes glowing red

Half-framed imageThis happens when you try tosqueeze an extra frame of film atthe end of a roll. Although filmcomes in standard lengths, youcan occasionally take an extraframe. If the picture is important,however, it is worth taking theshot again when you havereloaded, in case the processinglaboratory has to cut into theframe to detach the film from thecore or attach a clip to the endwhile the film is drying. Half-framed image

MISCELLANEOUS FAULTS

272 FAULT FINDER

PRINTING ERRORSAt a large processing laboratory, films requiring the same type of chemical processing (E-6 for most colorslides and C-41 for color negatives) are processed in long strips and passed through a series of chemical baths,which are constantly monitored to ensure that they are at the correct temperature. Depending on the volume of film being processed, the chemical solutions areconstantly renewed to give consistent results; likewise at the printing stage. Each film image is printed by anenlarger that automatically analyzes its density and colorcontent and sets the required color filtration and exposurelength. A conveyor-belt system transports the individualsheets of exposed printing paper through another seriesof chemical baths and hot-air dryers, delivering hundredsof finished prints every hour.

HOME DARKROOM PROBLEMS

Naturally, the degree of automation in a film laboratory is not possible or desirable in the home darkroom, whereyou can work creatively on individual images as youprocess them. Inherent in home processing, however, isthe likelihood of error. The most common problems to be avoided are related to darkroom cleanliness; dust,

hair, or grit on the surface of a negative or positive will result in a blemished and flawed print, even iffiltration and exposure are perfect. More serious is thecontamination of one processing solution with another.Even one drop of bleach or fixing agent spilled in adeveloper solution will mean a waste of expensive paper and chemicals.

CHEMICAL PROCESSES

The temperature of solutions and the timing of theseparate chemical stages of print processing are othermajor sources of potentially avoidable problems for the home darkroom user. Some chemical solutions,particularly those used in color printing, have only to be fractionally off the exact working temperatures statedin their accompanying instructions to seriously affect thecolor balance of the print. It is also worth rememberingthat only a fixed number of chemical solutions can beused to process prints. Avoid having to throw awayruined printing paper and wasting your creative efforts by keeping accurate records of the number of printspassing through these solutions before their chemicalaction is exhausted.

Soft print with “muddy” tonesBlack and white prints cansometimes turn out too soft andmuddy looking, even though thenegative is satisfactory. To achieveincreased contrast – when thereare areas of solid black and brightwhite present – try using a hardergrade of paper, which eliminatesmore intermediate tones to createa crisper, more contrasty image.Also make sure the developer youuse is not contaminated.

“Muddy” tones

Blurred printsIf a negative is sharp but theresulting print blurred, first checkthat the enlarger is focusedcorrectly. As an aid, use a focusmagnifier to view an enlarged partof the projected image on thebaseboard prior to exposure. Alsouse a printing frame to ensure thatthe printing paper cannot moveduring exposure.

Blurred image

Inaccurate highlight detailThis can happen even though a negative has been correctlyexposed. If details in the highlightareas of a negative do not appearin the corresponding dark areason the processed print, you mayneed to print on a softer grade ofpaper, because hard grades yieldfewer intermediate tones.

Lack of highlight detail

Spots and lines on a printThese are generally caused bydust, hair, or similar debris on thenegative and are very noticeableon a print. The only way toprevent such blemishes is to keep your darkroomscrupulously clean. Inspect bothsides of a negative each time youload one into the enlarger. Whencleaning negatives, take particularcare with the emulsion side, whichscratches easily.

Spots and lines

BLACK AND WHITE PRINTS

PRINTING ERRORS 273

Brownish streaks on printThe most likely cause of brownishstreaks appearing on a print isthat light hit the paper beforeexposure and fogged it. Be surethat your darkroom is completelysealed against white light,especially around doors andwindows. If you have a safelight,check that it is the correct typefor color printing, that the filtercover is secure, and that the bulbis the right wattage.

Brown streaks

Heavy shadows and color-castThese are probably due to thetemperature of the developersolution being incorrect. Thecorrect working temperature ofthe solution can be found in theinstructions accompanying it. Usea thermometer to gauge the exacttemperature of a solution beforepouring it into a print drum. Athermostatically controlledprocessing unit for solutions andprint drums makes these criticalcontrols easier to maintain.

Heavy shadow areas

Purple color-castIf the print has a purple color-cast, the paper was slightlyfogged by white light beforeexposure, which destroyed mostof the top yellow dye layer. Sealthe darkroom completely againstwhite light, and if you are using asafelight, make sure it is thecorrect type for color printing,that the filter cover is securely inplace, and that the bulb is of therecommended wattage.

Light purple color-cast

Blotchy, uneven imageThis is usually due to the printing paper being loaded into the processing drum with theemulsion side the wrong way up, so that uneven amountsof each chemical solution reach the emulsion. The same happensif the paper is correctly orientedbut not enough solution is used.Be very careful at every stage.

Unevenly processed image

Dark image lacking in contrastUsually caused by exhaustedbleach solution. Keep a note ofthe number and size of all printspassing though the solution.Discard and replace it beforeexhaustion point is reached. Read the instructionsaccompanying the chemicals todetermine how often they shouldbe renewed.

Lack of contrast

Magenta color-castIf a processed print shows a paleimage, reversed left to right, thepaper was probably placed underthe enlarger with the emulsionside face down, so that the paperwas exposed through the back.(Note that prints like this can alsohave a blotchy, cyan color-cast.)Practice with a spare, waste pieceof paper until you are confidentyou can tell the emulsion side bytouch in complete darkness.

Bright magenta color-cast

Pale, reversed imageIf a processed print shows a paleimage, reversed left to right, thepaper was probably placed underthe enlarger with the emulsionside face down, so that the paperwas exposed through the back.(Note that prints like this can alsohave a blotchy, cyan color-cast.)Practice with a spare, waste pieceof paper until you are confidentyou can tell the emulsion side bytouch in complete darkness.

Image reversed

White or colored scratchesThese indicate that the delicatesurface of the printing paper hasbeen damaged. Scratches oftencome up white, but can also beblue, yellow, magenta, or cyan,depending on the depth of thescratch. Always handle the papergently, especially when still wet,because this is the time when theemulsion is most easily affected.

Scratches on print

COLOR PRINTS FROM SLIDES

COLOR PRINTS FROM NEGATIVES

274 GLOSSARY

AAdobe Photoshop Professional-standard imagemanipulation software package. Although it iscostly and requires a powerful computer, theprogram offers a wide range of techniquesand effects. Suitable for PCs and Macs.

AE See Autoexposure.

Aerial perspective Illusion of depth anddistance in a photograph due to the light-scattering effect of atmospheric haze.

AF See Autofocus.

Ambient light See Available light.

Analogue A non-digital recording systemwhere the strength of the signal is in directproportion to the strength of the source.

Angle of view Most widely separated parts ofa scene that a lens is capable of resolving intoan acceptable image on a piece of film. Theangle of view varies according to the focallength of the lens and the camera format.

Anti-aliasing A method of smoothingdiagonal lines in digital images, to avoid astaircase, or stepping, effect created by theindividual pixels.

Antihalation layer Coating of dye on theback of films that absorbs light. Without thislayer, light would be reflected back from thefilm base and through the emulsion, creatingill-defined haloes around sources of brightlight in the image.

Aperture Circular opening within a lens thatdetermines the amount of light that is allowedto pass through to reach the film. On all butthe simplest of cameras, the size of theaperture can be varied by a diaphragm, whichis set to different-sized openings, known as“stops,” calibrated in f-numbers.

Aperture priority Type of semi-automaticexposure system whereby the photographersets the aperture and the camera selects thecorresponding shutter speed to ensure correctexposure of the scene.

APS (Advanced Photo System) Miniaturefilm format used for compact cameras andsome SLRs. Film is automatically loaded fromthe cassette by the camera, and is returned inthe cassette after processing. An indicatorshows whether the film is unused, partly used,completely used, or developed. A five-digitreference number on the cassette is alsoprinted on the back of prints to allow you toidentify negatives. The image area of theformat is 30.2 x 16.7mm, but the user can

choose from three print sizes at the time ofshooting. Information about each picture ismarked invisibly on the film's magnetic strip,and this data is used during printing.

Archival Any process or material that isspecifically designed to significantly improvethe life expectancy of the image.

Array The arrangement of image sensors in adigital device.

Artefacts Unwanted information in a digital image, caused by limitations in therecording process.

Attachment A digital file attached to an e-mail.

Autoexposure Camera system designed toset the size of the aperture and/or the shutterspeed, to ensure correct exposure of a scene.Film speed is also taken into account.

Autofocus A system where the lens isadjusted automatically by the camera to bringthe image into sharp focus.

Autofocus illuminator System used in somecameras to assist autofocus in low lightsituations. A red pattern is projected onto thesubject, which enhances the contrast-detectionfunction of the autofocus, allowing the lensto be adjusted correctly.

Available light Light that is normally availablein a scene, such as extra domestic tungstenlighting, but not including artificial light such asflash. Also known as ambient or existing light.

BB (Bulb) setting Shutter setting found onmany cameras that holds the shutter open foras long as the release is depressed. Used formanually timing exposures that are longerthan the standard shutter speeds available.

Backlight compensation control Manualexposure control found on many moderncameras that opens the aperture by apredetermined amount to compensate whenthe main subject is backlit. Most exposure-measuring systems tend to underexpose abacklit subject because the side of the subjectfacing the lens is in shadow.

Backlighting Lighting that illuminates thesubject from the rear. See also Backlightcompensation control.

Back-up Copy of a digital file, kept in case ofdamage to or deletion of the original.

Ball-and-socket head Simple type of camera-mounting system found on some tripods. Itconsists of a ball that can be rotated in a cup-shaped fixture, allowing sideways and up-and-down camera movements. See also Tripod.

Barn doors Set of four hinged metal flaps ona frame that fit around a spotlight. Moving theflaps in or out of the light beam controls thespread of light.

Barrel distortion Design fault, usuallyassociated with wide-angle lenses, that causesvertical lines near the edges of the frame tobulge outward.

Bellows See Extension bellows.

Between-the-lens shutter Shutter system onmost compact cameras that is built within thelens itself. See also Focal-plane shutter.

Bit The basic unit from which any digitalpiece of data is made up. Each bit has a valueof 0 or 1. Digital files are usually measured inbytes, which are each made up of 8 bits.

Bleed A picture that is printed or cut so thatthe image extends to the edge of the paper.

Bluetooth Wireless connection system usedto link different computer peripherals anddigital devices using radio signals.

Blur Unsharp image area caused by cameraor subject movement, inaccurate focusing, ora limited depth of field.

Bounced flash Light from a flash that is firstdirected at a surface, such as a wall, ceiling,or reflector, before it reaches the subject. Thiscreates a broad, soft area of lighting.

Bracketing Taking a series of photographs ofthe same scene with each frame at a differentexposure setting. Useful when you want toselect slightly darker or lighter prints than theexposure system would normally produce, orwhen it is difficult to judge the best exposure.

Burning-in Photographic printing term usedto indicate those parts of an image that wouldbenefit from extra exposure. Parts of theimage not requiring burning-in must beshaded from the enlarger light during thisprocess. The procedure can be mimicked bymost digital manipulation programs.

Byte Standard unit for measuring memorycapacity of digital devices. Each byte can haveone of 256 values, and is equal to 8 bits.

CCable release Mechanical or electrical deviceused to trigger the shutter. Useful if a camera ismounted on a tripod, as it ensures that thecamera is stable at the moment of exposure.

Cassette Metal or plastic holder for 35mmand APS film.

Catadioptric lens See Mirror lens.

CC filter Abbreviation for Color conversion

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY 275

filters – pale color filters designed to providesmall changes in color balance when usingcolor slide film.

CCD (Charge Coupled Device) An imagingsensor used in digital cameras, found at thefocal plane. It converts the focused image intoan electrical signal. See CMOS sensor.

Center-weighted metering Type ofexposure-measuring system that assumes thesubject is placed in the center of the frame soweights the exposure in favor of that area.

Chromatic aberration Lens fault thatcauses the different wavelengths of light tofocus on slightly different planes. It appearsas a series of different-colored fringes around the subject. Occurs with somecheap camera lenses, and lenses with longfocal lengths.

Clip test Small length of film clipped from thebeginning of an exposed roll. This is processedin advance so that processing times can beadjusted if necessary for the rest of the film.

Clone tool Facility on many digital imagemanipulation programs that allows you toreplace an area of the image with a copytaken from another part of the image.Extensively used for removing blemishes, dustmarks and unwanted subject matter from adigital photograph.

CMOS (Complementary Metal OxideSemiconductor) An imaging sensor used indigital cameras similar to a CCD sensor. It isfound at the focal plane, and converts thefocused image into an electrical signal.

CMYK Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Black –the four primary inks used in commercialand desktop printing to produce full-colorimages. Digital photographs and scans arerecorded in RGB (red, green, and blue), but can be converted to the CMYK colorspace using imaging editing software. It is not, however, necessary to convert before printing.

Color balance The matching of film orimaging chip settings to ensure that whiteand grey tones appear in a picture as theywould to the human eye. With color film,color balance can be changed using filters.With digital cameras, color balance ischanged electronically using the whitebalance system.

Color-cast Unwanted color tint on an image,usually created by incorrect color balance orby a reflection from a strongly-colored object.

Color depth The amount of colorinformation in a digital image. 8-bit coloroffers 256 distinct colors, 16-bit color offersover 65,000 colors, whilst the human eye iscapable of distinguishing over 16-millioncolors (32-bit color).

Color gamut The range of colors that can bedisplayed by a computer screen, or printed bya printer. This range of possible colors maywell be different for both – and different fromthose recorded in the digital file.

Color management A system that warns youof color gamut problems, and helps to ensurethat the colors that are printed look the sameas those you see on screen.

Color temperature Measurement of the colorof light, often expressed in Kelvin (K). Thehuman eye adjusts for the color temperatureof different light sources without us realising.A digital camera can make electronicadjustments using its white balance system.When using color film, if accurate colorbalance is essential, correct filtration is oftennecessary when shooting or printing.

Compact A type of camera that has a shuttermechanism built into the lens. Compacts usepoint-and-shoot designs that are easy to carryaround. Many have built-in zooms and eitherrecord images digitally or on film.

Complementary colors In a photographiccontext, this term refers to the colors yellow,magenta, and cyan, which are complementaryto the primary colors blue, green, and red.Colors are complementary to one another if,when mixed in the correct proportions, theyform white or gray.

Contact sheet A print with the images fromthe same roll of film exactly the same size asthe negatives. Contacts are produced byplacing the negatives in contact with a sheetof photographic printing paper, pressing themdown under a piece of glass, and exposingthem to light.

Continuous AF Autofocus setting where thefocus is constantly adjusted up until the momentthe shutter is fired. Useful for moving subjects,where it is inappropriate for the focus distanceto be locked once correct focus is initially found.

Continuous tone Term used in black andwhite photography to describe a negative orprint that has gradations of tone from black towhite, which correspond to the different tonesof the original subject.

Contrast range A measurement of thedifference in brightness between the darkestand lightest part of an image. Films andimage sensors are capable of successfullydealing with differing, but generally limited,contrast ranges.

Contre jour Another term for backlighting.

Converging verticals An effect usuallyassociated with a wide-angle lens that occurswhen the film plane and the subject are notparallel. This results in the vertical sides of atall building appearing to converge when thecamera is tilted back to include the top.

Cropping Removing unwanted parts of animage by enlarging only part of the frameduring printing or digital manipulation.

DDaylight-balanced film Film designed toreproduce correct subject colors whenexposed in daylight or by the light ofelectronic flash or blue flash cubes. See alsoTungsten-balanced film.

Dedicated flash Type of flashgun designedto be used with a specific camera or range ofcameras. Once attached to the camera, theflashgun effectively becomes an extension ofthat camera’s circuitry, controlling shutterspeed, receiving film speed information, andusing the exposure meter.

Depth of field Zone of acceptably sharpfocus extending in front of and behind thepoint of true focus. Depth of field variesdepending on the aperture selected, the focallength of the lens (or zoom setting), and thefocused distance. Depth of field is increased ifa smaller aperture is set, a lens with a shorterfocal length is selected, or the further thesubject focused on is away from the camera.

Depth of field scale Pairs of f-numbersengraved on a lens barrel that indicate theeffective depth of field surrounding a subjectwhen the lens is focused on the subject andthe desired aperture has been selected.

Depth of focus Distance that the film planecan be moved without requiring the camerato be refocused.

Diaphragm Adjustable aperture of a lens.The size of the aperture affects the amount oflight reaching the film, and the depth of field.

Diffuser Any material that is used to scatterand soften light.

Digital manipulation Any alteration to adigital image on a computer that changes itsappearance. Digital manipulation softwareprovides a range of tools and techniques that are similar to those of the traditionaldarkroom, hence the fact that digitalmanipulation processes are often referred to as the digital darkroom.

Dodging Masking selected areas of the imageat the printing stage to reduce exposure inthat area in relation to the rest of the image.A process that is often recreated with toolsavailable during digital manipulation.

Downrating Exposing film as if it were less sensitive to light than its ISO ratingindicates. Allowances for downrated film have to be made during development. Alsoknown as pulling.

276 GLOSSARY

dpi (dots per inch) A measure of theresolution of a printer or other digital device.

DPOF (Digital Print Order Format) Facilityavailable on some digital cameras that allowsusers to mark the images that they wish tohave processed into prints.

Driver A piece of software that is used by acomputer to control and communicate with aprinter, scanner, or other peripheral.

DX coding Black and silver markings on a35mm film canister that can be read by manycameras. These usually only tell the camerathe film's ISO speed (its sensitivity to light),but the code can also communicate the lengthof the roll and its exposure latitude.

Dye sublimation Printing method used tomake high-quality prints from digital imagefiles. The results look and feel very similar totraditional photographic prints.

EElectronic flash Type of flash that dischargesan electric current through a gas-filled tube toproduce a short burst of bright light.

Emulsion Light-sensitive coating onphotographic film and printing paper consistingof silver halides suspended in gelatin.

Enlargement Any size of print that is largerthan the transparency or negative from whichit is produced.

Enlarger Darkroom device that projects theimage of a negative or transparency onto apiece of photographic printing paper.

EXIF (Exchangeable Image File) Datarecorded by many digital cameras as part ofthe image file. This data automatically recordsa wide range of information about the picture,including the date and time it was recorded,aperture, shutter speed, model of camera,whether flash was used, number of pixelsused, metering mode, exposure mode,exposure compensation used, and zoomsetting. This information can be read bycertain software. However, the informationcan easily be lost if the image is subsequentlysaved in an incompatible file format.

Exposure Amount of light received by aphotographic emulsion or imaging chip.Overall exposure is the product of theintensity of the light, the aperture size, andthe shutter speed.

Exposure latitude Amount by which a filmmay be over- or underexposed and stillproduce an acceptable result when givenstandard processing. Fast films in general havea wider exposure latitude than slow films.

Exposure latitude will depend on the contrastrange of the subject.

Exposure lock Feature found on manyautomatics SLR cameras that allows thephotographer to take a light reading from onepart of a scene, lock the reading into thecamera, and recompose the picture and shoot.A useful feature when the subject is backlit orwhen the main subject is either much lighteror darker than the surrounding scene.

Exposure meter A device that measures theamount of light reflected from or falling ontothe subject, assesses the film speed, andrecommends a shutter speed and aperture toachieve the correct exposure. Can be builtinto the camera or hand-held; it is also knownas a light meter.

Extension bellows Close-up attachment forSLR cameras and view cameras that fitsbetween the camera body and the lens. Thebellows unit is made of flexible material andmounted on rails.

Extension tubes Similar in principle to anextension bellows, extension tubes are madeof metal in different lengths and can be usedsingly or in combination to give differentdegrees of subject enlargement.

FFeathering Technique used in digitalmanipulation to soften the edge of a selectionor an effect. A certain amount of feathering isnecessary with most selective operations sothat the joins between images do not show.

File format The way in which a digital fileis saved. A digital image can be saved in awide variety of file formats – the mostcommonly-used being TIFF and JPEG. Theformat dictates which programs will be ableto read and open the file. It also dictates theamount of information and the detail that is stored. Other formats include RAW, GIF,and Photoshop.

Fill-in light Supplementary lighting from aflash or reflector that is used most often tolighten shadowy areas of the subject andreduce overall contrast. Also used to addhighlights if the subject is flatly lit.

Film back Preloadable film holder designedfor use with a medium-format camera. It ispossible to change from black and white tocolor or from color negative to colortransparency film at any time (even halfwaythrough a film), simply by removing the filmback from the camera and attaching another,loaded with the appropriate film. A thin, darkplate protects the film from accidentalexposure. Digital backs are also available.

Film plane Plane on which the film lies in a camera. The camera lens is designed to bring images into focus precisely at the film plane to ensure correctly exposed pictures.

Film speed The more sensitive a film is tolight, the “faster” it is. The speed of a film isindicated by its ISO number. Each doubling ofthe ISO number represents a doubling of lightsensitivity (for example from ISO 100 to 200or from ISO 400 to 800). Slow films are in therange ISO 50–100; medium-speed films ISO200–400; and fast films ISO 800–3200.

Filter Glass, plastic, or gelatin disks orsquares that fit over a camera lens or, lesscommonly, the light source, in order tochange the appearance of the finished image.

Filter factor Most filters subtract some of the light passing through them. Through-the-lens (TTL) exposure-metering camerasautomatically compensate for any extraexposure required, but for non-TTL andmanual cameras, the mount of the filter may be engraved with a filter factor thatindicates the additional exposure that has to be given.

Fisheye lens Extreme wide-angle lens that produces highly distorted, circularimages, sometimes with an angle of view in excess of 200˚. Depth of field at everyaperture is so extensive that focusing maynot be necessary.

Fixed-focus lens Lens that is set to onesubject distance from the camera and cannotbe selectively focused closer than or beyondthe subject. Used on the simplest of cameras,the lens is usually set at the hyperfocal point,which, when coupled with a small maximumaperture, renders most subjects relativelysharp. See also Hyperfocal point.

Flare Non-image-forming light caused by lightscattering as it passes through the glasssurfaces of a lens, or light reflected frominside the camera body itself.

Flash See Electronic flash.

Flash fall-off Progressive underexposure ofthose parts of a subject that are beyond theworking distance of the flash.

Flash fall-in See Fill-in light.

Flash meter Type of hand-held exposuremeter designed to register the very brief burstof light produced by a flash. Some exposuremeters can be used in both continuous lightand flashlight.

Flash synchronization speed Fastest shutterspeed available that ensures the shutter isfully open when the flash is fired.

Flash umbrella Umbrella-shaped reflectorthat casts a broad area of soft, diffused

GLOSSARY 277

light onto the subject when flashlight isbounced off its inside surfaces. Also known as a brolly.

Flashgun Any type of add-on flash unit.

Floodlight Studio light designed to produce abroad beam of light.

f-number Series of numbers engraved onthe barrel of a lens that represent the sizes ofaperture available. Moving the aperture ringup one stop (for example from f4 to f5.6)makes the aperture smaller and halves theamount of light passing through the lens.Moving the aperture ring down one stop (forexample from f11 to f8) makes the aperturelarger and doubles the amount of lightpassing through the lens. The scale of f-numbers is calculated by dividing the focallength of the lens by the effective diameterof the aperture, so a 110mm lens and aneffective aperture diameter of 10mm would equal f11. f-numbers are also knownas f-stops.

Focal length Lenses are most often describedby their focal length, measured in millimeters(mm); this is the distance between the opticalcenter of the lens when the lens is focused oninfinity, and the focal plane. Zoom lensesoffer a range of focal lengths.

Focal plane Plane at which light from thelens is brought into focus. In order to ensuresharp images, the focal plane and the filmplane must precisely coincide.

Focal-plane shutter Type of shutterconsisting of fabric or metal blinds situatedjust in front of the focal plane. Focal-planeshutters are normally found only in cameraswith interchangeable lenses.

Focal point Point of light on the opticalaxis where all rays of light emanating from a given subject converge and come intosharp focus.

Focus lock Feature found on autofocus SLRcameras and many compact cameras thatallows the photographer to focus the lens onone part of a scene, lock that setting into thecamera, and then recompose the picture andshoot. A useful feature when the subject isoff-center, as most AF systems focus onanything that is positioned in the middle ofthe frame.

Focusing Adjustment of the lens-to-filmdistance in order to achieve a sharp image ofthe subject.

Focusing screen Glass or plastic screenmounted inside the camera that allows theimage to be viewed and focused accurately.

Format Size or shape of a film original,printing paper, or camera viewing area.

f-stop See f-number.

GGain Amplification of an electrical circuit.Used in digital cameras as a way ofelectronically boosting the sensitivity of theimaging chip in lowlight. This allows digitalcameras to allow a range of different sensorsensitivities, equivalent to using film withdifferent ISO ratings.

Gamma A method for measuring or settingcontrast.

GIF (Graphic Interchange Format) Digitalfile format that can be used for savinggraphics and images.

Grain Exposed and developed black silverhalide grains making up a photographic image.

Graininess Term describing the visualappearance of irregular clumps of exposedand developed silver halide grains on filmsand printing papers. Graininess is mostapparent in light-toned areas of an image.

Granularity Qualitative measurement of thedegree of clumping together of silver halidegrains within a photographic emulsion.

Guide number Measure of the maximumoutput of an electronic bulb or flashgun thatvaries according to the film speed used. Lensapertures can be calculated by dividing theguide number by the distance between thesubject and the flash. Suppose the number is40 (metres with ISO 100 film), then at 10m(33ft) the lens would be set at f4, at 5m (16ft)f8, and so on.

HHigh-key image An image composedpredominantly of light tones or colors. See also Low-key image.

Highlights Brightest parts of an image.

Histogram Graphical display – used as away of depicting and manipulating thebrightness, tonal range and contrast of adigital image.

Hot shoe Metal plate usually found on thetop of the camera, which is designed to holda flashgun securely. Electrical contacts on thebase of the hot shoe correspond to contactson the bottom of the flash, so completing acircuit when the shutter is fired.

Hybrid camera A compact digital camerathat is designed to handle like an SLR.Combines the fixed lens of a standardcompact camera with SLR features such as adjustable aperture, shutter speed, andcolor balance.

Hyperfocal point The nearest point ofsharp focus to a camera when a lens isfocused on infinity (for a particularaperture). If the lens is focused at thehyperfocal point, depth of field extendsfrom infinity to a point halfway between itand the camera.

IIncident light The light falling on a subject,as opposed to that being reflected by it.

Infra-red (IR) film Film that is sensitive toinvisible infra-red light. IR film is mostcommonly used for black-and-whitephotography because it is relatively insensitiveto blue. This produces dark, moody images,which can be made even more dramatic byusing a red filter. Colour IR film available butless widespread.

Inverse square law Law that states that adoubling of the distance between a subjectand a compact light source, such as a flash,results in a quartering of the light illuminatingthe subject.

ISO Abbreviation for International StandardsOrganization, the internationally agreed filmspeed rating system that amalgamated theolder ASA and DIN scales.

IX240 Another name for the APS film format.

JJPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) Afile format used widely for digital images. Avariable amount of compression can be usedto vary both the detail stored and the resultingsize of the file. It is the standard format usedby most digital cameras (although RAW or TIFFformats may be available for the highestresolution capture settings).

KKelvin (K) Unit of measurement used todescribe the color temperature of lightsources. See Color temperature.

Key light Alternative term for Main light.

LLarge-format camera See View camera.

278 GLOSSARY

Lasso Selection tool used in digitalmanipulation software. Allows you to outlinean area of an image by drawing a series ofpoints around it.

Latent image Invisible image on film orphotographic printing paper formed by theaction of light from the subject and madevisible by the development process.

Layer Feature available on some digitalmanipulation software that allows you to laydifferent versions or elements of an image ontop of each other. The original image can beprotected as the background layer, whilstalterations are made to copy layers. Layerscan be opaque – or they can be merged withlayers below in a number of different ways.Layers are an essential way of working forany serious manipulation work.

LCD (liquid crystal display) Type of displaypanel used widely on cameras to provideinformation to the user. Color LCDs are capableof showing detailed images, and are oftenused as viewing screens on digital cameras.

LED (light emitting diode) Colored indicatorlamp used on many cameras for a variety ofpurposes.

Lens Glass or plastic optical instrument thatcan refract light. A photographic lensconsists of different-shaped glass elementsarranged in groups to form a compoundlens. In a compound lens, some elementsare convex in shape, causing rays of light toconverge, and some concave, causing raysto diverge.

Lens hood Attachment made of metal orrubber that screws into the filter mount on thefront of a lens and prevents unwanted lightfrom reaching the surface of the lens andaffecting the image.

Lens speed Refers to the maximum apertureavailable with a lens. Lenses with widemaximum apertures admit most light, and socan be used in dimmer lighting conditions orto compensate for faster shutter speeds; theseare known as fast lenses.

Light box Box containing fluorescent tubeswith an opaque glass or plastic top used forviewing transparencies.

Light meter See Exposure meter.

Linear perspective Sense of depth anddistance in a two-dimensional photographcaused by the apparent convergence ofparallel lines receding from the camera.

Lith film Black-and-white film with a tonalrange that is reduced to black and white withonly minimal greys. Must be developed with aspecial lith developer.

Low-key image An image composedpredominantly of dark tones or colors.

MMacro Term used to describe equipment orfeatures that allow you to take pictures at acloser shooting distance than usual, toprovide a more magnified image.

Magic wand Selection tool used in digitalmanipulation that lets you select an area ofsimilar color or tone simply by clicking on it.

Main light Principal lighting unit thatprovides illumination for a subject or scene.

Marquee Selection tool used in digital imagemanipulation programs that allows you todraw regular shapes – such as ovals orrectangles.

Medium-format camera Camera with apicture format larger than 35mm but smallerthan a view camera. The rolls of film measure6cm (2 1⁄4 in) across - but the image size variesfrom camera to camera. Popular formatsinclude 6 x 6cm, 6 x 4.5cm and 6 x 7cm – witha variety of panoramic sizes also available.

Megabyte (MB) Unit for measuring thecapacity of computer memory. Equal to 1,024bytes (two to the power of ten bytes).

Megapixel Measurement of the resolution ofa digital camera, equal to one million pixels.

Memory card A removable electronic cardused in most digital cameras to save and storedigital images. Cards of different memorycapacity are available.

Mirror lens Telephoto lens with mirrorsreplacing some of the glass elements foundin a traditional lens. The effect of the mirrorsis to reflect light rays up and down thelength of the lens to produce a long focallength in a relatively short lens barrel. Theaperture of such lenses is usually fixed ataround f8. Also known as a catadioptric orreflex lens.

Modeling lamp Low-wattage, continuous-output lamp mounted in the lighting head ofa flash unit. Allows the photographer topreview the effects of light and shade,especially the fall of the shadows that will beproduced when the flash fires.

Monochromatic Describes a photographicimage that is solely or predominantly composedof a single color or shades of a single color.

Montage Composite picture made from anumber of photographs.

Motordrive Automatic film advance system,either built into the camera or available as anadd-on accessory. The system allowscontinuous shooting, taking picture afterpicture as long as the trigger is held down.

Motorized film transport Automatic featurefound on many cameras, which uses a motorinside the camera to advance the film at thebeginning of a roll, advance the film aftereach exposure, and rewind the film after thelast shot is taken.

Multiple exposure Technique of makingmore than one exposure appear on the sameimage. Sometimes done for special effect butcan also occur due to a fault with the filmadvance system.

NNegative Developed film image in whichcolors or tones of the original subject arereversed. An intermediate stage in theproduction of a print.

Neutral density filter Gray-colored lens filterthat reduces the amount of light reaching thefilm without affecting color balance.

OOff the film (OTF) A light-reading systemthat gauges exposure by measuring theamount of light being reflected by the film.

Open flash Button on some flashguns thatallows the flash to be fired without exposingthe film. Very important feature on any flashunit if exposure using a flash meter is required.Also used for “painting with light” technique.

Opening up Increasing the size of theaperture to allow more light to reach the film.

Overexposure Occurs if a film receives toomuch light, either by exposing it to too brighta light or by allowing the light to act on it fortoo long. It results in light prints or slides anda reduction in subject contrast.

PPan-and-tilt head Versatile type of camera-mounting system found on some tripods.The tripod head can be swiveled from sideto side or tilted up and down, and thecamera turned either horizontally orvertically and locked securely in anyposition. See also Tripod.

Panning Action of turning the camera whilethe shutter is open to keep pace with amoving subject. The subject should appearreasonably sharp while all stationary parts ofthe scene are blurred.

GLOSSARY 279

Panorama A broad, continuous scene takeneither with a panoramic camera or producedby taking a series of different photographs ofa scene and joining the individual picturestogether to create a panoramic view.

Panoramic camera Camera that offers animage size where the width is significantlygreater than the height.

Parallax error Framing error almost alwaysassociated with direct vision viewfinders,which results in a slight difference inviewpoint between the image as seen in theviewfinder and that recorded on the film.

Passive autofocus Autofocus system thatadjusts the focus of the lens by looking at theimage itself, rather than actively measuring the subject distance. This type of autofocus is widely used on 35mm SLRs and on someother types of camera. It is also known ascontrast-detection or phase-detection autofocus.

Pentaprism Five-sided prism usually found onthe top of SLR cameras. Its inside surfaces aresilvered so that the image produced by thereflex mirror appears in the viewfinder the rightway up and correctly oriented left to right.

Perspective control lens See Shift lens.

Photoflood See Floodlight.

Photogram Picture made by placing opaqueand/or translucent objects in contact withphotographic paper or film, exposing thepaper to light, and then developing normally.

Photomicrography Production of larger-than-life images of small subjects by attachingthe camera to a microscope.

Pixel Short for picture element. A single light-sensitive cell in a digital camera's imagesensor. The basic unit used when measuringthe maximum resolution of a digital camera ora digital image.

Pixelated A digital image in which theindividual picture elements that make it uphave become visible. This is usually due toover-enlargement to poor resolution of theoriginal image. The effect can also be createdwith manipulation software, using effects suchas a mosaic filter.

Plug-in Piece of software which addsfunctionality to an existing computer program.Plug-ins are available for some digital imagemanipulation programs, providing anincreased range of effects and transformations.

Point-and-shoot See Compact

Polarizer A filter that only lets through lightvibrating in one plane. It can be used todeepen the color of part of a picture, such asthe sky. It can also be used to eliminate orreduce reflections from non-metallic surfacessuch as water or glass. It must be rotated in

front of the lens until you achieve the desiredeffect. Linear polarizers can be used with somecameras, but can interfere with the meteringand autofocus systems of many models.Circular polarizers avoid such problems.

Polaroid camera Instant camera thatproduces an image within minutes ofexposure. Each print contains its ownprocessing chemicals and is automatically fedout of the camera, whereupon the processingchemicals develop the print.

Polaroid film There are two types of polaroidfilm: the first is used in a Polaroid camera,while the second is used in an interchangeablePolaroid back that can be added to speciallydesigned SLR, medium-, and large-formatcameras. This second type is used byprofessional photographers to preview theshot before re-taking with the desired film.

Portrait lens Short telephoto lens with afocal length of about 90mm (for a 35mmcamera).

Posterization Technique where the numberof colors or tones in a photograph isdrastically reduced. Instead of gradualchanges in density and color, the picture ismade up of bands of identical color –similar to a painting-by-numbers picture.The effect can be achieved in the darkroom,but is produced far more easily using digitalimage manipulation software. Posterizationcan also be an unwanted side-effect ofdigital imaging – caused by overmanipulation of the image.

ppi (points per inch) Also known as pixelsper inch, ppi is an indication of the resolutionof a digital image produced by a digitalcamera or scanner.

Predictive autofocus Autofocus settingwhere the focus is not only constantlyadjusted until the shutter is actually fired, butis also adjusted during the delay betweenpressing the trigger and the shutter actuallyopening. The camera can therefore trackmoving subjects more accurately. A commonfeature on autofocus SLRs.

Preview button See Stop-down button.

Primary colors In a photographic context,the term usually refers to the colors blue,green, and red. In terms of painters’pigments, the primary colors are blue,yellow, and red.

Prime lens See Fixed focal length lens.

Printing-in See Burning-in.

Pulling See Downrating.

Push processing Technique for increasingthe sensitivity of a film. The film is exposed ata higher-than-normal ISO rating, and is thendeveloped for longer to compensate.

RRAM (random access memory) Acomputer’s working memory – the storagearea it uses whilst working on files andprocessing information. Digital manipulationprograms can require more RAM than manyother computer programs, particularly whenhandling large image files.

Rangefinder Manual focusing system thatsuperimposes two views of the subject. Whenthey coincide, the subject is in focus.

Rebate Non-image area on a film in whichthe frame numbers and, on some films, thesprocket holes are located.

Rear curtain sync Facility found on someSLRs and flashguns that synchronizes the flashoutput with the moment when the secondshutter curtain is about to close. Normally aflashgun synchronizes with the point wherethe first shutter is fully open. The facility givesmore natural-looking images when using slowsynch flash with a moving subject, as theblurred after-image created by the ambientlight appears behind the line of movement,rather than in front of it.

Reciprocity failure Loss of sensitivity of aphotographic emulsion when given either avery brief or a very long exposure. Colormaterial may also experience uncorrectableshifts in color balance.

Red-eye Fault caused by light reflected from asubject’s eyes when exposed by flash. Aparticular problem with cameras with built-inflash with telephoto zoom settings – as theangle between flash and lens axis is narrow.If possible, move the flash unit to one side orbounce the light before it reaches the subject.Some cameras have settings that use apreflash to reduce the size of the irises of thesubject’s eyes, to minimize the problem.Another solution is to move closer to thesubject, using a wider lens setting.

Reflected light reading An exposure readingtaken by measuring the amount of lightreflected back from the subject toward thecamera. All TTL (through-the-lens) exposure-measuring systems take a reflected lightreading. See also Through-the-lens metering.

Reflex camera Camera design that uses amirror between the lens and focusing screento correct the upside-down image producedby the lens.

Reflex lens See Mirror lens.

Resolution The ability of a lens, film ordigital imaging device to record fine detail.

Retouching Removing blemishes and/orchanging the tonal values of negatives, slides,prints or digital images.

280 GLOSSARY

RGB Red, green, and blue. The three colorsused by digital cameras, scanners, andcomputer monitors to display or recordimages. Digital images are therefore usuallyRGB models – but they can be converted toother color models (such as CMYK).

Ring flash Circular flash lighting unit that fitsaround the outside of the front of the lens.Most often used in close-up photography toproduce localized, shadow-free illumination.

Roll-film camera See Medium-format camera.

SSafelight Low-output darkroom light filteredthrough an appropriate color (orange is usual)so as not to affect unexposed printing paper.Black and white printing paper is not affectedby safelighting, but most films and color paperswill be, so different colored filters are used.

Scanner Device that converts a physicalimage into a digital one.

Sheet film Large-format film cut to a specificsize rather than in roll form. Each sheet isused for just one photograph.

Shift lens Lens in which some elements canbe shifted vertically or horizontally off-center, to overcome the type of problemencountered when a camera is tilted (toinclude the tops of tall structures, forexample). Also known as a perspectivecontrol (PC) lens.

Shutter Device that controls the moment ofexposure and the length of time light isallowed to act on the film to produce animage. See also Between-the-lens shutter andFocal-plane shutter.

Shutter priority Type of semi-automaticexposure system whereby the photographersets the shutter and the camera selects thecorresponding lens aperture to ensure correctexposure of the scene.

Single lens reflex (SLR) Type of camera inwhich the viewfinder image shows the subjectthrough the same lens that will be used toexpose the film or imaging chip. A mirror isused to reflect the image to the viewingscreen, which moves out of the way when thepicture is taken.

Skylight filter Pale amber filter that can beused with color film to introduce a slight,natural-looking color-cast. Useful with cold-looking scenes and to counteract the tendencyof some films to produce a blue cast inshadow areas.

Slave unit Fires additional synchronizedflashes when the principal flash lighting unitconnected to a camera fires.

Slide Positive film image designed to beviewed by projection. Also commonly knownas a transparency or a positive.

Slow film See Film speed.

Slow lens See Lens speed.

Slow sync flash Technique where a slowshutter speed is combined with a burst offlash. The flash usually provides the mainillumination, but the ambient light creates asecondary image that can be useful insuggesting movement. The technique can alsobe used to ensure that the backgroundreceives more exposure than it wouldotherwise have done.

SLR See Single lens reflex.

Snoot Type of flash head used to direct anarrow beam of light over a small area.

Soft-focus lens Lens designed to produce aslightly soft image, with not all in-focuselements critically sharp. A portrait lens mayalso be a soft-focus lens.

Solarization Complete or partial reversal ofan image, caused by massive overexposure towhite light. The effect can easily be mimickedusing digital manipulation software.

Spot meter Type of exposure meter with anextremely narrow angle of view. A spot meteris used to take a light reading from a specificpart of a subject.

Spotlight Unit that produces a strong beamof light, which can easily be trained on asubject.

Spotting Removing blemishes or smallunwanted areas of detail on a print using apaintbrush and dyes, watercolors, or graphite.Similar correction is possible with digitalimages using manipulation software, mostusually with the aid of the clone tool.

Standard lens Lens with a focal lengthapproximately equal to the diagonal of theimage area of the format with which it isused. With 35mm format film the standardlens is 50–55mm, and an 80mm lens with 6 x6cm medium format film. A standard lensreproduces about as much of a scene as youwould see with the naked eye (excludingperipheral vision).

Starburst filter Special effects filter thatproduces starlike patterns around the sourcesof light in a photograph.

Stop Another name for aperture. See Aperture.

Stop bath Chemical solution (usually weakacid) that halts the action of film or paperdeveloper and neutralizes any developerresidues, so preventing contamination of otherprocessing chemicals.

Stop-down button Manual control that closesdown the aperture to that selected for

exposure. The photographer can then judgedepth of field on the focusing screen. Alsoknown as a preview button.

Stopping down Closing down the aperture.

Strobe light Low-output flash light that iscapable of delivering many thousands offlashes per second.

Studio flash Large flash units, oftenconnected to heavy-duty power packs andmounted on adjustable stands, and designedto illuminate large areas of a photographicstudio or for use on location.

TTechnical camera See View camera.

Telephoto lens Lens with a focal length thatis longer than the standard lens for the formatbeing used. See Standard lens.

Test strip Strip of printing paper or film thatis given a range of trial exposures.

Through-the-lens metering A type of light-measuring system used commonly in reflexcameras to measure the light that is reflectedfrom a subject and then passes through thelens. Commonly abbreviated to TTL.

TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) Digitalimage format used to record files withmaximum available detail. File sizes can,however, be large.

TWAIN (technology without an interestingname) Piece of software, similar to a driver,that allows you to control a scanner, or similarcomputer peripheral, from another application– such as a digital image manipulationpackage.

TLR See Twin lens reflex.

Tonal range Range of shades of gray,between the extremes of black and white,which can be distinguished in a photograph.

Tone An area on a print or negative that has auniform density and that can be distinguishedfrom other lighter or darker parts.

Transmitted light Light that passes through atransparent or translucent material.

Transparency See Slide.

Tripod Camera-steadying device consisting ofthree legs and some form of mounting systemto hold the camera. Tripod legs are extendableso that the camera height can be adjusted, andmost also have an extendable central column(on top of which the camera is mounted) forfiner height adjustments. The two mostcommonly available camera-mounting headsare ball-and-socket and pan-and-tilt types.

GLOSSARY 281

TTL See Through-the-lens metering.

Tungsten-balanced film Film designed toreproduce correct subject colors when exposedin tungsten light. If exposed in daylightwithout the appropriate correction filter overthe lens, subject colors will appear unnaturallyblue. See also Daylight-balanced film.

Twin lens reflex (TLR) Type of medium-format camera that uses two lenses of identicalfocal length mounted one under the other on alens panel. The top lens is used for viewingand focusing and the bottom lens for takingthe picture. Some models have interchangeablelenses, which are changed as paired units.

UUltra-violet (UV) filter Colorless filterdesigned to remove excessive ultra-violet fromthe light passing through the lens. A UV filtermay be left on the lens all the time to protectthe lens from dirt, knocks, and scratches. UVfilters do not affect exposure.

Ultra-violet light Part of the electro-magneticspectrum beyond visible blue. In distantscenes, such as mountainous areas, ultra-violet radiation increases the effects of aerialperspective by creating a blue haze. Ultra-violet effects can be minimized by using anultra-violet filter.

Underexposure Occurs if a film or imagingchip receives too little light, causing darkpictures and a reduction in subject contrast.

Uprating Exposing film as if it is moresensitive to light than its ISO rating indicates.Allowances for uprated film have to be madeduring development. Also known as pushing.

Unsharp mask (USM) A facility provided ondigital image manipulation programs thatallows you to sharpen an image. Takes itsname from a printing process, where a soft-focus negative is sandwiched with the originalin order to increase edge contrast.

UV filter See Ultra-violet filter.

VVanishing point Point at which parallel linesappear to converge in the distance. Used byartists to give realistic perspective in a two-dimensional representation.

View camera Large-format camera, usingindividual sheets of 5 x 4in (12.7 x 10cm) filmor larger, with a lens panel mounted on aflexible bellows and a ground-glass screen atthe image plane for viewing and focusing.

There are two main designs. The monorailcamera allows a full, independent movementof film and lens planes – allowing a highdegree of control over image distortion,perspective and depth of field. However, theyare heavy and cumbersome so are best suitedto studio use where they can be supported ona heavy stand. Field cameras have abaseboard to support the bellows and areslightly more portable. Also known astechnical, field, or baseboard cameras.

Viewfinder Viewing system that allows acamera to be aimed and focused accurately.The viewfinder often contains exposure-related information around the edges of the screen.

Viewpoint In photography, the position fromwhich the picture is taken in relation to thesubject. Very small changes in cameraviewpoint can result in considerabledifferences in finished prints or slides.

Vignette Gradual fading of a photographicimage to white or black. The effect can beachieved in the darkroom either by holdinglight away from the edges to create a whitevignette (see Dodging) or by giving a largeamount of extra exposure to the edges tocreate a black vignette (see Burning-in).

Visible spectrum The part of the electro-magnetic spectrum between infra-red andultra-violet that is visible to the naked eye.

WWhite balance System by which a digitalcamera measures the color temperature of alight source and then corrects it so that thewhites, and therefore all the other colors,appear normally to the human eye.

Wide-angle lens Lens with a focal lengthshorter than the diagonal of the film formatwith which it is used. Commonly used wide-angle lenses for 35mm-format camerasinclude 35mm, 28mm, and 24mm focallengths. Lenses wider than this may showsigns of barrel distortion.

XX-ray fogging A gray veil produced whenunprocessed photographic emulsions areexposed to excessive X-ray radiation. Thiscan occur as a result of baggage screening at airports, but modern systems use X-raydosages that should be safe for mostemulsions. Repeated screenings of films, especially fast films, may have acumulative effect.

X-sync socket External socket found onsome cameras that accepts a cable connectingthe shutter to an electronic flashgun used off-camera. It ensures that the firing of the flashis synchronized with the opening of theshutter.

ZZoom lens Type of lens designed so thatgroups of internal elements can be shifted in relation to each other to produce a rangeof different focal lengths. See also Fixed-focus lens.

282 INDEX

Aabstract compositions

architecture 186, 189, 205color contrast 40dynamic imbalance 67fashion portraits 82nature 214nudes 111, 114–15patterns 50–1vertical framing 68

accessories, fashion 77action 128–31, 187

animals 209anticipation 128, 132blurred movement 130–1, 132, 172, 242, 270children at play 124–5focusing 134frozen movement 128–9, 133, 137, 172group portraits 104moving lights 183moving water 172–3, 174panning 133, 137portraits 72, 128–31sequences 134–5sports 132–7strobed 253viewpoint 136

Adobe Photoshop 11, 240, 242aerial perspective 60–1Amazon River 42American football 132–3angle of view 24animals 228–37

automatic camera 235backgrounds 230, 236–7birds 50, 232–3, 236close-ups 212–13moving subjects 209pets 228, 234–5wild 228–31, 236–7wildlife parks 228–31, 236

anticipation 128, 132aperture 14

close-ups 208, 213, 214depth of field 16, 17, 101, 214, 237exposure 16optical principles 16–17wide 65

aperture ring 16APS (Advanced Photo System) 18, 30architecture 157, 184–205

abstracts 186, 189camera 185, 188cityscapes 180–3color 195converging verticals 63, 181, 269details 187, 193, 202framing 54garden 222–3interiors 196–205large-format camera 23lenses 26, 27, 184, 186, 188–90lighting 184, 194modern 188pattern 62perspective 184shift lens 192viewing a building 186–7viewpoint 58, 184

architectural screen 184atmosphere 90, 108autoexposure 18–19, 235

problems 268autofocus 18–19

animal shots 235infra-red detector 28

moving subject 134predictive 134, 135

automatic cameras 18–19, 235

BB-setting 183, 253babies 118–19background 64

animals 230, 236–7blurred images 130combining images 247defining style 84distracting 58, 65lighting 72on location 89portraits 72, 89, 95, 118silhouettes 110still life 148–9studio 263

backlighting 8, 46exposure 237glass still life 143silhouettes 43, 110, 171, 179

balance 66–7central framing 59, 66cropping 69dynamic imbalance 67selection 68–9shapes 42, 55, 66still life 141, 153

barn doors 29barrel distortion 188Bellamy, John 89bellows 23, 206, 211, 213between-the-lens shutter 14birds 50, 232–3, 236black and white photography 52–3

color compared to 164–5color conversion 244darkroom techniques 52–3, 254–5digital imaging 95film 30–1filters 175infra-red 53, 250landscapes 164–7light and dark tones 44–5portraits 94–5printing 272texture 52

blade shutter 14blower brush 241blurred images 16, 270

action 130–1, 132–3camera shake 270digital filter 242, 244–5moving water 172panning 133, 137printing errors 272strobe flash 252

bracketing 168, 182buildings, see architecture

Ccable release 33, 73, 154, 139

close-ups 208self-portraits 102–3

Cairo, Egypt 108camera 13–33

basics 14–15cleaning and care 33, 268for close-ups 208–10equipment 33loading 18, 19, 270, 271protection 174secondhand 19

types

APS 18automatic 18–19compact 14, 18–19digital 8, 20–1direct vision 14film 18–19instant 22, 23large-format 23manual 18–19medium-format 14, 22–3rangefinder 23SLR 14, 18special 2335mm 18 underwater 22waterproof 22, 23

camera angle, see viewpointcamera backs 22, 82, 148camera bag 33camera care kit 33camera shake 16, 25, 208, 270camera strap 33camouflage 233Canada 194candid portraits 106–7

character 91children 121, 124–5nudes 116–17street life 108

card reader 241CCD chip 20CDs 240, 241, 266central framing 59, 66character 72, 90–1, 100

camera angles 75chemicals, darkroom 264, 272children 72, 122–3

communicating with 120–1in masks 126–7mother and child 118–19at play 124–5studio portraits 120–1working with 121, 123

Christie, Agatha 88cityscapes 180–3

at night 182–3cloning 201, 242–3, 246close-up photography

equipment 206fashion photography 82flowers 208, 210–11, 214, 220–1lenses 26, 27lighting 79, 212–13nature 206, 208–15portraits 77, 79, 91, 119texture 48see also macrophotography

clouds 176–8CMOS chip 20color 8, 36

architecture 195balance in composition 66black and white compared to 164–5brand bias 31, 180complementary 40computer retouching 242distracting 52dominant 153dramatic effects 96fashion 77gardens 217, 218hand coloring 254–5high-key 44light and 40, 41low-key 44monochrome 108, 161, 168, 244and mood 94patterns 51primary 40print faults 273problems 268, 270saturation 142–3still life 153

INDEX

INDEX 283

sunlight 222time of day 158–9toning 254

color balance 31, 82color-casts 161, 200, 205, 268, 273

film type 31filters 175

color contrast 37, 38, 40–1, 55, 82color film 30–1

daylight 31infra-red 250tungsten 31

color filters 38, 171, 175black and white 52night photography 182special effects 96, 175

color harmony 36, 38–9color masking 258–9color screens 254color temperature 29, 200compact camera 14, 18–19

APS 18digital 21zoom 19

complementary colors 40, 82composition 8

balance and proportion 66–7cropping 69division into thirds 66errors 269framing 54–5group portraits 104–5image planes 64–5landscape 154, 156nature photography 206selection 68–9shooting around subject 58–9still life 138, 140–1

computer 8, 240–1see also digital manipulation

contrast 184–5color 55errors 270high 45, 185, 250–1lighting 114low 45printing 272–3shapes 42–3sunlight 222

convergence diagonals 189inear perspective 60, 62shift lens 168, 192verticals 63, 168, 181, 186, 192, 269viewpoint 181, 198

converter lens 232cropping 69, 114cross-processing 82

Ddance 96–7, 104–5, 128darkroom 11

black and white 52–3, 254–5color masking 258–9lith film sandwiching 256–7print faults 272–3solarization 256–7, 258

dawn 158, 176daylight, see natural lightdaylight-balanced film 31, 200delayed-action timer 102–3depth and perspective 60–1

diminishing scale 60–1image planes 64–5vanishing point 61, 62–3

depth of field 14, 17close-ups 208–9, 211depth and perspective 60intense light 109lens length 24–5, 134

portraits 101, 122scale 16–17

details 37architecture 187, 193, 202cropping 69pattern 51printing errors 272

diffusers 29, 96flash 90panels 74softbox 78, 79, 120, 138, 212toplighting 212–13umbrella 263

digital backs 82, 148digital cameras 8, 20–1

buffer memory size 132close-up lens 208delay 128fisheye converter 196how they work 20LCD screen 14macro mode 208predictive autofocus 134teleconverter 233types 20–1white balance 31, 112, 177, 189, 201wide-angle attachment 189

digital imaging 8–11action shots 128archiving 241, 266black and white 95children 124close-ups 208converging verticals 63infra-red 164, 251interiors 189, 201sequences 128, 132skies 177skintone 112still life 144web images 124

digital manipulation 239–47cloning 201, 242combining images 246–7, 253cropping 69equipment 240–1filter effects 242, 244–5layers 246–7, 253, 259retouching 242–3sandwiching 259software 240solarization 257toning 254

diminishing scale 60–1direct vision viewfinder 14directional lighting

landscapes 48nudes 111portraits 74still lifes 138–9texture 48–9

distance indicator 16distortion 269

barrel 188intentional 114, 186, 195lenses 24, 25, 26, 188, 190, 202

dodging 254dramatic images

architecture 194portraits 96–9, 106skies 176–9, 181

dusk 158, 180–1, 182DVDs 241DX film-speed recognition 18dye sublimation printer 241

EEgypt 57

Cairo 108Great Pyramid and Sphinx 42

Luxor 65, 67, 194enlargements 69, 79enlarger 265, 272equipment

basics 33close-up 206darkroom 264–5digital manipulation 240–1flash 28–9, 72–3studio 29, 262–3see also lighting set-ups

eraser tool 247evening 40, 159, 224exposure 14

automatic 18–19, 235, 268bracketing 168, 182bright vs shadow reading 112color 38compensation 97darkroom 53, 254digital manipulation 242errors 268, 270filter factors 175long 154, 180, 184, 203multiple 252–3, 270night 182nudes 112optical principles 16over- 168, 236, 269, 270reflections 160self-portraits 103snow 161, 168under- 160, 179, 237, 270water 170

extension tubes 206, 211

Ff stops 14, 16

see also aperturefashion portraits 76–7

styling 78–9, 82–5film 30–1, 268

basic equipment 33black and white 30–1brand bias 31, 180color negative 30–1color slide 30–1daylight-balanced 31fogging 271formats 22–3, 30grain 32high-contrast recording film 250infra-red 53, 165, 250interiors 200lith 256–7, 258–9roll 35sheet 30special 250–1storage 268tungsten-balanced 31

film backs 22film speed 32

DX recognition 18fast 125, 202, 208, 228, 270

film transport 18–19filters 33

black and white 52color 38, 171, 175, 182digital manipulation 244–5graduated 175infra-red 53light-balancing 175neutral density 175polarizing 171, 175, 195soft-focus 90special effects 96, 175ultraviolet 162–3

fisheye converter 196fisheye lens 24, 27, 196flare 271

284 INDEX

flashadd-on 28barn doors 29bounced 88, 89built-in 28daylight simulation 87diffused 74, 90, 100directional 101equipment 28–9, 72–3errors 269fall-off 28, 269film types 31flood 29freezing movement 128–9ghost images 130hand-held 28, 184interiors 197, 199, 201movement 128–31outdoor 215overexposure 269painting with light 199portraits 74red eye 28, 271ring 210, 211, 220snoot 29, 111strobe 252–3studio 29, 262supplementary (fill-in) 72, 86, 197, 201, 215synchronization 73, 269wide-angle 78, 79, 120

flashgun 28, 33flash meter 29, 263flash unit 29flood flash head 29floodlights 116flowers 58, 218–19

close-ups 208, 210–11, 214, 220–1focal length

angle of view 24depth of field 16, 17vanishing point 62

focal plane 14focal-plane shutter 14focal point 36, 59

gardens 218, 224focus control 16focusing 14

automatic 18–19, 235depth of field scale 16digital camera 128errors 271portraits 122pre-focus 134selective 17, 92, 205

focusing screen 15, 184fog 184fogging 271, 273food photography 138

still life 146–7, 151foreground 64–5, 194

balance 66gardens 217wide-angle lens 58, 59

form and modeling 8, 46–7abstract 114–15black and white 53lighting set-up 114modeling light 138nudes 110, 111, 112, 116still life 46–7, 142

formal portraits 72–5found still life 138, 150–1, 153frames for prints 267framing 7, 54–5

architecture 188, 191children’s portraits 120composition 54–5errors 18fashion portraits 77location portraits 86nature photography 206portraits 86, 88, 101, 119using fingers 151

vertical vs horizontal 55, 68–9, 176, 206zoom lens 119

France: Villandry 217freezing action 16, 128–9

sport 133, 137water 172

Frink, Elisabeth 100, 254frost 215Frost, Sir Terry 89, 92–3

Ggardens 216–27

architecture 222–3features 224–5

gargoyles 193Gaussian blur 244–5gels 96, 263ghost image 130glass

shooting through 236stained glass windows 203still life 142–3

graduated filters 175grain 32, 250–1, 271

digital filter 244graphics tablet 241Great Pyramid, Egypt 42Greece 195group portraits 104–5Guggenheim Museum, New York 205

Hhalf-framed image 271Hamilton, Richard 88hand coloring 254–5harmony 141, 153, 204hats 77, 92

lighting problems 79Hepworth, Barbara 88high-key lighting 44–5, 185

still life 144highlights 160, 162, 170

highlight masking 258–9printing 272

Hitchens, Ivan 88Hockney, David 88horizon 60, 68, 157

low 177, 181hot spot 90humor 36, 106

I Kimage planes 64–5

merging 37, 65India 60, 66, 109Indonesia 37informal portraits 106–7infra-red photography

autofocus detector 28digital camera 164film 53, 165, 250with filters 53landscapes 165–6

inkjet printer 241instant cameras 22, 23interiors

ceilings 189details 202digital imaging 189figures in 197large 198–9lenses 188, 196lighting 197–201

simple 200–1Ireland 160ISO 32

see also film speedIstanbul 194Karnak, Egypt 67Kindersley, David 101Kings Lynn, England 192

Llandscapes 154–83

black and white 164–7cameras 22, 155, 168color 164composition 154figures within 37, 178flowers in 58lenses 154–5light 48, 154, 158–63, 170–1night 182–3seascapes 174–5seasons 168–9skies 176–9times of day 158–9, 181urban 180–3viewing 156–7viewpoint 154, 157water 170–3weather 162–3

large-format cameras 23layers 246–7, 253, 259LCD screen 14, 20leading the eye 58, 189, 195, 217lens caps 33lenses 14, 33

animals 228, 230, 232–5architecture 184, 186, 188–9, 192–3children’s portraits 119, 120cleaning 270close-up 26, 27, 208compositional shapes 42controls 16depth of field 17digital camera 20, 189, 196, 208distortion 24, 25, 26, 188effects 37focal length 16, 17, 24gardens 224–5interiors 196, 202landscapes 154–5nature 182, 216nudes 114, 115portraits 75, 119speed 16sport 132, 135types

fisheye 24, 27long-focus 24–5macro 27, 210, 211mirror 26shift 27, 192special 26–7standard 24–5ultra wide-angle 27wide-angle 24, 26, 33zoom 25–6, 33

lightartificial 29bounced 196color and 40, 41film speed 32moving lights 183night 159, 182–3path through camera 14, 15patterns 50scattered 97trails 183ultraviolet 109, 161

see also natural lightlight-balancing filters 175

INDEX 285

light box 266light metering

autoexposure 18 flash 29scattered light 97silhouettes 111sunsets 177

light stands 73, 138lighting 8

abstract nudes 114–15angled 46–7backlighting 8, 46, 143black and white 94–5contrast 114diffused 41, 48, 111, 118, 138directional 48–9, 90, 111, 142form and modeling 46–7, 143frontal 111, 142high-contrast 87, 96high-key 44, 45, 144, 185interiors 198–201location 86–9low-key 38, 39, 145macrophotography 210, 212–13modeling 46–7movement 128–31nature photography 206nudes 110–11older subjects 90over- and underlighting 142portraits 74, 86, 90, 96, 120rim 43selective 116side 46, 53, 142soft 49, 74still life 142–3, 151texture 48–9toplighting 47, 212–13tungsten 29, 116, 205windows 86–7, 112–13, 203see also flash; lighting set-ups; natural light

lighting equipmentfloodlights 116gels 96modeling light 138power pack 29, 72–3, 138, 263reflectors 29studio 29, 262–3tungsten 29see also flash

lighting set-upsafternoon light 222baby portraits 119blurred images 130bouncing light 86capturing the moment 128close-up portraits 79colored gels 96diffused flash 74, 90directional light 111, 142, 200, 212form 114freezing action 129group portraits 104high-key 144high viewpoint 75interiors 197, 199, 200–1large sets 120, 128low-key 145natural light 112painting with light 199poor natural light 87silhouettes 110soft lighting 118still life 138–9supplementary flash 86, 197, 201three-point arrangement 72–3, 74toplighting, diffused 212transmitted light 143

linear perspective 52, 60–3, 189lith film 256–7, 258–9Lloyds Building, London 186–7locations 96–7, 88, 235

confined spaces 94, 184, 188, 196, 202London

Embankment 180Lloyds Building 186–7

long-focus lens, see telephoto lenslow-key images 44–5, 84, 117low-key lighting 38, 39, 145Luxor, Egypt 65, 67, 194

Mmacrophotography 210–13

lenses 27, 206, 210, 211lighting 212–13nature 210–13still life 148–9

make-up 76, 77, 262manual SLR camera 18–19masking 258–9medium film 32medium-format cameras 14, 22–3

backs 22, 82, 148landscapes 155standard lens 24still lifes 139

mesh, shooting through 236metering, see light meteringmiddleground 64–5mirror lens 26mirrors 102, 196mist 45, 162, 163 184

creating 98modeling, see formmodels

fashion 76–7life 110–14relaxing 72, 80–1, 110two 78–9

monitor 240monochromatic color 108

landscapes 161, 168monopod 27mood

black and white 52color 38, 94, 147landscapes 158, 163portraits 77, 91

moon 183Moore, Henry 56, 101Morocco 195mother and child 118–19motor drive 18, 129, 133

animals 230sport 132

movement, see actionmultiple images 252–3, 270

N Onatural light

afternoon 158, 160architecture 184dappled 168dawn 158daylight 158–9diffused 41, 111, 116direct sunlight 92directional 44, 48dusk 158evening 40, 159form and modeling 46indirect 88intense 109interiors 196, 200–3landscapes 154, 158–63, 170–1midday 158, 194morning 39, 158nature 206–7

nudes 112–13outdoor portraits 92overcast light 92, 146, 184, 203, 204poor 87, 88seasons 168–9simulated daylight 87still life 46, 146–7, 152studio 29times of day 158–9, 181variable 162, 163weather 162–3windows 86–7, 112–13see also lighting

nature 206–27birds 50, 232–3, 236close-ups 206, 208–9gardens 216–27macrophotography 210–13patterns 50wild animals 228–31, 236–7

negatives 30cleaning 241storing and viewing 266–7

neutral density filters 175night photography 159, 182–3Norwich, England 191nudes 110–17

abstract 114–15candid 116–17lenses 114, 115lighting 110–13

optical principles 16–17outdoor photography

dramatic portraits 98–9nudes 112pets 234, 235portraits 92–3self-portrait 103still life 146–7, 148styled portraits 78

overexposure 236, 269, 270color 38 168

overhead lighting 47, 116overlapping forms 60

Ppainting with light 199panning 133, 137parallax error 19, 269patterned screens 254patterns 50–1

architecture 62, 187, 195black and white 52, 164color 51nature 208still life 141, 150

pentaprism 15, 22personality, see characterperspective

aerial 60–1architecture 184, 190–1and depth 60–1linear 52, 60–3, 189merging planes 37, 65shift lens 27, 168vanishing point 61, 62–3wide-angle lens 60

perspective control lens, seeshift lens

pets 228, 234–5photo set-ups

action portraits 128, 130animals 228–30, 232–5architecture 184–6, 192–3baby portraits 119black and white landscape 164black and white portraits 94–5blurred images 130candid action 124character portraits 90–1

286 INDEX

children 118, 120, 124–5cityscapes 180, 182close-ups 79, 91, 208–9communication with model 80confined spaces 94delayed-action timer 103digital backs 82dramatic portraits 96, 98, 106fashion portraits 76formal portraits 72–5gardens 216, 218, 222–3group portraits 104interiors 196, 198, 200–2landscapes 154–7, 168location portraits 86–7macrophotography 210, 212nature photography 206–9night landscapes 182nudes 110–12, 114outdoor portraits 92reflections 170–1seascapes 174self-portraits 102–3sky at sunset 176smoke 98sport 132, 134stained glass windows 203still life 118–19, 142–8, 150styled portraits 78–9, 82subject and background 95times of day 159water movement 172wet weather 162

photographic paper 272picture elements 36–7pixels 20polarizing filter 171, 175, 195polo 134–5portraits 72–137

action 128–31black and white 94–5candid 91, 106–7character 72, 75, 90–1, 100children 120–7close-ups 77, 234combining images 246–7composition 104–5cropping 69dramatic 96–9dynamic 104, 128–31elderly subjects 90–1, 100–1exaggerated poses 80–1, 106fashion 76–9, 82–5, 90formal 72–5framing 86, 88, 101, 119, 120groups 104–5home studio 262informal 106–7lenses 75, 119lighting set-up 72–3on location 86–7, 88mother and child 118–19nudes 110–17outdoors 92–3permission for 106, 108pets 234–5profiles 75, 79relaxing subject 80–1, 110, 118selective viewpoint 56self-portraits 102–3sports 132–7street life 108styled 78–9, 82–5viewpoints 75

Portugal 64power packs 29, 72–3, 138, 263pre-focusing 134predictive autofocus 134, 135printer 240–1printing

digital pictures 20equipment 265errors 272–3

prints 30blemishes 271, 272, 273from slides 273viewing and framing 267

problems and errors 268–73processing

equipment 264faults 272

profiles 75, 79, 110projector 266proportion and balance 66–7

see also composition

Rrain 98, 162, 166–7, 271rainbows 179Ramesseum, Luxor 194rangefinder camera 23red eye 28, 271red filter 45reflections

dulling spray 90, 263exposure 160filters 171, 175highlights 160hot spots 90surface sheen 49water 154, 170–1, 178, 182, 235

reflectors 29, 263interiors 196, 202outdoor portraits 92still life 138–9, 146studio portraits 72, 74, 118

reportage style 82resolution 20, 124restricted palette 38retouching, digital 242–3rim lighting 43ring flash 210, 211, 220Rio de Janeiro 159Rogers, Richard 69, 197roll-film 30Romania 108

SSabattier effect 256St Michael’s Mount, Cornwall 179San Moritz, Switzerland 134–5saturation 142–3scale 119, 206

diminishing 60, 61human 67, 178

scanner 240, 241sculpture 86–7, 94–5, 100

garden statues 217, 224–5seascapes 163, 171, 174–5seasons 168–9secondhand SLR 19self-portraits 102–3self-timer, see delayed-action timerSenegal 41sequences

action shots 134–5digital camera 128, 132motor drive 133storyboard 107times of day 158–9

shadowsarchitecture 184, 194color masking 258double 215landscapes 162printing 273shapes 42still life 138, 142texture 49

shapes 8, 42–3balancing 42, 55, 66black and white 52, 165still life 141, 152–3

sharpness 244sheet film 30shift lens 27

architecture 184–5, 192interiors 202trees 168

shutterB-setting 183, 253light trails 183optical principles 16time (T) setting 199types 14

shutter speed 14, 16animals 236blurring action 104, 130–1children 124–5close-ups 208–9freezing action 128–9, 137ghost images 130moving water 172, 174

sidelighting 46, 53directional 111macrophotography 212–13nudes 110portraits 101still life 142

silhouettes 8, 42–3, 55landscapes 171, 179lighting set-up 110metering 111nudes 110, 112–13

single lens reflex camera, seeSLR camera

skies 168, 176–9, 184skin

texture 53, 90, 110, 116tones 112, 119

slidescleaning 241color masking 258–9color prints from 273film 30–1sandwiching 252scanner 240viewing and storage 266

slow film 32SLR camera 14, 18

autofocus 18, 134digital 20features 15manual 18–19motor drive 133portability 106secondhand 19

smoke 96–9snoot 29, 111, 212–13, 263snow 161, 168soft-focus 90softbox diffuser 29solarization 256, 258space 45, 54, 190special effects 82

colored gels 96combining images 246–7darkroom 254–5films 250–1filters 175, 244–5multiple images 252–3sandwiching 252, 256–7smoke 96–9solarization 256, 258

sports 132–7focusing 134lenses 132, 135

stained glass windows 203stairwells 202standard lenses 24–5

portraits 80, 119still life 37, 138–53

INDEX 287

arranging 138backgrounds 148–9cameras 139composition 138, 140–1food 138, 146–7, 151form and modeling 46–7found objects 138, 150–1, 153home studio 262lighting 138–9, 142–3, 151outdoor 146–7, 148themes 140, 144–5

storing images 241, 266–7storms 162, 166–7, 177, 181storyboard sequences 107Stourhead, England 227strobe flash 252–3studio 11, 262–3

equipment 29, 262–3outdoor alternative 78portraiture 74–5, 120–1

styled portraits 78–9, 82–5subject

central framing 59 landscapes 156movement 208–10, 218, 270shooting around 58–9subject-to-camera distance 16, 17

summer 168–9sunsets 171, 176–8, 247

color 39, 161contrast 159

Sutherland, Graham 66Switzerland 61, 134–5symmetry 59, 66, 76

architecture 188, 190, 204, 222still life 153

synchronization leads 73, 90, 138, 262–3

TTaj Mahal, India 66teleconverter 233telephoto (long-focus) lens 25, 33

abstract nudes 114, 115animals 228, 230, 232architecture 184, 192, 193, 202children at play 124depth of field 134focal length and angle of view 24gardens 218image planes 37, 65landscapes 154, 156, 170nature photography 208portraits 92, 119skies 176sport 132, 134ultra 27, 114water 170zoom 26, 120, 225

texture 8, 48–9, 214, 224architecture 193black and white 52–3, 164directional lighting 90landscape 161multiple images 252skin 53, 90, 110, 116still life 141

themes 140, 144–5, 152thirds, rule of 6635mm format 18

camera accessories 33film 30portraits 90, 121standard lens 24vertical versus horizontal framing 55

time (T) setting 199time of day 158–9, 181, 186, 216

afternoon 158, 160, 222dusk 158, 180–1, 182evening 40, 159, 224

midday 158, 194morning 39, 158, 176night 159, 182–3sunset 159, 161, 176–8

timer, see delayed-action timertiming 230tone 8, 142

backgrounds 148black and white 52–3, 94, 164–7light and dark 44–5nudes 110, 116portraits 94shapes 42–3tonal separation 64

toners 254toplighting 47, 212–13tripod 33

architecture 184camera shake 270close-ups 208dusk and night 180, 182landscapes 154, 155painting with light 199portraits 73, 80self-portraits 102still life 139, 144studio 263

tungsten lighting 29, 116, 205film 31

U Vultra-fast film 32ultra telephoto lens 27, 114ultraviolet (UV) filter 162–3ultraviolet light 109, 161ultra wide-angle lens 27

architecture 188, 190–1umbrellas 29, 263

portrait set-up 72, 74underexposure 8, 160, 237, 270

low-key effect 38, 39rainbows 179

underwater camera 22unexposed film 271unsharp mask 244urban landscapes 180–3

night 182–3vanishing point 61, 62–3Venice 64, 205viewfinder 14

compact cameras 18composition 54–5, 56, 68direct vision 14medium-format camera 22, 23selection for effect 68SLR camera 14, 15, 20

viewing images 266–7viewpoint 56–7

animals 230architecture 58, 184, 186–7children 121, 122, 124cityscapes 180, 181, 183found still life 151gardens 222, 224height 154high 56, 75, 156, 183image planes 64interiors 198landscapes 154, 157low 43, 57, 58, 71, 172, 224overhead 230patterns 50portraits 72, 75selective 56shapes 42–3shooting around subject 58–9silhouettes 43sport 136vanishing point 62

water 172vignetting 269Villandry, France 217

W Zwater 160, 170–3, 227

mist on 98–9moving 172–3reflections 154, 170–1, 178, 182seascapes 174–5

watercolor filter 245waterproof camera 22, 23weather

architecture photography 184creating 98landscapes 162–3light 162–3mist 45, 162, 163rain 162, 166–7seascapes 174seasons 168–9snow 161, 168storms 162, 166–7, 177, 181wind 210, 218

web images 124webcams 21white balance 31, 112, 177, 189, 201wide-angle lens 25, 33

abstract nudes 114architecture 184, 188–9distortion 202focal length and angle of view 24foreground interest 58, 59interiors 196landscapes 154, 155perspective 60, 62–3portraits 90, 95shift 168, 184–5skies 178sport 135ultra 27, 188, 190–1zoom 26

wild animals 228–31, 236–7Williams, Glyn 86–7, 94–5windbreaks 210, 218windows 100, 110

diffused light, 41, 111directional light 44home studio 262interiors 198stained glass 203

zoom lens 25, 26, 33animals 229, 235architecture 193, 202children at play 124compact camera 19framing 119macro setting 206, 208, 210nature photography 205–6portraits 106telephoto 26, 120, 225wide-angle 26

288 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Author’s acknowledgments:Producing this book was essentially a team effort. Special thanks go to Jane Ewart. Steve Gorton, Alison Melvin, and Robyn Tomlinson. I would also like to thank Miranda Talbot, Auberon Hedgecoe, Jenny Mackintosh, Mrs Surridge, Mrs Last, The Carter family, Lara and Luke Evans and, of course, the many models who appear in the book.

Dorling Kindersley would like to thank the following:Jemima Dunne for all her work on the initial stages of the project; Roddy Craig, editor for the last three monthsof the project; Claire Edwards and Nathalie Godwin for design help; Lorna Damms, Julee Binder, and CamelaDecaire for editorial help; Leigh Priest for the index; Pippa Ward for administrative help; Iain Pusey forcomputer image manipulations; Carol Hart for make-up; Slag for supplying the hats on pp.78-9; RichardLewington for supplying the butterflies on pp.212-13; Hazel Taylor and Doreen Mitchell for supplying the petson pp.234-35, and Ben Pulsford for building the sets on p.260, pp.262-3, and p.265. Thanks also to thefollowing for modeling: Anna Kunst, Ella Milroy, Tim Ridley, Hilary Nash and Nuala Morris (Take 2 models),Lucy Fawcett, Kate Douglas, Lucy Keeler, Ivan Inversion, Kevin O’Kane, Arthur Pita, Georgia Cooper, Jo Cligget,Sandra and Rosie Kuys, Oliver Swan-Jackson, Emily Gorton, Alice Surridge, Jennifer Smith, Freddy Harrold,Daniel Evans, Shaun Rebbeck, and Croydon Kings American football team (coach Brian Smallwood).

Editor on revised edition, Nicky Munro. Designers on revised edition, Ted Kinsey, Alison Shackleton and Phil Gilderdale.

All photographs by John Hedgecoe with the exception of the following by Steve Gorton: photo set-ups;cameras and equipment (pp.18-19, pp.22-3, p.25, pp.26-7, pp.28-9, p.30, p.33, pp.74-75, p.76, pp.78-9, pp.86-7,pp.90-1, pp.94-5, p.96, pp.102-3, p.104, p.106, pp.110-111, p.112, p.114, pp.118-119, p.120, pp.124-5, pp.128-9,p.130, pp.132-3, pp.142-3, pp.144-5, pp.146-7, p.150, p.155, p.156-7, p.159, p.162, p.164, p.168, pp.170-1, p.172,p.174, p.176, p.180, p182, p.185, p.186, p.192, p.193, pp.196-7, pp.198-9, pp.200-1, pp.202-3, p.207, p.208-9,p.212, p.216, p.218, pp.222-223, p.224, p.229, p.230, pp.232-3, pp.234-5); darkroom (pp.260-1, pp.264-5); home studio (pp.262-3); and photographs of John Hedgecoe (p.1, p.3, p5).

Illustrations:Patrick Mulrey: pp.14-15, p.17, p.24, pp.240-241Mike Garland: pp.46-46, p.73, p.139, p.155, p.185, p.207, p.229, Janos Marffy: p.16, p.264

Information and assistance was kindly provided by:C.Z. Scientific Instruments LimitedCanon (UK) LimitedThe Flash CentreJohnson’s PhotopiaLeeds Photovisual LimitedLinhof & Studio Professional SalesNikon (UK) LimitedOlympus Optical Company (UK) LimitedPentax UK LimitedPolaroid (UK) LimitedThe Pro CentreTeamwork

Special thanks to Joe’s Basement, London W1, for technical assistance, notably Kerrin Roberts and Godfrey Pope (color),and Ian MacMaster and Simon Lloyd (black and white). Thanks also to Danny at DGP Photographic, London W1.

Photographic location credits:St. Moritz, Switzerland Tourism: p.58-9Holkham Hall, Norfolk (Seat of the Earls of Leicester):p.25 (kitchen), p.65 middle right, p.145 (kitchen), p.196, p.198, p.200Black Sheep Mill House, Ingworth, Norfolk: p.216Felbrigg Hall, Norfolk (National Trust property): p.222Blickling Hall, Norfolk (National Trust property): p.27 & 192 (views of garden pavilion), p.218, p.219 top, p.224 bottom, p.225The Mill House, Corpusti, Norfolk: p.223, p.224 top, p.251 top left Porchester Centre Baths, London: p.254 (bottom three photos) The Lloyds Building, London: pp.186–7

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

the book of photography

Documents

childrens portraits

dramatic portraits

fashion portraits

nature gallery

informal portraits

white portraits

styling portraits

childrens portrait gallery