The british policy towards the development of the resistance movement in greece during the second world war

The british policy towards the development of the resistance movement in greece during the second world war

Index

Introduction..2Historical introduction..3The Second World War3Causes of the Second World War.3Stages of the Second World War..41. First stage (1939-1941): the German success42. Second stage (1941-1943): the balance 53. Third stage (1943-1945): the Allied offensives and the end of the war...5Consequences of the Second World War..6The occupation of Greece.....8The Greek Resistance Movement...11The British policy towards the occupied Greece.14Bibliography..19Books.19Online resources.20Annexes..21

Introduction

The subject chosen for this study is the British policy towards the development of the Resistance Movement in Greece during the Second Word War. The period studied is plagued by conflicts and confrontations between all countries, grouped into two camps, the Axis Power (the main ones were: Germany, Japan and the kingdom of Italy and its colonies) and the Allies (the main ones were: France, United Kingdom of Great Britain, Soviet Union, United States of America). Furthermore, its interesting to notice the course of events within the framework of each country, and the reactions that they have to the attacks and occupations, since many areas were neutral in the beginning or without the intention to participate in the armed conflict, and they were forced to do so after being occupied. The case of Greece is one of the most emblematic and interesting to observe, because from 1941 the country was the focus of Benito Mussolini, who wanted to incorporate it to the new Roman Empire he was consolidating. Ive chosen this topic because I find really interesting the research of a countrys history while you are living in it and you have the chance to explore the bibliography and get first hand information about the subject. Also, this period of the contemporary history is especially intriguing for me to understand and learn. The main goal of the paper is researching the situation of Greece during the Second World War and the policy that Great Britain adopted towards its plight. Furthermore, I looked into the growth of the Resistance Movement inside the country as a response to the Italian occupation.Literature review was the method I used for the purpose of this paper, but Ive also relied on the cartography method. The scientific articles I used as a bibliography were found using the Hellenic Academic Libraries Link (HEAL-LINK).

Historical introduction

The Second World WarThe Second World War occurred from 1939 to 1945 among all the great powers, forming two opposing alliances: the Allies and the Axis Powers. It was the most widespread war in history, with a state of total war. Marked by acts of enormous significance involving the mass death civilians, the Holocaust and the use for the first and last time of nuclear weapons. The Second World War was the deadliest conflict in human history, with a final score of 50 to 70 million victims.The entire population poured into the war effort, not only armies but also civilians. Governments derive much of their resources to war, especially to fund new resources that can provide more effective weapons to beat the enemy. The funds of the states came from the population, which in addition to paying taxes to support the war effort now is, en masse, recruited to create vast armies.[footnoteRef:1] [1: Paul Fussell (1990): Wartime: understanding and behavior in the Second World War. P. 47-60.]

Causes of the Second World WarA long term cause was the rapprochement between France and the USSR after Hitler's rise to power. This manifests a sense of alienation with Germany and it only managed to increase tension, to which is added the humiliation of Germany after the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. Furthermore the separation between Italy and Britain appears, because the first wants to expand its territory and the second seeks to maintain international order. Another cause is the approach of Italy and Germany.As a proximate cause we can find the theory of the living space of Hitler, which said that Germany had to include all the territories with German speaking persons and with German-demographic majority. Also we can observe the existence of a fear towards the fascist movements, which began to spread across Europe and the Steel pact between Italy and Germany that united them military. The immediate cause was the invasion of Poland by Germany on 1st of September, 1939. This led to the declaration of war by France and Great Britain a few days after the incident.[footnoteRef:2] [2: Genoveva Garca Queipo de Llano (2011): Historia del mundo contemporneo. P. 210-215.]

Stages of Second World War1. First stage (1939-1941): the German success (annex 1)The war started in Europe on 1st of September, 1939, when Hitler invaded Poland, after a secret agreement with Stalin in order to divide the area. The 3rd day, France and Great Britain declared the war to Germany. The expansion of the Germans in Poland was very fast, in just two weeks they have ended with all the resistance and occupied the side of the country which corresponded to them according to the deal. The German troops are unstoppable; its the lightning war, combining breakthrough artillery and infantry with air support. The Baltic is an area of vital interest to Hitler. He occupies rapidly Denmark, where there is no resistance, and starts to monitor Norway, supported by the Norwegian Nazi party led by Quisling. Sweden remained neutral but it was controlled closely by Germany due to its richness in iron and steel. The passage to the Baltic Sea is closed by the Germans. In the Western Front, as in the First World War, the Germans invaded Belgium, a neutral country, occupying Holland after four days of resistance. The Germans entered France and the French army couldnt resist the push, so Petain, the Prime Minister, signed the peace on 21st of July, 1940. By this peace, France is divided into two zones, one of Nazi occupation and one in the hands of Petain, but subject to the Nazis. After this situation, only Britain remains to deal with Germany. Hitler launches the Operation Sealion to invade the island, but it was a failure and the invasion was postponed. As to the was in the Mediterranean, in Africa Mussolini started his operations in Libya, only 100km away from Egypt. In Greece the intervention will be a resounding failure. The drawback of the Italians is that in the Mediterranean the Englishmen are solidly settled in Gibraltar and Malta and there they had some carriers. After the failure of Mussolini, Hitler takes the initiative in Yugoslavia with the support of Nazi Croatia. The Yugoslav resistance lasts two weeks and from there, the Germans take the continental Greece and Crete, correcting Mussolinis errors. 2. Second stage (1941-1943): the balanceThe Russian campaign, Operation Barbarossa (annex 2). The agreement between Germany and the USSR, which had so astonished the world by being two opposite regimes, could only be provisional, that knew both Hitler and Stalin. Taking advantage of the surprise factor the Fhrer initiates the attack on 22nd of June, 1941. The Germans were defeated by the same opponent of Napoleon, the winter. The much more acclimated Russian troops began the counteroffensive in autumn and they will push back the Germans.As to the war in the Pacific, the military government of Japan decides make a surprise attack against the only power that could stop it in the area, the United States of America. On 8th of December, 1941, the bombing of the American base Pearl Harbor resulted in USA joining the war. On this date Japan reaches its maximum expansion. (annex 3)During this period, the United States of America and U.R.S.S. decided to enter the war in the side of the Allies, tipping the balance towards them. 3. Third Stage (1943-1945): the Allied offensives and the end of the war (annex 4)In the Pacific, the US General Mac Arthur started an offensive against the Japanese who will be defeated in several battles: Midway, Guadalcanal, etc. that means the loss of the Japanese navy and the cutting of its supplies, vital in a country that lacks everything. The Japanese will be isolated and virtually defeated when the Americans will land in the Philippines and Okinawa, but they will continue resisting in order to get an honorable peace.In Russia takes place the Battle of Stalingrad, where the Russians defeat the German troops and push back the Nazis, the losses are huge in both sides. In North Africa, the Allies troops led by Montgomery will defeat Rommel in El Alamein (Egypt) in October, 1943. In November allied landings will occur in Morocco and Algeria. In Italy, in July, 1943, the allied landing in Sicily occurs. Simultaneously, King Victor Emmanuel III dismissed Mussolini, replacing him by Badoglio. German parachutes will release later Mussolini, getting prepared for the defense of Italy, but after the tough offensive, the German army backs off. Later, Mussolini gets killed by partisans in 1945. The Russians have pushed back the Germans and will replace them in the Balkans: Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary fall under their hands. This area fall within its sphere of influence after the Second World War. Southern Greece is liberated by the British and escape the Soviet occupation.Transcendental Allied landing occurs on the shores of Normandy on 6th June, 1944. It is a surprise to the Germans, who expected it but didnt know where it would happen. The disembarkation involved 4,000 ships and 11,000 aircrafts. Soon after, they would reconquest the whole France, Paris is released on 25th of August. In November all of France and Belgium are free of Germans. In the autumn of that year the Germans react with an offensive in an unfavorable terrain: The Ardennes, despite its energy the attempt is aborted.German troops are defeated on several fronts, the Germans did not have a solid defense and foreign troops enter Germany. It is the beginning of the end. Russian and Anglo converge on Berlin. In this situation Hitler committed suicide on 1st of May, 1945, the following day the German capitulation occurs.Japan continues to resist but their situation is hopeless. Once lost all its fleet the only weapon left are the kamikazes, pilots who decide to crash their planes into American aircraft carrier. In August, President Truman approved the launch of two new pumps. The 6th of August in Hiroshima and the 9th in Nagasaki experienced the atomic bomb. Japan surrenders and signs peace on 2nd of September in Missouri.[footnoteRef:3] [3: Idem p. 230-260. ]

Consequences of the Second World WarHistorians have noted that the effects of the war were beyond the battlefields. They affected all areas of reality. In short, we can group the consequences of World War II in four major aspects.1. Social consequences: there was a high number of human losses (annex 5), higher than a war has produces in the entire history. It is estimated that between fifty and sixty million people, mostly civilians lost their lives. The Soviet Union and Poland were the countries hardest hit in this regard. We also find the Jewish Holocaust, where an estimated number six million Jews were murdered by the Nazis in Europe (annex 6). There is a marked modification of European ethnic map, as there are a lot of population migration as a result of the border changes. Finally, the emancipation of women is favored.2. Economic consequences: there is a great destruction of cities, infrastructure and farmland. European national economies weaken in front of a sharp strengthening of the US.3. Territorial consequences: the territory is debated at international conferences among Allies. Countries that are modified by reducing its surface borders are Germany, Japan, Italy and Bulgaria, while the Soviet Union, Poland, Yugoslavia and Greece broaden. A great weakening of the great colonial empires occurs.4. Political consequences: a reduction of European monarchies and a boost of democratic socialism occurs. At the same time, there is a decline of power in Europe opposite the potential assertion of the United States and the Soviet Union. Bipolarization arises in the world.[footnoteRef:4] [4: [Webpage]: http://recopilandoypensando.blogspot.gr/2009/09/consecuencias-de-la-segunda-guerra.html [consulted 10/01/2015].]

The Occupation of Greece

After the collapse of France in June 1940, Italy began to be openly hostile towards Greece via radio and the press. Just months later, in August, the Italian intentions to invade were clear because of the torpedoing of the warship Helle in Tinos harbor. Furthermore, the Italian troops had installed in Albania, so the government tried to reinforce the borders with that country, but the measures were not the adequate ones dictated by the situation in which they found themselves. Maybe this decision was because didnt want to draw the attention of the Axis to Greece and offer them a reason to attack. But after all the actions that the Axis made, the Greek government should have known that they didnt need any reasons to attack if it was in their own benefit. So, the Greeks had to choose between a surrender or mobilize all their force and resources in order to avoid a military walkover. The government chose to fortify also the frontier with one brigade in the Epirus sector and one in the Macedonian sector, with another detachment between them two as a link. Among the officers, the view had developed that Greece, as a small country, couldnt face Italy, a bigger country with a strong air force and armored units. Because of this, they were not contemplating a proper war and resistance. The enemies too formed the view that Greece would not put up more than a token resistance. On 28th of November, the Italian ultimatum, all the nation gave its support to the struggle and tried to repulse the invasion, and it succeeded in doing it. Maybe because of the surprise factor, they could have get to push back the Italian troops to the sea, but the government was unable to live up to the situation. In this case and in these circumstances, the solution should have been opting for the creation of an all-party government (in annex 7 you can see the letter of Zachariadis, the leader of the Greek Communist Party, in which he described the war as anti-Fascist and advised his comrades and the people to aid the struggle), recruit all the reliable military and political leaders, fully put the nation on alert, use all resources and wage a national war. Instead of this, the government simply remained as it was and appointed Lieutenant-General Papagos as Commander-in-Chief, because he was loyal and a palace man. The government was taking only bad decisions. It didnt request help or even accept it, because they didnt permit British aircraft to be stationed north of Thessaly in case it could be misinterpreted by the Germans. Because of all this incompetence of the high commands, in the spring of 1941, all the Greek army pinned down in the Albanian mountains, unlike the Italian one, that was being constantly supplied and reinforced. [footnoteRef:5] [5: Stefanos Sarafis (1980): ELAS: Greek Resistance Army. P. 3-30.]

The 6th of April is the date of the German invasion and Athens was captured on 26th of April (annex 8). The victory of Germany, Italy and Bulgaria to Greece marked a point in the Second World War in which the Axis controlled the entire Southern Europe and the Allies received a defeat that placed them in critical condition. Greece in defending his country had more than 310,000 casualties, among which there were more than 72,000 dead and 240,000 prisoners.The entire territory of Greece was occupied militarily by Germany, Bulgaria and Italy. As had happened with France, converted into Vichy France and ally of the Reich, Greece was granted the honor to become autonomous within the Axis under the name of the Greek State.Despite being semiautonomous, Greece suffered territorial changes as the annexation of Thrace, Macedonia and Thessaloniki for Bulgaria. Also, within Greece itself, would later emerge Axis puppet state called Kingdom of Pindo of Macedonia, consisting of people of ethnic Aromanian. Moreover, in the military occupation of the country Italy was responsible, the only exception being Athens, in which occupation Germany was responsible.Overdue Greece, not only meant the tragedy of living in the most difficult times of the Second World War, it also marked the beginning of the Greek Civil War (1944-1949) and set the stage for one of the most convulsive stages of Balkans.[footnoteRef:6] [6: Luis Reyes (2009):La II Guerra Mundial como nunca se la haban contado Volumen 4. Atenas, el sueo nazi. P.30-33. David Solar (2009): La II Guerra Mundial como nunca se la haban contado Volumen 4. Fracaso militar fascista. P.46-47]

The occupation of Greece created extraordinary conditions never before seen by Greek society. The old political system collapsed and the Greek nation experienced repression, hardship and mass violence unprecedented in degree and scale. The traditional political elites failed to rise to the challenge and assume a role with a new moral content and a regenerating influence and, by choosing to remain inactive, they left the key to the KKE, that turned out to be more effective than any of its prewar political rivals in exploiting the massive resentment at Axis rule to its own ends. Later, EAM took a leading role in the resistance and became a mass movement without any precedent in Greek history. By the time of the German evacuation, it claimed a membership of two million, and its main objectives were the national liberation and social reform. In the early post-war year, it seems that EAM would have come to power by political means if it had not been for British intervention.[footnoteRef:7] [7: John Sakkas (2013): Britin and the Greek Civil War 1944-1949. P. 20.]

The Greek Resistance Movement

Those who opposed the invaders organized clandestinely formed the so-called resistance. His mission was to disrupt the normal development of the occupation troops, by resorting to espionage, disinformation, sabotage or concealment of the pilots who were shot down. In many cases they formed numerous and well organized groups who engaged in guerrilla warfare using perfect knowledge of the terrain where they played.In some areas the resistance acquired great importance. Particularly significant was the case of the French Resistance, which once numbered 200,000 members, Greek, Soviet, Polish and Norwegian. But the most important example of armed resistance during conflict was the one performed by the Yugoslav partisans, who led by Josif Broz Tito and aided by the Soviets finally liberated the country in 1945. In Germany itself there were some clandestine organizations against Nazism, the best known was the so-called White Rose, Christian-based, non-violent. It was dismantled in 1943. Resistance against Japan was in those territories conquered by Japanese troops, especially in China, Korea and the Philippines. On the side of the Axis powers, the phenomenon reached less importance, although there were organized resistance groups in the Baltic countries invaded by Russia, as happened in some cases in Ukraine and Romania.[footnoteRef:8] [8: [Webpage]: http://laresistenciaenlasegundaguerramundial.blogspot.gr/ [consulted 15/01/2015]]

As in any other occupied country in Europe, in Greece the enemy occupation resulted into the formation of three main groups: the collaborators, those who did nothing and also those who formed and/or joined the resistance organizations.[footnoteRef:9] Active Greek resistance started immediately when many Greeks fled to the hills, where a partisan movement was born. One of the most moving episodes of the initial resistance took place just after the Wehrmacht reached the Acropolis on April 27th. The Germans ordered the guard flag, Evzon Constantine Koukidis, to arise the Greek flag. The Greek soldier obeyed, but when he finished, he wrapped himself in the flag and jumped from the acropolis, dying. Some days later, when the Reichskriegsflagge flew over the higher ground of the Acropolis, two Athenian young patriots, Manolis Glezos and Apostolos Santas climbed the Acropolis at night and ripped the flag. It was one of the first actions of the Greek resistance and the first in Europe, and inspired not only Greeks but also to other European countries under German domination. [9: Prokopis Papastratis (1980): British policy towards Greece during the Second World War 1941-1944. P. 119. ]

The severe political and economic crisis of the territory and the presence of a national movement to coordinate the discontent of the population (mainly EAM), facilitated the organization of resistance to the occupying forces.[footnoteRef:10] [10: Robin Higham; Thanos Veremis (1993):The Metaxas Dictatorship: Aspects of Greece: 1936-40. P.75.]

The first signs of activity of armed resistance manifested themselves in northern Greece, where resentment in the annexations of Bulgaria was very strong in the early fall of 1941. The Germans responded quickly, burning several villages and executing 488 civilians. The brutality of these reprisals indeed led to a temporary withdrawal of the guerrilla, until rebel activities resurfaced in 1942 on a much larger scale. The major source of insurgent activity were the guerrilla forces under Communist control, the National Liberation Front (EAM) and its military wing and the People's National Liberation Army (ELAS), which carried out sabotage operations and attacks the Wehrmacht with notable success.[footnoteRef:11] [11: Prokopis Papastratis (1980): British policy towards Greece during the Second World War 1941-1944. P. 122.]

Among other resistance groups we can find a right partisan organization, the National Republican Greek League (EDES), led by an ex-officer of the Army, Colonel Napoleon Zervas, known Republican, and the National and Social Liberation (EKKA), directed by Colonel Dimitrios Psaros, a monarchist. These groups are formed from the remains of the Hellenic Army and the conservative classes of Greek society. Since 1943 EDES and ELAS fought each other in the first phase of the civil war, which eventually erupted after the withdrawal of Germany in October 1944. EAM claimed that EDES had collaborated with the German occupation forces and the puppet regimes supported by the Nazis Tsolakoglu, Logothetopoulos and Rallis. This led to battles among ELAS, EDES and the Germans. At the same time, ELAS attacked and destroyed military training Psaros.When Italy surrendered to the Allies in the autumn of 1943, the German forces that were supposed to retire, regrouped and harshly attacked both Italian units and the ones of the resistance organizations, embroiled by then in a civil war. During October and November ELAS and EDES both suffered devastating attacks from German forces, that shortly thereafter focused mainly on attacking the second organization. [footnoteRef:12] [12: Woodhouse, C. M.; Clogg, Richard (2002): The Struggle for Greece, 1941-1949. P.60.]

There is evidence that Zervas then reached an agreement with the German army. Supporters of the right wing and Germans agreed not to attack each other. This truce left the Germans free of sabotage in some areas and allowed EDES suppress local Communist rivals. Zervas, however, had orders like ELAS, the Allied headquarters in the Middle East, not to attack the Germans during the winter. The Germans, who had infiltrated agents into EDES, used the information obtained by them in their activities against insurgents and avoided to completely eliminate EDES in order to not leave the resistance in the hands of the Communists and keep divided and faced.[footnoteRef:13] [13: Idem p. 61. ]

The truce between EDES and the Germans ended when the Germans began to leave the country and British agents managed the resistance organizations sign an agreement (the Plaka agreement, February 28th, 1944) that ended the first phase of the civil war. The scene, however, was already set for the next period of the Greek history: the Greek Civil War.[footnoteRef:14] [14: Idem p. 65. ]

British policy towards occupied Greece

During the war years, Churchill and the Foreign Office were always conscious of the importance of Greeces geographical position in the Mediterranean for the imperial sea communications and the routes to the oilfields of the Middle East. Also, they were concerned about the British dominant role after the liberation in the country. To do so, they thought that they had to ensure the return of King George II and by the elimination of the anti-monarchist EAM. They were obsessed with the restoration of monarchy in Greece. The problem was the rising tide of republicanism within the occupied Greece due to the kings cooperation with the Metaxas dictatorship. EAM was demanding that the king should agree to submit to a plebiscite on the issue of the monarchy before returning to Greece on liberation.[footnoteRef:15] [15: John Sakkas (2013): Britin and the Greek Civil War 1944-1949. P. 20-21.]

In this situation of conflict, the British secret services in Greece had had enough time to make the proper preparations for the post-occupation resistance and sabotage. There are evidences that the first tentative was made as early as May 1940. These preparations gained momentum following the Italian invasion, but were concealed from the Greek High Command. SOE (Special Operations Executive) was the secret organization in charge of contacting members of the Greek government and Metaxis himself. Britains second secret organization operating in Greece was SIS (Secret Intelligence Service), which maintained contacts with the six colonels in Athens and the Defenders in Northern Greece. British contacts with the resistance organizations entered into a new phase in September 1942, when Operation Harling was launched. Its objective was to sever the Athens-Thessaloniki railway for as long as possible, which the Axis powers used as a way of communication. The British party would have the assistance of Col. Zervas and his men, as well as other guerrillas, and all the members of the missions would be withdrawn from Greece after the operation. It was one of the biggest success and, in the end, the British party was not withdrawn when it finished, but told to stay and form the British Military Mission in Greece.[footnoteRef:16] [16: Prokopis Papastratis (1980): British policy towards Greece during the Second World War 1941-1944. P. 125-129.]

The new orders transformed the SOE into a military mission, and vested Col. Myers with the command of developing and coordinating further andartes activities. He was informed that a group of six colonels formed into a committee, in order to organize and direct the resistance, and Myers had to work with him under the lead of Anglo-Greek Committee in Cairo. Myers received complete reversal orders of the ones before being parachuted into Greece. At first, he was supposed to let the andartes return to their inactivity, but after November of 1942, the Chiefs of Staff required SOE to give all-out support to guerrilla warfare, even to the extent of prejudicing the activities of the secret groups. This spelled support for all resistance movements, irrespective of their political hue, but this way the British governments policy was running counter in its intentions of safeguarding the Greek King. At the end of the year they realized that the support they gave to the left-wing of the resistance was only increasing their influence and also the repulse towards the King. The British government started a policy in order to rally the public opinion inside Greece around the King and his government, and one method to achieve this was to try to build up the Six Colonels Committee, but despite they openly operated as unification of the resistance groups, what they really did was increasing the support towards the King and sought to replace EAM. This is why they sent Tsigantes a mission to Athens in early August of 1942 in order to carry out sabotage, establish contact with political and military leaders, and organize the resistance movement so that it could be controlled from Cairo. The mission failed, and also EAM was already too strongly established.Colonel Myers and Major Woodhouse decided that the latter should visit Athens in order to get in touch with the six colonels and also the EAM Central Committee. During his stay in Athens, they learned that EAM was being controlled by the communists, a fact unknown to most of its members. They wanted to hold parliamentary elections, and they feared that the British government would restore the King before having the option of doing it. Prometheus thought the same thing, but distrusted both EAM and Zervas. In the case of the six colonels, they proved that they knew nothing about the resistance movements, so they couldnt offer any practical advice about how they should be directed. On the other hand, they didnt contemplate the idea of a civil war, because they thought that after the fall of Italy, Greece would find itself too busy getting ready to face the Germans to concern about the internal politics. Woodhouse thought that they would be more useful after the end of the occupation. Further, it follows that these six where right-wing, so none of the other resistance groups would cooperate with them, and that meant that they were unsuitable as a center of coordination. The proposal was that SOE should be made the sole channel of communication with Greece instead, and that the colonels should continue as simply another military and intelligence organization acting in the name of the British government in Greece. SOE and SIS concurred with this decision, and the Foreign Office replied that if the information was true, the six colonels werent suitable anymore for the job, but they also said that shifting them with the SOE would be a major change in their policy and it would have to be considered carefully. In the end, the colonels remained an organization in name only. The relations between the Foreign Office and SOE in respect to Greek affairs started to become increasingly strained when they found out that SOE was employing opponents of the King and the Tsouderos government. At the end of January 1943, Sargent had serious doubts about SOEs activities. Myers sent a report, to which the Foreign Office had a very strong reaction and it was the final evidence they needed in order to suspend SOEs operations in Greece. After this, they sent a memorandum with its proposals for the British policy towards Greece in which they decided that it was the time to build up the King and his government. The Foreign Office was looking to build a strong administration, able to control the country and prevent it from lapsing into chaos or civil war. To achieve this they had to do two things, firstly, the Greek government should be made more representative of all elements in Greece prepared to work together under a monarchical regime, and secondly, the Foreign Office would welcome a ruling from the Chiefs of Staff as to the precise value they attached to the continuance, or indeed the intensification, of sabotage activities in Greece. SOE wasnt supposed to just stop with all the support it was giving to the guerrillas, but it depended in how far the guerrillas were prepared to accept the British policy of collaborating with the King and his government. In the end, SOE was barely complying with the Chiefs-of-Staff directive. In 1943, the military considerations took precedence over the political ones, and the Balkan resistance was considered one of the most important and a key factor in the Italian collapse. Following this, the German forces would also be needed in Greece and in Yugoslavia, because they were occupied especially by Italian troops, and this would undermine the German presence on the Russian front. The importance of an intensive campaign of sabotage and guerrilla activities was said on 20th of March, 1943 in the directive that the Chiefs of Staff gave to SOE. In order to reconcile the British long-term needs and the short-term military considerations, they added at the end of it the importance of building up the King and the Greek government: in dealing with the guerrilla leaders. The Middle East Defense Committee strongly supported the continuation of SOEs operational activities in Greece and also maintained at the maximum. Therefore, SOEs activities in Greece were not curtailed. In February, Myers had developed the idea of forming what were to be called national bands; they would be non-political, militarily unified and unreservedly under the orders of the Commander-in-Chief Middle East. Colonel S. Sarafis, EKKA and SOE gave their approval to the proposal. The project aimed at minimizing the political activity of the guerrilla bands. He didnt let his adverse feelings towards EAM/ELAS to interfere with his plan or the national bands, so he negotiated for a long time with both organizations.He was under instructions from Cairo not to break off relations with EAM, and as long ago as 26 February he had received orders to prepare for an extensive plan of sabotage to divert Axis attention from Sicily, the next Allied target. [] the success of this plan depended on the cooperation of EAM []. (Papastratis, 1980: 140)The national bans were designed to mobilize ELAS to the allied effort without capitulating to the KKEs intentions to secure complete control of the resistance, and hence of Greece after war. They thought that this could be done by organizing these bands all over the country, with Britain liaison officers acting as arbitrators in disputes. With this, ELAS would have to conform if it wished to continue receiving supplies. The negotiations between the British military mission and EAM were strenuous and protracted. In the end, the British accepted the EAM proposals: there should be a joint general headquarters responsible directly to the Commander-in-Chief Middle East, and that the British liaison officers should not be authorized to issue orders but should restrict their activities to liaison. The Military Agreement (it was renamed as EAM asked) was signed by both EAM and ELAS on 5th of July, 1943. EAM had come out the winner of the deal. It was because of military necessity that the EAMs proposals were accepted in the agreement.[footnoteRef:17] [17: Idem p. 129-143.]

In early March 1944, EAM and ELAS set up a resistance government known as PEEA (Political Committee of National Liberation), and its creation represented a challenge to the authority and legitimacy to the Tsouderos government in Egypt. All this led to the much more dynamic leadership of the liberal and militantly anti-communist George Papandreou. As the Russians moved into Eastern Europe, fears that they would gain important influence in Greece. By the summer of 1944, Churchill himself was seriously concerned about the advance of the Red Army in the direction of Greece. In October, the first British forces landed and Athens was occupied by paratroopers under General Scoobie. Churchill wanted a division of land between Russia and Britain in the Balkans: Romania was to be 90% Russian; Bulgaria 70% Russian; Yugoslavia and Hungary 50% each; Greece 90% British. Stalin accepted the agreement as the price to pay for communist dominance in Eastern Europe. In November, EAM insisted that if ELAS was to disband, then so should the right-wing Mountain Brigade, but this was unacceptable to the British. Churchill was determined to crush ELAS and was prepared to use whatever degree of force was required in order to achieve it.[footnoteRef:18] [18: John Sakkas (2013): Britain and the Greek Civil War 1944-1949. P. 20-23.]

In early December, the EAM members of the Papandreou government resigned and an EAM demonstration in the center of Athens was fired upon by the police. In London, Churchill intervened directly with orders to Scobie to act as if you were in a conquered city where a local rebellion is in progress We have to hold and dominate Athens. It would be a great thing for you to succeed in this without bloodshed if possible, but also with bloodshed if necessary. Churchill treated Greece like a colony. I had in my mind, he wrote, after giving the full text of his telegram to Scobie, Arthur Balfours celebrated telegram in the eighties to the British authorities in Ireland: Dont hesitate to shoot. The bitter fighting that followed between ELAS units and British forces lasted a few weeks and was brought to an uneasy end by first an armistice and then by the Varkiza agreement of February 1945. (Sakkas, 2013: 23)

Bibliography

BooksClogg, Richard (2002): Greece 1940-1949: occupation, resistance, civil war: a documentary history. Palgrave Macmillan, Great Britain. Eichmann, Adolf (1982): Yo, Adolf Eichman. Planeta, Barcelona.Fussell, Paul (1990): Wartime: Understanding and behavior in the Second World War. Oxford University Press. Garca Queipo de Llano, Genoveva (2011): Historia del mundo contemporneo. Universitas Publisher. Higham, Robin; Veremis, Thanos (1993):The Metaxas Dictatorship: Aspects of Greece: 1936-40. Elliniko Idryma Amyntikis Kai Exoterikis Politikis. Papastratis, Procopis (1984): British policy towards Greece during the Second World War 1941-1944. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Reyes, Luis (2009):La II Guerra Mundial como nunca se la haban contado Volumen 4. Atenas, el sueo nazi. La Aventura de la Historia.Sakkas, John (2013): Britain and the Greek Civil War, 1944-1949. Peleus, Berlin. Sarafis, Stefanos (1980): ELAS: Greek Resistance Army. The Merlin Press, London.Solar, David (2009):La II Guerra Mundial como nunca se la haban contado Volumen 4. Fracaso militar fascista. La Aventura de la Historia.Woodhouse, C. M.; Clogg, Richard (2002): The Struggle for Greece, 1941-1949.

Online resourcesBoard game geek: http://boardgamegeek.com/geeklist/32509/my-favorite-operation-barbarossa-war-games [consulted 11/01/2015]Class Zone: http://www.classzone.com/cz/books/north_carolina_08/resources/images/chapter_maps/nc21_ww2europe1m.jpg [consulted 11/01/2015]Class Zone: http://www.classzone.com/cz/books/amer_hist_survey/resources/htmls/chapter_maps/ah26_ww2europeafricam.jpg [consulted 09/01/2015]History: http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/pi/pimap1.jpg [consulted 11/01/2015]La Resistencia en la Segunda Guerra Mundial: http://laresistenciaenlasegundaguerramundial.blogspot.gr/ [consulted 15/01/2015]Recopilando y pensando: http://recopilandoypensando.blogspot.gr/2009/09/consecuencias-de-la-segunda-guerra.html [consulted 10/01/2015].Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_casualties [consulted 09/01/2015]Wikipedia: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Triple_Occupation_of_Greece.png [consulted 09/01/2015]

Annexes

1. Map 1. The Second World War between 1939 and 1941.[footnoteRef:19] [19: Source: http://www.classzone.com/cz/books/north_carolina_08/resources/images/chapter_maps/nc21_ww2europe1m.jpg ]

2. Map 2. Operation Barbarossa.[footnoteRef:20] [20: Source: http://boardgamegeek.com/geeklist/32509/my-favorite-operation-barbarossa-war-games ]

3. Map 3. The Japanese expansion in the Pacific. Japanese plan an troop disposition.[footnoteRef:21] [21: Source: http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/pi/pimap1.jpg ]

4. Map 4. The war between 1942 and 1945, the German recession.[footnoteRef:22] [22: Source: http://www.classzone.com/cz/books/amer_hist_survey/resources/htmls/chapter_maps/ah26_ww2europeafricam.jpg ]

5. Fig. 1. The Second World War human losses.[footnoteRef:23] [23: Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_casualties ]

6. Table 1. Data relating to the extermination of the Jewish in the Third Reich.[footnoteRef:24] [24: Source: Appendices from A. Eichmanns book Yo, Adolf Eichman. Planeta, Barcelona, 1982. P. 56.]

CountriesReitlinger estimatesAngloamerican comitee estimates (April 1946)

Minimum numberMaximum number

GermanyAustriaCzechoslovakiaDenmarkFranceBelgiumHollandLuxemburgNorwayItalyYugoslaviaGreeceBulgariaRomaniaHungaryPolandSoviet Union160.00058.000233.00010060.00025.000104.0003.0007008.50055.00057.000-200.000180.0002.350.000700.000180.00060.000243.0001.50065.00028.000104.0003.0007009.50058.00060.000-220.000200.0002.600.000750.000195.00053.000255.000-140.00057.000120.0003.0001.00020.00064.00064.0005.000530.000200.0003.271.0001.050.000

Total affectedDeported6.029.500308.000

Total exterminated4.194.2004.851.2005.721.500

Despite the lack of accuracy, these approximate figures provide a demographic notion of what the Second World War meant, with a decrease of the population four times greater than during the First World War. To these figures we must be add 35 million wounded and 3 million missing as well as victims of undernourishment who were suffering from diseases such as tuberculosis and rickets.7. Document 1. Nikos Zachariadis, Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Greece: First Open Letter to the people of Greece on the Greek-Italian War, 31 October 1940; Second Open Letter on the Greek Italian War, 26 November 1940; Third Open Letter on the Greek-Italian War, 15 Juanuary 1941.[footnoteRef:25] [25: Richard Clogg (2002): Greece 1940-1949: occupation, resistance, civil war: a documentary history. P. 68-71.]

A. Papapanagiotou, ed.,To Kommounistiko Komma Elladas ston polemo kai stin antistasi,Episima Keimena V 1940-1945 (Rome 1973) 16, 22-23, 31-35 First Open letter[Printed in the Athenian daily papers2November 1940]Mussolini's Fascism has murderously and impudently stabbed Greece in the back so as to enslave and subjugate her. Today all we Greeks fight for freedom, for honor, for our national independence. The struggle will be very difficult and very hard. But a nation that wants to live must fight, disregarding dangers and sacrifices. The people of Greece are today waging a war of national liberation against Mussolini's fascism. Alongside the main front EVERY ROCK, EVERY RAVINE, EVERY VILLAGE, COTTAGE BY COTTAGE, EVERY CITY, HOUSE BY HOUSE, MUST BE A STRONGHOLD OF THE NATIONAL LIBERATION STRUGGLE.Every agent of fascism must be destroyed without mercy. We must give all our strength, without reservation, to this war directed by the Metaxas government. The reward and crown in the present war for working people must be, and will be, a new Greece of work, of freedom, liberated from all foreign imperialist dependence. With a truly popular culture.All to the struggle, everyone in his place and victory will be the victory of Greece and of its people. The workers of the entire world stand at our side.Athens 31 October 1940 Nikos ZakhariadisSecretary of the Central Committee of the KKE

[Letter2was sent by Nikos Zakhariadis to the 'Provisional Administration' of the KKE, which, unknown to him, was under the control of Konstantinos Maniadakis, the deputy minister of Public Order. The letter was not published until after the war.]26 November 1940Second Open LetterThe entire people of Greece rose as one and wrecked the designs of fascism. The people ensured their freedom and independence with their blood. Beyond this, Greece has no place in the imperialist war between England and Italy-Germany. Since our people are decisively defending their independence and national freedom, today they want one thing only:peace and neutrality under the following conditions: 1) the situation to revert to what it was on 28 October 1940 without any territorial, economic or political damage at the expense of Greece: 2) all British forces to leave the soil and waters of Greece. On the basis of these two conditions we seek the immediate mediation of the USSR to bring about peace between Greece and Italy. Today this is the only national and popular interest. Events have shown that today only the USSR has protected the peace and neutrality of Yugoslavia, Bulgaria and Turkey.Nikos ZakhariadisP.S.: We are obliged to seek an honorable peace without sanctions and once more to make clear the national, defensive, liberating character of the war which we are undertaking and that we are foreign to the imperialist war being fought by the plutocratic Great Powers. If today we do not work for an honorable peace, the war will lose its national-defensive character for us, it will become expansionist and the people will be against it.Nikos Zakhariadis Secretary of the Central Committee of the KKE

[Letter3fell into the hands of the Security Police and was suppressed, despite Zakhariadis' plea that it be drmlated. It was first published after the war.]Third Open Letter Dear Comrades,I have a request for you: print, distribute, post on walls in Athens, Piraeus and Thessaloniki, if possible throughout the country and at the front, my letter below. Hold high the banner of the Communist Party of Greece and continue with the greatest spirit your political and organizational work. Long live the Communist Party of Greece and the Communist International.N. ZakhariadisAthens15 January 1941To all the members and cadres of the organizations of the Communist Party of Greece and of the Organization of Communist Youth of Greece.I am writing this letter because a basic, radical difference has arisen between me and the 'Provisional Administration' which since September 1940 claims to represent the KKE. I had accepted political cooperation alone with the 'Provisional Administration' (despite my serious reservations) because I had entrusted an old comrade to purge the KKE of the wasps' nest of police informers of Mathesis and Papayiannis.From the outset I had noted serious mistakes in the political line of the 'Provisional Administration', which it refused to correct despite my proposals, just as it did not accept other of my recommendations. My basic disagreement, however, which I mention below, requires me to speak out openly.My letter [Le. Zakhariadis' first letter of 31 October], which was published in the newspapers of 2 November, had the following objectives: 1) to give reliable, uniform guidance to communists throughout the country; 2) to mobilize the people in an anti-fascist crusade for national independence and freedom; 3) to re-establish popular freedoms, a popular anti-plutocratic policy domestically; 4) to make the war national, anti-fascist and anti-imperialist with the basic and sole objective of ensuring our national independence, peace and our neutrality, apart from the general imperialist war. This we could achieve only with a wholehearted orientation towards the USSR and true Balkan co-operation.From the outset, Metaxas did the opposite. He conducted a fascist and expansionist war. After we had thrown the Italians out of Greece, our basic objective should have been to make a separate, honorable peace, without concessions, between Greece and Italy. This could have been achieved with the mediation of the USSR. But the monarcho-fascist dictatorship continued the war on account not of the people of Greece but of plutocracy and British imperialism.After the expulsion of the Italians from Greece, the blood of our soldiers is being unjustly shed. Today British imperialism expends the blood of the children of Greece, as the interest on the capital that it expended in 1935-36 for the restoration of [King] George [11] and the establishment of the monarcho-fascist dictatorship of Metaxas. Since Metaxas refuses to restore the freedoms of the people, to ensure peace for Greece and wages a war of imperialist conquest, the whole burden of which falls on the people, he remains the main enemy of the people and of the country. His overthrow is the most immediate and pressing interest of our people. The people and the army should take the government of the country and the conduct of the war into their hands with the objective of peace, national independence, of an anti-fascist, anti-plutocratic popular domestic regime, of total alignment with the USSR and Balkan co-operation on the basis of the peaceful solution of intra-Balkan disputes.I have developed these views in an open letter and a draft resolution which I sent to the 'Provisional Administration' on 26 November 1940. The latter refused to accept and publish this, and developed a clearly social-patriotic argument along these lines: Greece's war against Italy in Albania is similar to the war between the USSR and Finland, and Metaxas is a protagonist in the world-wide anti-fascist struggle. The 'Provisional Administration' seeks utterly to subordinate the KKE to the monarcho-fascist dictatorship instead of organizing its overthrow. Thus the 'Provisional Administration' reduces my open letter of 2 November 1940 [written on 31 October] (full responsibility for which I bear before the KKE and Communist International) to a clearly social-patriotic document and besmirches the honor of the KKE. This is my dispute with the stand of the 'Provisional Administration'. From this stand it is abundantly clear that the 'Provisional Administration' is the creation and organ of Maniadakis and that Yannis Mikhailidis, Psilos, Katsanevis, Kamos have' betrayed their mission of purging the KKE of the Mathesis gang, which is sold out to the monarcho-fascist dictatorship.In the light of all this, the stance of all members, cadres and organizations of the KKE and of the Organization of Communist Youth of Greece in the country and at the front should be this: the people of Greece in this war are solely defending their national independence. They are foreign to the imperialistic war between England and Germany and co. They want a separate, honorable, immediate peace through the mediation of the USSR. They recognize the principle of self-determination as far as secession for all. They want freedom, work, and their will to prevail, which is being denied by Metaxas. They want an external alliance with the USSR and true Balkan understanding. The peoples and soldiers of Greece and Italy are not enemies but brothers, and their fraternisation at the front will put an end to the war being waged by their capitalist exploiters.To bring all this about, the people and the army must overthrow the monarch-fascist dictatorship of Metaxas, which is their principal and fundamental enemy, and establish a popular anti-fascist government. If a people are to preserve national freedom they must enjoy domestic freedom. A domestically enslaved people is not worthy to preserve its national independence and every victory of its domestic tyrant will strengthen its slavery.Today this must be the path of the KKE. Every member and cadre of the organization should instil this line in the masses and organize them around it, ensuring that it prevails. And do not forget for a moment those of us in prison or in exile. In Corfu [prison] the life of our best comrades is minute by minute in imminent danger from the knife of Metaxas and the bombs of Mussolini. I am healthy and well. All my thoughts and my heart are with the Party, just as my life is dedicated to it.Long live the Communist Party of Greece! Long live the Communist International!Athens. Prison of the General Security15 January 1941 Health and happinessNikos Zakhariadis8. Map 5. The Greek occupation by the Axis.[footnoteRef:26] [26: Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Gr-triple-occupation-ES.png ]