the capitalist city underlying changes occurring during the renaissance and baroque periods...

The capitalist city

Underlying changes occurring during the Renaissance and baroque periods Socioeconomic transformation reshaped Western

Europe Drastic changes in class structure, economic systems,

political allegiances, cultural patterns, and human geographies

Changes occurred from the mid-sixteenth to the mid-eighteenth century

Introduction of commercialized and specialized agriculture

Enclosure of individual land units

The capitalist city

Perhaps of greatest significance is how capitalist mind set introduced notion of urban land as a source of income Proximity to city, center and most pedestrian

traffic added economic value to land Areas close to river or harbor or along major

thoroughfares in and out of city also increased in land value

Fundamental change in value led to gradual disintegration of medieval urban pattern

The capitalist city

The city center consisted of buildings devoted to business enterprises A downtown defined by economic activity emerged With industrialization would eventually expands and

subdivide into specialized districts A new upper class emerged

Status based on accumulation of economic wealth Made money buying and selling urban land Used urban land as a basis for expressing their wealth Sought newer land on edge of city for their residential

enclaves

The capitalist city

One of finest wealthy class enclaves was London’s Covent Garden Piazza Designed by Inigo Jones in the early 1630s Square was lined with townhouses edged in arcades Presence of nobility lent an aristocratic aura to the area Economic success of this enclave led to many

imitations These upper-class squares were transplanted to

America throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

Class, race, and gender in the industrial city Up to the Industrial Revolution, urbanization

rates in Western countries were low In 1600, urban dwellers made up only 2

percent in Germany, France, and England At the same time 13 percent of the

Netherlands and Italy were urban

Class, race, and gender in the industrial city As millions of people migrated to cities

urbanization rates skyrocketed in the last 200 years By 1800 England was 20 percent urban, and

became the first urban society around 1870 By the 1890 census 60 percent of England’s

people lived in cities

Class, race, and gender in the industrial city As millions of people migrated to cities urbanization

rates skyrocketed in the last 200 years By 1800 England was 20 percent urban, and became

the first urban society around 1870 By the 1890 census 60 percent of England’s people

lived in cities The United States was 3 percent urban in 1800

In 1900 it was 40 percent In 1920 it became an urban country with 51 percent Today, about 75 percent of the population lives in

towns and cities

Class, race, and gender in the industrial city Class

Laissez-faire industrialism did little for the working classes

There was distribution of such utilities as gas and water

No living improvements beyond that of the seventeenth century were made

In slum dwelling, direct sunlight was seldom available

Open spaces were nonexistent


In Liverpool, England, one-sixth of the people lived in “underground cellars”

In Manchester, England, only one toilet for every 212 people was available

Running water was usually available only on the ground floor Disease was pervasive, and mortality rates ran high In 1893 life expectancy of a male worker was 28 years, his

country cousin might live until age 52 In 1880, the death rate in New York City was 26 per

thousand, in rural areas it was half that Infant mortality rate rose from 189 in 1850 to 240 in 1870 Legislation correcting such ills came in the latter part of the

century


American industrial cities relied on a diverse labor force

Many in the labor force came from Europe After the Civil War, many former slaves migrated north

to find jobs In the South, former slaves moved into the

industrializing cities In both South and North, African-Americans lived in

segregated neighborhoods Forced by discrimination and often by law to keep their

distance from white neighborhoods For the most part services to these neighborhoods

were minimal

Class, race, and gender in the industrial city Race

Some results of a recent study of black Richmond, Virginia, after the Civil War

Residents used public rituals in streets and buildings to carve their own civic representations, as well as challenge dominant white order

Black militias marched through streets on holidays certified by the black community as their own political calendar

Class, race, and gender in the industrial city Race

Some results of a recent study of black Richmond, Virginia, after the Civil War

January 1, George Washington’s birthday, April 3 emancipation day, and July 4

Whites did not take kindly to this as they watched blacks occupy Capital Square, formerly reserved for white citizens

Churches, schools, and beauty shops served as community centers and public statements of an African-American identity

Class, race, and gender in the industrial city Gender

Industrialization led to creation of separate spheres

Feminine sphere centered on the home and domestic duties

Male spheres dominated the public spaces and duties

Also created the need for mass consumption to keep factories running profitably

With men as producers, the duties of consumption fell to the women

Class, race, and gender in the industrial city Gender

Location logic of the urban land market meant retailers were located in the central parts of the city

Established what some have referred to as a feminized downtown

Retailers created spaces considered appropriately “feminine”

Interior spaces were well-arranged and orderly Exterior architectural design was heavily ornamented,

and streets were paved and well-lit Today, many of these places have been replaced by

shopping malls

Megalopolis

Movement away from the central city quickened in the last decades of the nineteenth century

Since World War II, new forms of transportation and communication have led to the decentralization of many urban functions

One metropolitan area blends into another, until supercities are created that stretch for hundreds of miles Supercity of “Boswash” on the Eastern Seaboard of the

United States that stretches from Boston to Washington, D.C.

Geographer Jean Gottmann coined the term megalopolis to describe it

The term is now used worldwide to describe giant metropolitan regions

Megalopolis

Characteristics of Megalopolis High population density covering hundreds of

square miles Concentrations of numerous older cities Transportation links — freeways, railroads, air

routes, and rapid transit Very high proportion of the nation’s wealth,

commerce, and political power

Megalopolis

Common problems found in megalopolis Congestion and overcrowding High land prices Financial insolvency and deteriorating inner

cores Poor and disenfranchised population in

contrast to the affluent in the suburbs Air and water pollution Political fragmentation caused by the many

smaller towns and counties

Megalopolis

Common problems found in megalopolis Congestion and overcrowding High land prices Financial insolvency and deteriorating inner cores Poor and disenfranchised population in contrast to the

affluent in the suburbs Air and water pollution Political fragmentation caused by the many smaller

towns and counties Problems are difficult to solve because they are

regionwide even crossing state borders

Edge cities

Many so-called sleeping suburbs of the post-World War II era have been transformed into urban centers with their own retail, financial, and entertainment districts

Most Americans now live, work, play, worship, and study in this type of settlement

Suburbs do not offer all the services or work places found in the edge city

The commuter who used to live in a suburb and work in the inner city has been replaced by the commuter who lives and works in an edge city

Edge cities

Many scholars are wary of calling these new nodes cities because they do not resemble our nineteenth century version of a city

Edge cities contain all the functions of old downtowns, but are spread out and less dense

Interstate highways and truck transportation made it possible for industries to locate outside the downtown

Computer and communication technologies have allowed companies to move their headquarters away from downtowns

Edge cities

Edge cities present problems for today’s planners Traffic congestion and planning for mass

transit Environmental concerns as spreading urban

areas consume more land Is it possible to provide mass transit in a

system with no center?

The urban landscapes of the developing world Most of the world’s population lives in the

developing world Here we see the greatest potential for

dramatic change in urban patterns High natural population growth Enormous rates of migration from rural to

urban

The urban landscapes of the developing world Recent city growth has been staggering

In 1950 they had only 4 of the 15 largest cities in the world

Latest census shows they have approximately half of the largest 20 cities

With this growth has come serious economic, political, and social problems

It is difficult to generalize about cities of the developing world

The indigenous city

Developed without contact with Western colonial influences

Many evolved long before there were cities in northern Europe

Precolonial indigenous cities in the New World are restricted to Mexico, Central America, and the Andean highlands

Cities in Africa Cities associated with the Yoruba civilization in

present-day Nigeria Along the Nile River Valley Band of Islamic empires in the north, and small cities in

eastern highlands

The indigenous city

Asia has the largest number of precolonial indigenous cities — from the Middle East, across present-day Pakistan and India, to China and Japan

Basic form of many cities is derived from the cosmomagical

Many cities in Mexico, Central America, China, Japan, Egypt, and India were laid out according to religious principles

Indigenous City: Jerusalem, Israel

Indigenous City: Jerusalem, Israel

Old, walled Jerusalem had Arab, Armenian, Christian, and Greek Quarters. In this Arab Quarter, passageways are narrow with stepped slopes. In earlier times streets could be gated shut.

Few openings and high windows ensure privacy in this Muslim area. Note the pipes and wires of the modern era superimposed on the ancient walls.

The indigenous city

Beijing kept its basic cosmomagical landscape until the early twentieth century Deviations from the strict pattern arose to

accommodate everyday functions of business and culture

Small alleyways and houses were built in irregular patterns not in accord with sacred principles

Until the abdication of the last emperor in 1912, the city was generally maintained as the celestial capital

In 1959, the Socialist government chose to build its symbolic center, Tiananmen Square, on the site of the sacred axis mundi of Imperial Beijing

The indigenous city

Indigenous cities of the Islamic world In the city center is the primary mosque, representing

the religious core Near the mosque is the bazaar, or market place Homes of the elite, government or municipal buildings

surround the core Moving from the core, areas of decreasing wealth and

social status are found The city is further divided in occupational districts much

like that of the medieval city — decreasing in prestige nearer the city edge

The indigenous city

Indigenous cities of the Islamic world Ethnic groups dominate certain areas or

formalized “quarters” Cities commonly reserved one quarter for

Jews, another for Christians Have a very irregular Street plan, with narrow,

winding streets Uneven building pattern, and few open spaces Residences are usually humble, in keeping

with religious dictates

The indigenous city

Indigenous cities of the Islamic world Housing arrangements often structured

around segregation of the sexes Dictated by religion Two sectors organized around separate

courtyards Female half more private, therefore at rear of

house More public male half near entrance When men are gone, whole house become

women’s domain

The colonial city Administrative, commercial, and often military outpost for an

external power Many established to economically or militarily subdue local

people When built near indigenous cities, Europeans would either weld

their city onto the existing settlement or, in a few extreme cases, build a whole new city Seen as guardians of the home Considered more moral and spiritual than men Imperative women should move to colonies to civilize and

bring order to “backward” lands In South Africa, for example, women could fill their patriotic

and feminine duties Bring visual evidence of women enlightening those who

needed it

Colonial City: Salvador, Brazil


Salvador, established by the Portuguese in 1549 to deter French and Dutch encroachment, was Brazil’s capital until 1763. The city grew as a center of sugar production, trade, and religion. Eventually, the original core, with its narrow, winding streets and slave market on the acropolis became linked with port functions on the shore below.


European architectural styles here date from the 17th through the 20th century. At the left of the Ciudad Alta is the Palacio Rio Branco, now housing tourism offices. At the right of the Ciudad Baixa is one of Salvador’s dozens of Roman Catholic churches.

The colonial city

Overseas emigration would provide an alternative source of scarce work opportunities for women

Between 1862 and 1914, more than 20,000 women emigrated to British colonies

Presence of women in the colonies was fraught with difficulties It was thought women needed protection from physical

danger Dangers were considered more threatening than those in

London because they were “foreign” Specific spaces were set up to keep them from direct

contact with foreign danger Lived in the newly built colonial cities Hill stations — fairly small residential compounds in the hills of

India

The colonial city

Separating women from native peoples did not work They could not civilize from a distance Indian servants often lived within or close to British Indian soldiers were stationed nearby Women performed missionary and benevolent work in

the Indian city Indian servants, cooks, and gardeners were present in

hill stations Housing designed in an open fashion to let in cool

breezes; also allowed native people to view private parts of the house

The emerging city

With the end of colonialism and movement toward political and economic independence, developing countries entered a period of rapid change

Cities have often been a focal point of this change Millions have migrated to cities in search of a better life Economic activities have often changed their

orientation from external to local markets Cities have been centers of political and social unrest

The emerging city

Because the emerging city model is a fluid one, results cannot be predicted accurately

Some think cities in developing countries will undergo the same changes found in industrializing cities of the nineteenth century

The emerging city

William Hance has written on the differences between today's emerging cities and those of the past Often 25 percent of the urban labor force is without

work In the 1800s, people could migrate to the New World to

find land and jobs Emerging cities have weaker ties with their hinterlands

than did European cities Local rural areas excluded from development that

could offer employment It will be difficult to develop rural employment as long

as economic activities continue to cluster around cities

Emerging City Homeless:Bombay, India

Emerging City Homeless:Bombay, India This woman is one of

Bombay’s homeless millions. About 75% of Bombay’s almost 13 million residents live in one-room tenements, 15% in squatter shacks, and 2% in the streets.

Family abandonment for a variety of reasons such as failure to pay a

Emerging City Homeless:Bombay, India

a promised dowry, death of a husband, or divorce, forces many women into a life of prostitution or begging to survive.

Most of Bombay’s homeless are migrants from the countryside and many are low caste and scheduled caste (untouchable).

The emerging city

Alejandro Portes argues large internal migration from rural to city can be traced back to colonial times In colonial Latin America, the city was essentially home

to Spanish elite When preconquest farm patterns were disrupted,

peasants came to the city These migrants usually lived on the margins of the city They were completely disenfranchised, because only

landowners had the right to hold office Elite attitude was a mixture of tolerance and

indifference This pattern continues today in emerging cities

The emerging city

High numbers of migrants and widespread unemployment lead to pressure for low-rent housing Most common folk solution is construction of

illegal housing, or squatter settlements In Linia, Peru, the barriadas house fully a

quarter of the urban population In Caracas, Venezuela, it is about 35 percent Similar figures are found in emerging cities in

Africa and Asia

The emerging city

The evolution of squatter settlements Usually begin as collections of crude shacks

constructed from scrap materials Gradually become more elaborate and permanent Paths and walkways link houses, vegetable gardens

spring up Often water and electricity are boot-legged in so a

common tap or outlet serves a number of houses Later economic activities such as handicrafts or small-

scale artisan activities develop

The emerging city

Various treatment of squatter settlements by city governments Some bulldoze them down periodically to discourage

migration to the city Some turn their backs, viewing them as a satisfactory

solution to the problem of low-cost urban housing Squatter settlements are an important part of the

emerging city landscape Occupy vacant land on the outskirts and in the city

center Downtown parks often covered by squatters’ houses Most often spread over formerly unwanted land, such

as steep slopes and river banks

Emerging City Squatter Settlement:Jakarta, Indonesia


Emerging cities are characterized by squatter settlements. Developed as Batavia by the Dutch at Kota, a swampy coastal area, Jakarta is now a rapidly growing capital city of more than 8 million. These stilt-houses are in the heart of old Batavia along the fetid, tidal Kali Besar (Big Canal) constructed in the nineteenth century.


Jakarta is perceived by poor, rural people as a wealthy city, full of opportunities to get rich.

Almost half of the city’s population was born elsewhere and millions reside in shanties like these.

Along with other emerging cities, rural to urban migration accounts for a significant portion of urban growth.

The emerging city

Outskirts of cities is often where new economic activities are located Landscape of factories and warehouses is common When money is available, large high-rise apartments

are built for workers Middle-class suburbs may also grow up because of

jobs and “push” forces driving affluent out of the city center

Traffic noise, air pollution, and congestion make the central city less desirable than before

The emerging city

Large central-city dwellings are often subdivided into smaller apartments for lower-income families Where one middle-class family lived, six or

seven families may be housed Whether this structural change will lead to the

ghetto pattern of North American cities remains to be seen

The emerging city

It is important to remember emerging cities may not follow the pattern of industrial cities of the 1800s

Emerging cities will not undergo the same transportation system evolution

They may evolve directly from foot and cart traffic to autos and trucks

A totally unique urban landscape may emerge

Culture regions

Urban Culture Region Origin and Diffusion of the City Evolution of Urban Landscapes The Ecology of Urban Location Cultural Integration in Urban Geography

Site and situation

Site — refers to local setting of a city, its longitude and latitude coordinates

Situation — the regional setting Example of San Francisco

Originally site of Mexican settlement on a shallow cove or inland shore of a peninsula

Importance of its situation was that it drew on water traffic coming across the bay from other settlements

Characteristics of the site changed when the small cove was filled to create flatland for warehouses and extending wharves into deeper bay waters

Site and situation Example of San Francisco

Filled in cove is now heart of the central business district The situation has changed as patterns of trade and

transportation technology have evolved The gold rush changed the importance of its geographical

situation by creating a demand for supplies for settlements, and mines and miners in the gold country

In the last decade, Oakland improved its situation to accommodate containerized cargo ships by filling in large tracts of shallow baylands

San Francisco has since declined as a port city losing situation advantage

Depending on the function of a city, certain attributes of the physical environment have been important in the decision of where to locate cities

Defensive sites

A location where a city can be easily defended

There are many defensive sites for cities River-meander site-city located inside a loop

where stream turns back on itself Leaves only a narrow neck of land unprotected

by water Examples of Bern, Switzerland, and New Orleans

Defensive Site: Toledo Spain


Acropolis and meander on the Tagus River made this a perfect defensive site for a fortified Roman settlement called Toletum. It was a capital for the Visigoths and the Moors prior to becoming a Spanish one. The skyline is dominated by the 13th century Alcazar (fort), destroyed and rebuilt many times, and the Gothic cathedral begun in 1227.


In 1227 Toledo was the most important Jewish town in Spain and a major cultural and intellectual center. While the Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, the city retains their architectural heritage along with that of the Islamic Moors, Christians and other occupants.

Defensive sites

A location where a city can be easily defended There are many defensive sites for cities

More advantageous was the river-island site Often combined a natural moat made when a stream

was split in two Montreal is situated on a large island surrounded by

the St. Lawrence River and other water channels Islands lying off seashores or in lakes Mexico City began as an Indian settlement on a lake

island Venice a classic example of a city built on an offshore

island New York City began as a Dutch trading outpost on

Manhattan Island

Defensive sites


There are many defensive sites for cities Peninsular sites were almost as advantageous

as island sites Offered natural water defenses on all but one

side Boston founded on a peninsula had a wooden

palisade wall across the neck of the peninsula

Defensive sites


There are many defensive sites for cities Danger of sea attack prompted sheltered-

harbor urban sites High points were used where a city

developed around a fortification, and then spilled out over the surrounding lowland

Trade-route sites

Defense was not always a primary consideration

Most common types of trade-route sites —bridge-point and river-ford sites Where streams were narrow and shallow with

firm banks Occasionally cities even reflect these sites in

their names Confluence sites are common—point where

two navigable streams flow together

Trade-route sites

Head-of-navigation sites — where water routes begin — are even more common Goods must be transshipped at such points Examples

Minneapolis-St. Paul, at the falls of the Mississippi River

Louisville, Kentucky, is at the rapids of the Ohio River Portage sites are very similar — goods are portaged

from one river to another Many nonenvironmental factors can influence the

choice of a site Useful to distinguish between the specific urban site

and the general location, or spatial distribution

Culture regions

Urban Culture Region Origin and Diffusion of the City Evolution of Urban Landscapes The Ecology of Urban Location Cultural Integration in Urban Geography

Walter Christaller’s central-place theory Series of models designed to explain spatial

distribution of tertiary urban centers Terms

Threshold — size of population required to make provision of the service economically feasible

Range -- average maximum distance people will travel to purchase a good or service

Hinterlands — large tributary trade areas associated with central places that offer many services

Walter Christaller’s central-place theory Crucial to his theory is the fact that different

goods and services vary both in threshold and range Larger number of people required to support a

hospital, university, or department store than a gasoline station, post office, or grocery store

People are willing to travel farther to consult a heart specialist, record a land title, or purchase a car than to buy a loaf of bread or mail a letter

Walter Christaller’s central-place theory Because range of central goods and services varies,

tertiary centers are arranged in an orderly hierarchy At the top are regional metropolises that offer all

services associated with central places, and that have large hinterlands

At the bottom are small market villages and roadside hamlets that may contain nothing more than a post office, service station, or cafe

Between the two extremes are central places of various degrees of importance

Each high-ranked central place offers all goods and services of next lower ranked place, plus at least one or two more

Walter Christaller’s central-place theory One regional metropolis may contain

thousands of smaller central places in its hinterland

Christaller tried to measure the influence of three forces in determining spacing and distribution of tertiary centers

Walter Christaller’s central-place theory He created models — he first measured influence of

market and range of goods on the spacing of cities To simplify model he made assumptions

Terrain, soils, and other environmental factors were uniform

Transportation was universally available All regions were supplied with goods and services

from the minimum number of central places The shape of the model was circular, with the city at

the center When central places of the same rank were nearby,

the circle became a hexagon

Walter Christaller’s central-place theory In his second model he no longer assumed transportation was

universally and equally available in the hinterland Assumed as many demands for transport as possible would

be met with minimum expenditure for construction and maintenance of transportation facilities

any high-ranking places would then be on straight-line routes between important central places

The transportation factor causes a rather different pattern of central places

Direct routes between adjacent regional metropolises do not pass through central places of the next lowest rank

Resulted in second-rank place to be “pulled” from the points of the hexagonal market area to midpoints on the straight-line routes

Walter Christaller’s central-place theory He thought market factors would be the

greater force in rural countries He also thought transportation would be

stronger in densely settled industrialized countries with more central places and more demand for long-distance transportation

Walter Christaller’s central-place theory His third model measured the effect of political

borders on the distribution of central places Political boundaries within an independent country

would tend to follow hexagonal market-area limits of each political central place

Borders tend to separate people and retard movement of goods and services

Central places in border regions lose rank and size because market areas are politically cut in two

Important central places are pushed away from borders, which distorts the hexagonal pattern

Walter Christaller’s central-place theory Many other factors affect the spatial

distribution of central places Assumptions must be made to construct a

theoretical model that integrates different components of culture

the capitalist city underlying changes occurring during the renaissance and baroque periods...

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