Form 4

EUROPEAN HISTORY

Unit 12

The Results of the First World War

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Unit 12.1 – Europe before and after the First World War

(a) Spot the differences between the two maps. (10) (b) Explain the historical reason for such differences. (10)

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Unit 12.2 - The End of the War and the Peace Treaties

Below are some of the reactions that people had to the war.

In January 1918 President Wilson (USA) drew up a list of 14 points that he thought would make the basis for a fair treaty. At this stage Germany still expected to win the war, and rejected Wilson’s ideas. At Versailles, Wilson still believed that the 14 points could be the basis of a lasting peace. The 14 points covered three basic principles:

By the time of Versailles, Wilson had changed his mind about his attitude to Germany. He had been angry when Germany rejected his peace plan and when Russia had to accept a harsh peace treaty (Treaty of Brest-Litovsk) when Russia left the war. In 1919, Wilson was not feeling as lenient as in 1918.

The talks at the Treaty of Versailles were dominated by these three allied statesmen: George Clemenceau (aged 78), French foreign minister. He expected the treaty to punish Germany harshly, to compensate France with money and land and to protect France against a future German attack.

Lloyd George, British Prime Minister, held that the most important task was to prevent any future wars. Therefore he did not think that Germany should be punished too severely, in case it later tried to overturn the treaty by force. As a politician, however, he had to please public opinion, and the British people wanted revenge. They had just won an election campaign (1918) with slogans Hang the Kaiser, Make Germany Pay. People expected the treaty to ensure that Britain once more had the most powerful navy with which to defend her empire.

Woodrow Wilson (US President) remembered the horrors of the American Civil War (1861-65) and had only brought the USA into the Great War as a crusade ‘to make the world safe for democracy.’ Wilson now felt that Germany needed to be punished and that his 14 points were still valid to achieve a lasting peace.

‘I want to go home, I want to go home, I don’t want to go to the trenches no more Where whizzbangs and shrapned they whistle and roar, Take me over the sea where the alleyman* can’t get at me. Oh my, I don’t want to die, I want to go home.’

Source 1. A soldier’s war song *(alleyman was slang for German)

‘I hope to God the politicians in England will not betray us and make peace before we have…crushed our enemies, and made a repetition of this hellish business impossible….Modern war is hell, and we must make a recurrence of it impossible for all generations, come what may.’

Source 2. From the diary of William St Leger, a British officer killed in 1918 at 23.

‘Everybody has written about it and nobody can describe it. Not really, the legs and the arms of the dead stretched out, the ripped bellies of the horses steaming and stinking. And the dead faces of mates looking up at you out of the filth. Men made into filth before your very eyes.’

Source 3. Memories of a soldier, quoted in Ronald Blythe’s novel The View in Winter, told when the soldier was 79 years old in 1979.

1. Points 5-13: Every nation or people had the right to govern themselves rather than being ruled by another country (self-determination). 2. Points 1-4: The chances of war would be reduced if countries cut their number of weapons and were open and fair with each other. (arms reduction and open treaties) 3. Point 14: An association of nations, should be set up to settle quarrels between countries peacefully. (League of Nations)

The Peace Treaties with the defeated powers

St German (1919): Smaller Austria forbidden to unite with Germany. Population: 22 > 6.5 million.

Treaty of Trianon (1920): Smaller Hungary independent from Austria. Population: 21 > 7.5 million.

Neuilly (1919): Bulgaria lost land to Greece and Yugoslavia. Its army limited in size.

Sevres (1920): Turkey lost its Middle East provinces. These were to be administered by Britain and France as mandates in the name of the League of Nations.

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1. How did Germany react to the Treaty of Versailles? (a) UNACCEPTABLE – [the terms] are so nonsensical that no government that signs the treaty will last a fortnight. Germany is crushed. (The Frankfurter Zeitung)

(b) Should we accept the conditions, a military furore for revenge will sound in Germany within a few years, and a militant nationalism will engulf all. (The Berliner Tageblatt)

(c) VENGENCE! GERMAN NATION – Today in the Hall of Mirrors, the disgraceful treaty is being signed. Do not forget it. The German people will with unceasing labour press forward to reconquer the place among the nations to which it is entitled. Then will come vengeance for the shame of 1919. (The Deutsche Zeitung)

(d) ‘What should we do?...What was the alternative of not signing? Impossible to call the people of Germany to arms for new resistance! The German people definitely wanted peace; they were exhausted. Not to sign would mean occupation of the most important territories…blockade, unemployment, hunger, the deaths of thousands, the holding back of our war prisoners – a catastrophe which finally would force us to sign still more humiliating conditions…I finally decided to advocate signing. (Toni Sender, The Autobiography of a German Rebel, 1940).

To the Germans the peace was a diktat – an imposed treaty not a negotiated one. The war-guilt clause was the centre of their complaints. It did not make sense now that the Kaiser had abdicated. It was the new democratic government that was being punished for a war that it had not started. Germany’s industry and agriculture could not recover as a result of lands lost to other countries. Other clauses also left the Germans feeling bitter and humiliated. It was barred from joining the League of Nations. Millions of Germans were forced to live in other states: Czechoslovakia, Poland and Denmark.

Source 4. The peace talks at Versailles.

5. How did the other countries say about the peace treaties? The outrage of the Germans was also felt in Austria, Hungary and Turkey. The break up of the Turkish

Empire caused a rebellion that toppled the sultan and replaced the government with a republic. Italy, one of the victors, felt disappointed. Italy was promised and expected great gains of land, but it only received quite a few. Italians therefore felt cheated by the allies, and its leader Orlando, walked out as a protest during the peace negotiations.

Datapoint: The Treaty of Versailles with Germany

1. Blame - Germany had to accept total guilt for causing the war.

2. Military clauses

(a) The German army was cut to 100,000 and no conscription. (b) Germany’s navy was handed over to Britain except for 6 battleships and 30 smaller vessels. (c) She was not allowed to have tanks, planes or submarines. (d) Germany’s wartime weapons were to be destroyed. (e) Germany was forbidden to unite with Austria.

3. Colonies - All her colonies were handed over to the League of Nations. They were to be given to other nations (Britain, France, South Africa, Japan) to look after as mandates.

4. Territory (a) Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France (lost in 1871). (b) The Rhineland was demilitarised (stripped of soldiers and weapons).

(c) The Saar was handed over to the League of Nations for 15 years. (d) Other German lands were given to Denmark and Belgium. (e) Poland was created as an independent country from land in east Germany and Russia. (f) Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania became independent countries from Russia.

5. Reparations - Germany was to pay money to the allies – some £6000 million.

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Unit 12.2 - The End of the War and the Peace Treaties

Source 5. Changes in Europe’s frontiers at the end of World War I.

1. What was the soldier’s attitude to the war (in Source 1)?

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2. How is source 2 different from source 1? __________________________________________

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3. What does source 3 say about the fighting in World War I? ____________________________

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4. Why do you think people at that time wanted to make the Great War ‘the war to end all wars’?

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5. (a) Who proposed the Fourteen Points? _________________________________________ (1)

(b) What was the aim of these Fourteen Points?

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6. (a) Name the three leaders of the Allies that influenced most of the peace terms after the war.

________________________ _________________________ _______________________ (3) (b) Which one of these leaders was the most extreme in the peace terms imposed on Germany?

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Source 6. The Allied leaders

Source 7. The Hall of Mirrors, Versailles

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7. Why separate peace treaties singed with other European countries besides Germany?

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8. How did the German newspaper sources react to the Treaty of Versailles?

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9. What did these same newspapers predict would happen? _____________________________

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10. Why did the German leaders accept to sign the Treaty of Versailles?

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11. List four reasons why the German people were angry about the Treaty of Versailles.

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12. Why was Germany not allowed to join the League of Nations?

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13. Why did Italy’s leader walk out of the peace talks? __________________________________

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14. (a) Explain the meaning of the term ‘self-determination’?

___________________________________________________________________________ (2) (b) How successful was the idea of self-determination carried out?

___________________________________________________________________________ (2) (c) Give one example when this principle was applied and one when it was not.

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15. What happened to these changes in territories as a result of the First World War? (8)

(a) The provinces of Alsace-Lorraine united as a federation of south Slav states.

(b) The Saahr district united with Italy.

(c) Transylvania declared a demilitarized zone.

(d) Yugoslavia given back to France.

(e) South Tyrol and Istria became independent states.

(f) The Rhineland united with Romania

(g) Syria, Lebanon and Palestine occupied by the Allies.

(h) Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Finland, Poland declared mandates of the League of Nations.

(Total marks 40

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Unit 12.3 - The League of Nations

1. What were the aims of the League of Nations?

President Wilson insisted that a League of Nations should be part of the peace treaties. He took personal

charge of drawing plans for the League. All the major nations would join the League. They would disarm.

If they had a quarrel with another country they would take it to the League. They were to promise to protect

one another if they were attacked. If a member broke the Covenant and went to war, the other members

were to stop trading with it (embargo, sanctions). If necessary, they would send troops to force it to stop

fighting. Wilson hoped that all the citizens of the world would stop their governments from going to war.

But would countries really do what the League said? Most people in Europe were prepared to give Wilson’s

plans a try. They hoped that no country would dare invade another country knowing that the USA and other

powerful nations would stop trading with it or send armies against it. In 1919 hopes were high that the

League would be a powerful peace-maker.

2. Why did the USA stay out of the League? Back in the USA, however, Wilson had problems. Before the USA could join the League, he needed the

approval of the Congress. And, in America the idea of a League was not at all popular. Why? There were

many German immigrants who had never approved of America joining the war against Germany. They

wanted America to have no part in it. Others were worried about the economic cost of joining the League.

Business leaders argued that America had become a powerful country by isolationism – staying out of

European affairs. Many Americans were against having to send troops to settle every little conflict around

the world. They wanted to stay out of such disputes. Others opposed the League because they were anti-

British or anti-French because these had colonies and empires. They feared that America could be dragged

into fighting for Britain’s Empire. Wilson toured the USA to put his arguments to the people but when Congress voted in 1919 it was defeated.

He took the proposal back to Congress again in 1920, but it was defeated for a second time. When the

League opened for business in January 1920, the American chair was empty. America never joined. It was a

blow to the League.

3. Did the League achieve anything? It did stop some wars between small countries. The Refugee Commission managed to reunite many

refugees with their families. The Mandates Commission ensured that mandate territories (ex-German

colonies and Ottoman provinces) were governed fairly and were prepared for independence. The

International Labour Organization (ILO) tried to persuade governments to improve the working

conditions of their people. The Health Organization carried out important research into diseases and gave

medical aid to developing countries. Other League organizations fought against drug trafficking, for

women’s rights, abolition of slavery, food supplies and children’s welfare. Much of this work was carried on

by the United Nations after World War II.

4. Why did the League fail? By 1935 it was clear that the League could not stop strong

countries from doing whatever they wished. Mussolini was right:

the League could deal with the ‘sparrows’ but not with the

‘eagles’. The ‘eagles’ were too busy with their own concerns to

work together for peace. World War II could have been prevented if the League had

worked properly. The League was set up to prevent wars, but

powerful countries (USA and USSR) did not join it. If it had

been more powerful, it could have stopped German, Italian and

Japanese aggression in the 1930s.

1. The USA and the League of Nations

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Source 2. The Geneva headquarters of the League.

Source 3. The General Assembly meeting in 1929.

League of Nations Report

Date Subject Result

1920 Åland Is. Settled dispute between Sweden and Finland.

1920 Vilna Taken from Lithuania and given to Poland.

1921 Silesia Peacefully divided between Germany and Poland.

1923 Corfu Greece was forced to pay compensation to Italy.

1925 Greece Stopped war between Greece and Bulgaria.

1928 Washington The signing of the The Kellogg Pact.

1931 Manchuria Unable to stop Japan from taking Manchuria from China.

1935 Ethiopia Unable to stop Italy from invading and occupying

Ethiopia.

Source 4

The Kellogg Pact of 1928

Persuaded that the time has come when a frank renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy should be made to the end that the peaceful and friendly relations now existing between their peoples may be perpetuated.

ARTICLE I

The High Contracting Parties solemnly declare in the names of their respective peoples that they condemn recourse to war for the solution of international controversies, and renounce it, as an instrument of national policy in their relations with one another.

ARTICLE II

The High Contracting Parties agree that the settlement or solution of all disputes or conflicts of whatever nature or of whatever origin they may be, which may arise among them, shall never be sought except by pacific means.

Signed in Washington in 1928.

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Unit 12.3 The League of Nations 1. Was President Wilson right when he said: ‘[If the European Powers] had dared to discuss their problems for a single fortnight in 1914, the First World War would never have happened.’ To what extent do you agree with this statement?

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2. Read paragraph 3 and write brief slogans for any three reasons by Americans opposed their country from joining the League.

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3. Study carefully the Report on the League of Nations. State were was the League successful and where it was not?

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4. Why was the League not successful against Italy and Japan?

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5. Match the information about the organization of the League of Nations: (5)

(a) Headquarters of the League

Met every 3 months. Dealt with crises. Made up of Britain, France, Italy, Japan and 4 other countries.

(b) The General Assembly The League’s civil service employees.

(c) The Council Situated in The Hague, Netherlands. Dealt with legal disputes between countries.

(d) Court of Justice Situated in Geneva, Switzerland.

(e) The Secretariat Met once a year. All members had one vote. Decisions had to be unanimous.

6. Why was it important for powerful countries to be members of the League?

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7. Why was the League reluctant to use force to stop disputes between countries?

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(Total Marks: 20)

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Unit 12.4 The Results of the First World War – Essay Questions

Read carefully the following essay titles and answer any ONE in about 200 to 300 words. Essays carry 20 marks each.

PAPER 2A

1. Write an account of the part played by President Wilson in the negotiation of the Peace Settlement of 1919. (12) Explain why the United States failed to support his ideal of the League of Nations. (8) (Oxford GCE)

2. (a) Outline those main features of the peace settlement of 1919-20 that dealt with Germany. (8)

(b) To what extent do you consider that the peace settlement was based upon: (i) the desire of the victors for revenge (6) (ii) the desire to create nation states? (6) (London GCE)

3. Outline the main terms of the treaties of the peace settlement of 1919-20. To what extent do you think that the settlement was fair to the defeated powers? (London GCE) 4. What was the League of Nations? Why was it set up and how far was it successful in its mission? (SEC 2012)

PAPER 2B

1. What were the consequences of defeat in 1918 for: Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Russia and Germany? (5 x 4)

2. Outline the terms of the Treaty of Versailles showing why these terms caused such serious anger amongst the German people.

3. (a) Explain how the League of Nations was formed. (4) (b) Describe the aims and organization of the League of Nations. (8) (c) Indicate what were the League’s main achievements up to 1929. (8) (SEC 2010)

4. (a) What was the League of Nations and why was it set up? (8) (b) How far was this organization able to keep the peace during the 1920s? (6) (c) Why did this League lose its importance in the 12930s? (6) (SEC 2012)