the cell/ all about cells

8/20/2019 The Cell/ All about cells

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The Cell

Introduction:

All these plants and animals are made of the building blocks we call cells. Like theseexamples, many living things consist of vast numbers of cells working in concert with

one another. Other forms of life, however, are made of only a single cell, such as the

many species of bacteria and protooa. Cells, whether living on their own or as part of a

multicellular organism. And also these organisms are too small to see by a naked eye.

!e have to use microscope in order to see these little tiny creatures that build up life.

Entomology

The cell "from Latin cella, meaning #small room#$ is the basic structural, functional, and

biological unit of all known living organisms. Cells are the smallest unit of life that canreplicate independently, and are often called the #building blocks of life#. The study of

cells is called cell biology.

Cells consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many

biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids Organisms can be classified as

unicellular "consisting of a single cell% including bacteria$ or multicellular "including

plants and animals$. !hile the number of cells in plants and animals varies from

species to species, humans contain more than &' trillion "&'&($ cells. )ost plant and

animal cells are visible only under the microscope, with dimensions between & and &''

micrometres

The cell was discovered by *obert +ooke in &-, Cell theory, first developed in &(/

by )atthias 0akob 1chleiden and Theodor 1chwann, states that all organisms are

composed of one or more cells, that cells are the fundamental unit of structure and

function in all living organisms, that all cells come from preexisting cells, and that all

cells contain the hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for

transmitting information to the next generation of cells

Cell Theory

The cell theory or cell doctrine was proposed by 1chleiden and 1chwann in &(/

describe that all organisms are composed of similar units of organisation, called cells.

2n &( )atthias 1chleiden found that all plant cells have basically similar structure.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hookehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_theoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_theoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias_Jakob_Schleidenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Schwannhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_theoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias_Jakob_Schleidenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Schwannhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hooke


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T. 1chwann"&(/$ observed that animal cells differ from plant cells in lacking cell wall

but are otherwise similar amongst themselves. +e declared that all animals and plants

are made up of cells.

1chleiden "&($ summaried his observations into three conclusions about cells3

&. The cell is the unit of structure, physiology, and organiation in living things.

4. The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and a building block in the

construction of organisms.

(. Cells form by free5cell formation, similar to the formation of crystals "spontaneous

generation$.

*udolph 6irchow"&-$ states that #Omnis cellula e cellula#5that the new cells arise

from pre5existing cells only. The main features of cell theory as known nowadays are

&.All living organism are composed of cells. Therefore cell is structural unit of living

organisms.

4. All cells arise from the pre5existing cells of similar type. Thus cell is a unit of heredity.

(. All cells are basically alike in chemical composition and metabolism activities.

7.The function of an organism as a whole is the result of the activities and interactions

of its cells.

The two types of Cell:

1. Prokaryotic Cell: Any of various microorganisms of the domains Archaea

and 8acteria, characteried by the absence of a distinct membrane5bound

nucleus and membrane5bound organelles and by the simultaneous

occurrence of 9:A transcription and protein synthesis at the same site, in

contrast to eukaryotes

;rokaryotic cells were the first form of life on


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A prokaryotic cell has three architectural regions:

• On the outside, flagella and pili pro>ect from the cell?s surface. These are

structures "not present in all prokaryotes$ made of proteins that facilitate movement andcommunication between cells.

•


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2. Eukaryotic Cells : A cell containing a membrane5bound nucleus with

chromosomes of 9:A and proteins, generally large "&'5&'' mcm$, with cell

division involving a form of mitosis in which mitotic spindles "or some

microtubule arrangement$ are involved% mitochondria are present, and, in

photosynthetic species, plastids are found% undulipodia "cilia or flagella$ are of

the complex /4 organiation of microtubules and various proteins.;ossession of an eukaryote type of cell characteries the four kingdoms

above the )onera or prokaryote level of complexity3 ;rotoctista, Bungi,

;lantae, and Animalia, combined into the superkingdom


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Figure 1.2 Animal Cell, A Eukaryotic Cell

Figure 1.3 Plant Cell, Another example of a Eukaryotic Cell


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Parts and unctions:

Animal Cell

!rganelle "escription #iological $seCell )embrane

Figure 1.4

Cell em!rane

Animal 5 outer layer%

cholesterol 9ouble layer of

phospholipids with

proteins 1electively

permeable

1upport

;rotection

Controls movement

of materials inout of

cell

8arrier between cell

and its environment

)aintains

homeostasis

:ucleus

Figure 1."

#he $ucleu%

:ucleus is spherical

body containing

many organelles,

including the

nucleolus

The nucleus

controls many of the

functions of the cell

"by controlling

protein synthesis$

and contains 9:A

"in chromosomes$.

The nucleus is

surrounded by the

nuclear membrane.

Controls cell

activities

Contains the

hereditary material

of the cell:uclear )embrane 1urrounds nucleus

9ouble membrane

1electively

permeable

Controls movement

of materials inout of

nucleus


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Figure 1.&

$uclear em!rane

Cytoplasm

Figure 1.'

Cytopla%m

Clear, thick, >ellylike

material "cytosol$ Organelles found

inside cell

membrane Contains the

cytoskeleton fibers

1upports and

protects cell

organelles


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*ough "


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Figure 1.

*i!o%ome

)itochondrion

Figure 1.1-

itochon)rion

;eanut shaped

9ouble membrane

Outer membrane

smooth 2nner membrane

folded into cristae

8reaks down sugar

"glucose$ molecules

to release energy 1ite of aerobic

cellular respiration

6acuole

Figure 1.11

acuole

fluid5filled,

membrane5

surrounded cavities

inside a cell.

1tore food, water,

metabolic D toxic

wastes 1tore large amounts

of food or sugars in

plants

Lysosome

Figure 1.12

/y%o%ome

1mall and round

with a single

membrane round organelles

surrounded by a

membrane and

containing digestive

enymes.

8reaks down larger

food molecules into

smaller molecules 9igests old cell

parts

:ucleolus Bound inside the

cell?s nucleus )ay have more

than one 9isappear during

cell division

)ake ribosomes

it is where

ribosomal *:A is

produced


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Figure 1.13

$ucleolu%

Eolgi Apparatus

Figure 1.14

0olgi Apparatu%

a flattened, layered,

sac5like organelle

that looks like a

stack of pancakesand is located near

the nucleus

2t produces the

membranes that

surround the

lysosomes. The Eolgi body

packages proteins

and carbohydrates

into membrane5

bound vesicles for

FexportG from the

cell.

Cilia

Figure 1.1"

Cilia

+ave a /54

arrangement of

microtubules 1hort, but

numerous

)ovement

Centrioles

Figure 1.1&

Centriole%

;aired structures

near the nucleus )ade of a cylinder

of microtubule pairs

1eparate

chromosome pairs

during mitosis

Centrosome an organelle near

the nucleus of a cell

that contains the

centrioles

from which the

spindle fibers

develop in cell

division.


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Figure 1.1'

Centro%ome

Cytoskeleton

Figure 1.1(

Cyto%keleton

)ade of

microtubules H

microfilaments

1trengthen cell D

maintains the shape )oves organelles

within the cell

Figure 1.1


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Cro%% +ection of Animal Cell

Plant Cell:

!rganelle "escription #iological $se

Amyloplasts

Figure 2.1 Amylopla%t%

a microscopic

sac, bound by a

double

membrane, that

is found inside

plant cells

contains starch

granules

Cell )embrane

Figure 2.2

Cell em!rane

The thin layer of

protein and fat

that surrounds

the cell, but is

inside the cell

wall.

The cell

membrane is

semipermeable,

allowing some

substances to

pass into the cell

and blocking

others.

Cell !all

Figure 2.3

Cell all

a thick, rigid

membrane that

surrounds a plant

cell

This layer of

cellulose fiber

gives the cell

most of its

support and

structure. Also bonds with

other cell walls to

form the structure

of the plant.

Centrosome a small body

located near the

nucleus 5 it has a

dense center and

radiating tubules Inlike the

is where

microtubules are

made the centrosome

divides and the

two parts move to


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Figure 2.4

Centro%ome

centrosomes in

animal cells,

plant cell

centrosomes do

not have

centrioles..

opposite sides of

the dividing cell.

Chlorophyll

Figure 2."Chlorophyll in Plant Cell

Figure 2.".1

Chlorophyll olecule

A green pigment,

present in all

green plants and

in cyanobacteria,

responsible for

the absorption of

light to provideenergy for

photosynthesis.

Ises light energy

from sunlight to

turn water and

carbon dioxide

gas into sugar

and oxygen "this

process is calledphotosynthesis$.

Chloroplasts

Figure 2.&

an elongated or

disc5shaped

organelle

containing

chlorophyll.

;hotosynthesis

"in which energy

from sunlight is

converted into

chemical energy 5

food$ takes place

in the

chloroplasts.


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Chloropla%t

Cytoplasm

Figure 2.'

Cytopla%m

The >ellylike

material outside

the cell nucleus

in which the

organelles arelocated.

1upports and

protects cell

organelles

Eolgi 8ody

Figure 2.(

0olgi o)y 0olgi Apparatu%

a flattened,

layered, sac5like

organelle that

looks like a stack

of pancakes andis located near

the nucleus

The golgi body

packages

proteins and

carbohydrates

into membrane5bound vesicles for

#export# from the

cell.

)itochondrion

Figure 2.

itochon)rion

spherical to rod5

shaped

organelles with a

doublemembrane.

The inner

membrane is

infolded many

times, forming a

series of

pro>ections

"called cristae$

The

mitochondrion

converts the

energy stored inglucose into AT;

"adenosine

triphosphate$ for

the cell.

:uclear )embrane the membrane

that surroundsthe nucleus.

acts as a barrier

separating thenuclear contents

from the

surrounding

cytoplasm.


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Figure 2.1-

$uclear em!rane

:ucleolus

Figure 2.11

$ucleolu%

an organelle

within the

nucleus

it is where

ribosomal *:A is

produced.

:ucleus

Figure 2.12

$ucleu%

1pherical body

containing many

organelles,

including the

nucleolus. The nucleus is

surrounded by

the nuclear

membrane

The nucleus

controls many of

the functions of

the cell "by

controlling protein

synthesis$ Contains 9:A "in

chromosomes$.

*ibosomes

Figure 2.13

*i!o%ome%

1mall bodies free

or attached to


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Figure 2.14

*ough En)opla%mic *eticulum

in the cell?s

cytoplasm "the


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Figure 2.1&

Cro%% +ection

of Plant Cell

Cell "i%ision:

Cell "i%ision unctions in &eproduction' (rowth' and &epair

Cell division involves the distribution of identical genetic material, 9:A, to two

daughters cells. !hat is most remarkable is the fidelity with which the 9:A is passed

along, without dilution or error, from one generation to the next.

Two types of Cell "i%ision

)itosis* nuclearchemical events resulting in two daughter nuclei which have identical

genetic material to each other and to the mother cell


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1tages3

Interphase

• 2s the #resting# or non5mitotic portion of the cell cycle.

• 2t is comprised of E&, 1, and E4 stages of the cell cycle.

• 9:A is replicated during the 1 phase of 2nterphase

Prophase

• The chromosomes condense and become visible

• The centrioles form and move toward opposite ends of the cell "#the poles#$

• The nuclear membrane dissolves

• The mitotic spindle forms "from the centrioles in animal cells$

• 1pindle fibers from each centriole attach to each sister chromatid at the

kinetochore

)etaphase

• The Centrioles complete their migration to the poles

• The chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell "#the eJuator#$

• Compare )etaphase to the )etaphase 2 and to the )etaphase 22 stages of

mitosis.

Anaphase

• 1pindles attached to kinetochores begin to shorten.

• This exerts a force on the sister chromatids that pulls them apart.

• 1pindle fibers continue to shorten, pulling chromatids to opposite poles.

• This ensures that each daughter cell gets identical sets of chromosomes

Telophase

• The chromosomes decondense

• The nuclear envelope forms

• Cytokinesis reaches completion, creating two daughter cells

• Compare Telophase to the Telophase 2 and to the Telophase 22 stages of mitosis.


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Figure 3.1

+tage% of ito%i%

)eiosis* is a specialied type of cell division which reduces the chromosome number

by half. This process occurs in all sexually reproducing single5celled and multi5celled

eukaryotes, including animals, plants, and fungi.


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Figure 3.2 +tage% of eio%i%

Eukaryotic Cell and Prokaryotic Cell. The "ifference

!rganelle Eukaryotic Prokaryotic

:ucleus • True nucleus,

consisting of

nuclear membrane

D nucleoli

• :o nuclear

membrane or

nucleoli "nucleoid$

Lysosomes and

peroxisomes• ;resent • Absent

)icrotubules • ;resent • Absent or *are


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Cell !all • Only in plant cells

and fungi

"chemically simpler$

• Isually chemically

complexed

+ere are some other differences ,etween prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:

!ther "ifferences Eukaryotic Prokaryotic

:umber of chromosomes )ore than one • One5but not true

chromosome3

;lasmids

Cell Type • Isually multicellular • Isually unicellular

"some

cyanobacteria may

be multicellular$True )embrane bound

:ucleus• ;resent • Absent

Eenetic *ecombination • )eiosis and fusion

of game

• ;artial, undirectional

transfers 9:A

9:A wrapping on proteins. •


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Figure 4.1

acteria, a prokaryotic cell,

%e% it% tail like organelle% for mo5ement

The Cell )em,rane:

The cell membrane is a thin semi5permeable membrane that surrounds the

cytoplasm of a cell, enclosing its contents. 2ts function is to protect the integrity of

the interior of the cell by allowing certain substances into the cell, while keeping

other substances out. 2t also serves as a base of attachment for the cytoskeleton

in some organisms and the cell wall in others. Thus the cell membrane also

serves to help support the cell and help maintain its shape.

The cell membrane is primarily composed of a mix of proteins and lipids. !hilelipids help to give membranes their flexibility, proteins monitor and maintain the

cell?s chemical climate and assist in the transfer of molecules across the

membrane.


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Figure ".1

Cro%% +ection of Cell em!rane

unctions of Cell )em,rane

5 The cell membrane "or plasma membrane or plasmalemma$ surrounds the

cytoplasm of living cells, physically separating the intracellular components from

the extracellular environment. Bungi, bacteria and plants also have a cell wall in

addition, which provides a mechanical support to the cell and precludes the

passage of larger molecules. The cell membrane also plays a role in anchoring

the cytoskeleton to provide shape to the cell, and in attaching to the extracellular

matrix and other cells to help group cells together to form tissues.5 The cell membrane is selectively permeable and able to regulate what enters and

exits the cell, thus facilitating the transport of materials needed for survival.

&. ;assive osmosis and diffusion3 1ome substances "small molecules, ions$ such

as carbon dioxide "CO4$ and oxygen "O4$, can move across the plasma

membrane by diffusion, which is a passive transport process. 8ecause themembrane acts as a barrier for certain molecules and ions, they can occur in

different concentrations on the two sides of the membrane. 1uch a concentration

gradient across a semipermeable membrane sets up an osmotic flow for the

water.4. Transmembrane protein channels and transporters3 :utrients, such as sugars or

amino acids, must enter the cell, and certain products of metabolism must leave


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the cell. 1uch molecules diffuse passively through protein channels such as

aJuaporins "in the case of water "+4O$$ in facilitated diffusion or are pumped

across the membrane by transmembrane transporters. ;rotein channel proteins,

also called permeases, are usually Juite specific, recogniing and transporting

only a limited food group of chemical substances, often even only a single

substance.(.


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Figure ".2

Cell em!rane 6ore 7etaile)8

;arts and Bunctions of Cell )embrane

Parts #iological unction

;rotein Channel Channel proteins facilitate

the transport of substances

across a cell membrane.

They do this through the

process of either facilitated

diffusion or active transport

depending on the

concentration gradient, or

the difference in the

concentration of substances

inside and outside the cell

membrane

Elobular proteins Elobular proteins or spheroproteins are spherical

"#globe5like#$ proteins and

are one of the common

protein types "the others

being fibrous, disordered

and membrane proteins$.


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Elobular proteins are

somewhat water5soluble

"forming colloids in water$,

unlike the fibrous or

membrane proteins.

Cholesterol Cholesterol is found in every

cell of your body. 2t is

especially abundant in the

membranes of these cells,

where it helps maintain the

integrity of these

membranes, and plays a

role in facilitating cell

signaling55 meaning the

ability of your cells tocommunicate with each

other so you function as a

human, rather than a pile of

cells.

Elycolipid

Figure ".4

Chemical +tructure of 0lycolipi)

Elycolipids are lipids with a

carbohydrate attached. Their

role is to provide energy and

also serve as markers for

cellular recognition.

;eripheral ;rotein ;eripheral membrane

proteins are proteins that

adhere only temporarily to

the biological membrane

with which they are

associated.


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Elycoprotein Elycoproteins are proteinsthat contain oligosaccharide

chains "glycans$ covalently

attached to polypeptide side5

chains. The carbohydrate is

attached to the protein in a

cotranslational or

posttranslational

modification. This process is

known as glycosylation.

1ecreted extracellularproteins are often

glycosylated. 2n proteins that

have segments extending

extracellularly, the

extracellular segments are

also glycosylated.

Elycoproteins are often

important integral membrane

proteins, where they play a

role in cell@cell interactions.

2ntegral ;rotein 2ntegral membrane function

as transporters, channels

"see ;otassium Channel$,

linkers, receptors, proteins

involved in accumulation

energy, and proteins

responsible for cell

adhesion.

Alpha +elix ;rotein The alpha heli- "*heli-$ is

a common secondary

structure of proteins and is arighthand5coiled or spiral

conformation "helix$ in which

every backbone :5+ group

donates a hydrogen bond to

the backbone CO group of

the amino

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_secondary_structurehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_secondary_structurehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helixhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aminohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_bondhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonylhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_secondary_structurehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_secondary_structurehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helixhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aminohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_bondhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonylhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid


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Figure "."

A9elix

acid four residues earlier "

hydrogen

bonding$.

Carbohydrates Carbohydrates covalently

linked to proteins

"glycoproteins$ or lipids

"glycolipids$ are also a part

of cell membranes, and

function as adhesion and

address loci for cells

+ydrophilic +eads +ydrophilic areas of a

phospholipid, or a protein

are ?attracted? to water

+ydrophobic Tails hydrophobic regions are

repelled by water.;hospholipid 8ilayer

Figure ".&

Pho%pholipi) ilayer

The phospholipid bilayer

which the cell membrane is

an example of, is composed

of various cholesterol,

phospholipids, glycolipids

and proteins.

;hospholipid )olecule ;hospholipids in cells is to

form membranes.

)embranes in cells arephospholipid bilayers, which

are barriers that prevent

charged particles and large

molecules from moving

across them. The outer skin

of the cell is a phospholipid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residue_(biochemistry)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residue_(biochemistry)


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bilayer.

/i- 0e%els of /tructural and unctional !rganiation

1. Chemical 0e%el* Composed of Chemical 1ubstances that are formed of atoms

and molecules

Figure &.1 Atom, a%ic unit of a chemical element

2. Cellular 0e%el* 8asic 1tructural and Bunctional unit of an organism


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Figure &.2

Cell, a%ic unit of life

. Tissue 0e%el* Aggregation of similar cell that perform similar function

Figure &.3

Connecti5e #i%%ue


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3. !rgan 0e%el* Composed of two or more tissues that work together to perform

one common function

Figure &.4

Cro%% +ection of eart

4. /ystem 0e%el* Coordinated Bunction group of organs in the body which perform

specific function


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Figure &."

uman ;rgan

5. !rganismic 0e%el* Complex of an organ system that are mutually dependent on

one another

Figure &.&

uman ;rgani%m

The #iological unctions of Cell

&.


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(. Erowth7. :utrition-. ;rotein 1ynthesis. ;hotosynthesis in ;lantsH. )etabolism. *eplication/. )ovement or )otility

&'. 9igestion

&&. *ehydration

&4.1exual *eproduction

Links and *eferences

http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/what-is-a-cell-14023083

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ell!"biolog#)

http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/what-is-a-cell-14023083https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/what-is-a-cell-14023083https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)


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College of :ursing

Legapi City

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>@*>7 A6>B

C BIOCHEMISTRY

D7 EE

Submitted By:

Fandrew imapasoc

+@C 1-+

Submitted to:

r. Coemi >. ;adrid

the cell/ all about cells

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