the charter schools handbook- examining alternatives in canadian education...

EDU6428: Final Research Paper

The Charter Schools Handbook: examining alternatives in Canadian public education

For: Prof. Lorna Maclean

By: Andrea Lagalisse (2992863)

4/8/2014

Lagalisse. A. (2014) EDU6428 Final Paper…1

EDU 6428 Final Paper:

The Alberta Charter Schools Handbook:

Examining Alternatives in Canadian Public Education

Introduction

My initial interest in charter schools arose out of an investigation into alternative education

opportunities in Canada as part of a wider desire for educational reform. To date, Alberta is the

only Canadian province or territory to try out the charter method. This study will consist of direct

textual analysis of the Charter School Handbook alongside critical discourse involving historical

contextual analysis to situate the Charter School experience in Alberta. I will attempt to discover

what place the charter school system holds in the Alberta educational system, how charter

schools in Alberta have developed and not developed, and what experts and communities are

saying about the charter school experiment in Alberta. In doing so, I hope to increase interest in

the changing norms of schooling and in inquiring into issues of authority, power, socialization,

and culture. Charter schools offer an alternative to traditionally envisioned public schools in

Canada by opening up daily teaching practices in ways that enable youth engagement, support

critical thinking and inquiry, and promote global citizenship and authentic diversity.

My research questions are

1) How does the Charter School Handbook’s authorship portray the aims, methods and

purposes of education?

2) Do these aims, methods, and purposes offer useful alternatives for education in Canada

that are authentically diverse?

Methodology


This study will consist of direct textual analysis of the 2011 Charter School Handbook and

accompanying Charter Schools Regulations. I will engage in critical discourse alongside

historical contextual analysis to situate the Charter School experience in Alberta. I will conduct

primary analysis of the Alberta Learning 2011 Charter Schools Handbook, focussing on three of

Walt Werner’s eight-point system on reading authorship into texts; the gaze, the voice, and

reflexivity (Werner, W., 2000, Reading authorship into texts, p. 193-219). Werner notes that it

important to use "authorship" rather than "author" is because the former “…does not focus

narrowly on de-contextualized individuals apart from the broader social /political / economic

practices that are also a part of authorship. Texts are produced out of, and are positioned within,

complex sets of relationships and processes (e.g., of publishing, marketing, consuming, reading,

etc.) in particular times and places” (Werner, W., 2000, p. 194). For example, Tupper and

Cappello point out that a major “goal” of schools has and continues to be “the formation of

particular kinds of subjects” (2010, p. 339), particularly citizens who are “responsible to the state

and inherently governable (Ibid., p. 348). They suggest that it is necessary to offer student

“(un)usual narratives of citizenship which subvert false universalism and draw attention to the

differential formation of subjects” (Tupper & Cappello, 2010, p. 358). When investigating the

Charter Schools Handbook, I wished to inquire as to how the provincial government’s authorship

of the document reflected or countered the perpetuation of dominance and whether they offered

an authentic alternative to current public school programs in Canada.

With this contextual and practical understanding, I analyzed the Alberta Learner Charter

School’s Handbook in order to better understand social and cultural factors that are at play in the

infancy of charter schools in Canada. I hoped to activate what Van Dijk calls the role of

discourse in the “(re)production and challenge of dominance…defined here as the exercise of


social power by elites, institutions or groups, that results in social inequality” (1993, p. 249).

This will be helpful because it will increase understanding and discussion about charter schools

in Canada, as well as offer insights on how to ensure that these schools are increasingly able to

provide authentic and accessible alternatives to traditional public and private school education in

Canada.

Situating charter schools in Canada

Charter schools in Canada are defined as “…autonomous public schools that would provide

innovative or enhanced means of delivering education in order to improve student learning”

(Alberta Learning (AL), 2002. p. 1). Charter schools receive the same funding as other public

schools, and are non-religious and non-profit, and require teachers to be certified (AL, 2002, p.

3- 4). Charter school champions argue that “…student and parent demand for the choices charter

schools provide will increase and public schools will fight for the flexibility charter schools

enjoy” (Bosetti, L. 2010, p.101). In Canada, public schools are funded and run by the provincial

governments, and attendance to school is compulsory (Clark, W., 2001, p.3).

The reality in education is that throughout the Western world, student achievement has

plummeted (Ritchie, 2010, p.5). In 1997, near the beginning of the charter school experiment in

Alberta, Canada ranked “among the world’s education leaders” in spending on education (Clark,

W., 2001, 100 Years of education, p. 7). Guo notes that increased interconnectedness and

technology, and diversity in classrooms means that the landscape of Canadian classrooms is

changing (2013, p. 8). The international trend of increasing conservatism and also of increasing

pluralism has been cited as a factor contributing to the trend in charter and other alternative

education funding (Wagner, 1999. p. 54). It is notable that as of 2010, there were 13 charter

schools (of a possible 15) in operation over 22 campuses, student enrollment has increased


consistently, and waiting lists in the thousands are normal (Ritchie, 2010, p.12-13). This

indicates that there is a place and the social will for charter schools to grow in the realm of

Canadian education. I often wondered why charter schools have been restricted to Alberta only,

and also why there was a cap on how many charter schools could be in operation in the province

at any one time. It seems to me, like Toma and Zimmer state, that

at the end of the day, we must recognize that families are choosing charter schools…the

choice is voluntary….but beyond achievement effects, our observation that the movement

is voluntary suggests that the research community should be creatively searching for

ways in which to measure the benefits perceived by families. (Two decades of charter

schools, 2012. p. 212)

Not long after the unveiling of the charter program and its vision, Global Learning

Academy, one of the largest schools, had to shut down. In an article in Macleans magazine, the

author notes the political, social and economic difficulties that led to this demise:

…no one thought that these schools would be turned into political orphans, abandoned by

a provincial government that was retrenching, hung out to dry by local school boards who

resented the charters as grant-snatchers and private-school wanna-bes. "The provincial

government had the original vision," says Lynn Bosetti, director of the Centre for Gifted

Education at the University of Calgary. "But then the minister changed and other key

people left, and it is not clear now where the ministry is going. The problems you see

now are all issues of governance." (Sheppard, R., 1998, p. 52.)


It appeared that there were significant barriers preventing the charter school experiment in

Alberta from achieving its goal to offer authentic alternatives to its students, barriers that could

not be controlled by legislation that was ambiguously written

Since the inception of the charter program in 1994, there have been several in-depth

studies and projects intended to monitor and improve charter schools. In 2009, the Alberta

Government released a concept paper that outlines how “Alberta Education envisions charter

schools as catalysts for critical thinking about education. Many people offer the Minister advice

on how to improve education; the next generation of charter schools would act as pilots or

incubators and could let the Minister test the best of these ideas” (Government of Alberta,

Charter Schools Concept Paper, 2009, p.2). In this newer vision for charter schools, teachers and

administrators could play a larger role in the professional development of others as well as in the

development of educational theory and practice. They could serve as mentors to teachers and

administrators in other schools (Ibid., p. 2-3).

This amendment shows attempts toward reflexivity in practice in line with current

discourse that encourages reflective practice that encourages active, inquiry-based learning,

fostering critical literacy, taking multiple perspectives, and providing “authentic opportunities for

students to become responsible and competent citizens in meaningful ways” (Guo, L. (2013), p.

9). By recognizing the evolving nature of the charter school experiment, with the aim of

improving rather than removing the alternatives charter schools offer, expiry on the charter

school regulations stay on the path toward creating more authentic education alternatives to

Canadian students.

In Ritchie’s “Innovation in action: an examination of charter schools in Alberta” she

outlines challenges that include but are not limited to; the restrictive nature and instability


created by the charter renewal process whereby schools must reapply for status every five years,

difficulties in acquiring premises due to restrictions on public land and building grants, and

opposition from those who believe charter schools serve niche markets and are exclusive (The

West in Canada Research Series, 2010. p. 18-19). The charter school program has shown that it

recognizes the need to change and adapt in order to achieve the true purpose of providing

authentic alternatives to its students and families. The 2012 review of the Charter Schools

Regulations recognized some the difficulties posed by the five-year renewal system and

renegotiated it to allow for a long-term renewal after an initial five-year term, noting that “with

the ability to access renewal terms of 15 years, charter schools with a demonstrated record of

success will be able to focus less on administration and more on student learning and school

improvement”

(Alberta Governments, (2012) Questions and answers: Changes to the charter school

regulations, p. 1). The 2012 amendment is indicative of the will of charter school proponents to

keep trying in spite of the setbacks encountered from various sources.

Analysis and Discussion

The Alberta Learning (2011) Charter Schools Handbook includes ten pages of text and

regulations, plus appendices incorporating the legislation pertinent to the establishment of charter

schools in Alberta, for a total of 34 pages. It is openly available online. Special attention was

paid to pages 1-10, which include the main text covering what charter schools “are”, eligibility,

governance, programs, and accountability, and the like. The Appendices are also included in the

analysis, particularly Appendix C detailing the Charter Schools Regulations, 212/2002. I also

decided to read the amended version of the regulations, as they did not appear to have been


linked into the online version of the 2011 handbook. The Charter School Regulations are slated

for reviewed again in 2015.

The charter schools handbook via Werner: gaze, voice, and reflexivity

Gaze. In this, Werner is asking us “to make visible the meaning and effects of the "gaze"

implicit within a representation. This metaphor refers to the implied attitude, value stance, or

power relationship towards the people, place or event depicted (2000), p. 199). Elements

providing evidence of this gaze and the authority implicit within it are evident in the language

that places charter schools on a sort of permanent “probation” and bases renewal “largely on the

results of regular school evaluations” that are conducted by the Minister of Education (Alberta

Learning (AL), Charter Schools Handbook (2011), p. 8, s. 12). It is also required that charter

school curricula be structured around a “basic education as defined by Alberta Education” (AL,

2011, p. 1, emphasis added). What this implies is that “traditional” notions of schooling and

curriculum design are preferable and the “benchmark” for charter schools to start at.

In Appendix A of the handbook, a section headed “Philosophy, Vision, Purpose and

Goals” explicitly asks parties interested in applying for charter school status “How do the goals

of the school relate to Alberta Education’s basic education program?” (AL, 2011, p. 21). Charter

schools are expected to meet and exceed standards that set by the provincial government. The

onus is on them to create programs, evaluation methods and provide proof of student and school

“success” to the Minister of Education (AL, 2011, p.8, s. 15) This privileges traditional methods

and structures of schooling, limiting different forms and styles of learning and understanding.

This makes authentic choice in education difficult as it often forces charter schools to conform to

the standards of ‘regular’ public schools if they wish to survive.


Another way that power relationships are evident in the gaze presented by the text is in

the requirement that teachers be certificated. This shows a preference for traditional teacher

education and delivery and reducing the potential of learning from various other sources, again

privileging traditional power hierarchies of administrator/teacher/learner/ and ignoring possible

sources of knowledge and experience.

Voice. In examining a text for voice, Werner wants us to consider who has the power to

“name the world:

Who gets to tell the stories…that speak about/ for / with/as/ to other people; it reminds us

that a text is always a speaking from somewhere, and that questions can be raised about

who it is that speaks, about what, how, under what conditions, and with what effects

(2000, p. 200-201).

Looking through the charter schools handbook, it was evident to me that the authority structure

implicit and explicitly favoured the provincial government agenda via the Minister of Education,

as well as traditional public school systems as they are entrenched. As Guo notes, Canadian

curriculum standards “vary from province to province and are strongly shaped by nationalist

orientation” (2013, p. 8). Aside from political nationalist agendas the Minister of Education must

represent, there are also his/her personal experiences and preferences that complicate decision

making. Examples of underlying authority are evident in sections giving the Minister of

Education significant leeway in decision-making, granting and repealing of charter schools as

well as processes around firing, hiring and expulsion.

The wording of clauses within the Charter Schools Regulations in the appendices of the

handbook and in the handbook’s text are often vague and undefined, giving authority literally to

the “opinion” of the Minister, allowing the Minister to make regulations regarding charter


schools respecting “any other matter the Minister considers necessary” (AL, 2011, p,. 26, s. 37).

On top of this, decisions made by the Minister in these regards are final (AL, 2011, p. 30-33, s.

3.14, 7.7, 14.4). This restricts authentic choice and since the final word will lie with the

individual who is Minister of Education at that time. Depending on their personal, political and

philosophical values, a Minister’s decisions could vary widely, leading to less authentic choice

and fewer voices of students, families, and communities coming through.

Another way the tone of authority is evident in the way the text speaks to or at those who

are interested in establishing charter schools. It is “speaking to or at others tells them what

should be believed or done…the intention is to privilege and impose a particular message”

(Werner, W., 2000, p. 203), in this case, allowing for change to the status quo, but still

privileging traditional educational patterns and sending the message that “we’ve got our eye on

you, don’t mess this up!” The layout of the handbook reads like a to-do list, and it is explicitly

stated that “all criteria required by the Regulation must be completed before final approval is

granted” (AL, 2011, p. 10, s. 28).

Reflexivity. The text does not offer much room for interpretation or reflexivity in its

body, as it acts as a literal checklist of steps to follow, telling interested parties how to navigate

the authority that governs the charter school experiment. The major exemption I found was in the

regulation’s expiry clause, which notes that it is “for the purpose of ensuring that this Regulation

is reviewed for ongoing relevancy and necessity, with the option that it may be re-passed in its

present or an amended form following a review” (A.L., 2011, p. 34). This provides evidence of

attempts towards reflexivity in practice, recognizing that the system will need to evolve and

engaging concerned parties in thinking about the text. This provides a glimmer of hope that the


charter school experiment in Canada can evolve over time to provide authentic and diverse

educational experiences for students in Canada.

Conclusion

It is important to recognize that the landscape and meanings of education are and must

continue evolving alongside Canadian populations and cultures. Educators, administrators,

parents and young people are reaching for change in the norms of education towards systems that

are reflective of authentic diversity and that support learning that is active, critically engaging of

youth, relevant and supportive of the creation of global citizenship. Charter schools can offer the

alternatives not present in current public schools if the local and regional communities support

progressive change and educational reform. Difficulties are often encountered in the form of

social, political and national resistance to change. The Charter Schools Handbook clearly looks

from the gaze and speaks with the voice of the Alberta provincial government. Thankfully the

existence of an expiry clause allows for fairly regular evolution that can slowly bring the charter

school experiment closer to its intended vision of providing authentic choices for Canadian

students who are not served by the traditional system.


References

Alberta Learning. (2002). Charter Schools Handbook. ISBN: 0-7785-2550-3

Alberta Regulation 212/2002, (2012) Charter Schools Regulations Retrieved from

http://www.qp.alberta.ca/documents/Regs/2002_212.pdf

Bosetti, L. (2001). The Alberta charter school experience. In C. R. Hepburn (Ed.), Can the

market save our schools? (pp. 101-121). Vancouver, BC: Fraser Institute. Retrieved from

http://oldfraser.lexi.net/publications/books/market_schools/7_bosetti.pdf

Clark, W. (2001). 100 Years of education. Education Quarterly Review 7(3), 18-23. ISSN 1481-

1634

Government of Alberta. (2012) Questions and answers: Changes to the charter school

regulations, Retrieved from

http://education.alberta.ca/media/6673323/charterschoolregulationchangeqa.pdf

Ritchie, S. (2010). Innovation in action: an examination of charter schools in Alberta. The West

in Canada Research Series. The Canada West Foundation. ISBN: 1-897423-61-5

Guo, L. (2013) Translating global citizenship education into pedagogic actions in classroom

settings. In L.R. Maclean & N. Ng-A-Fook (Eds.), Education Review, 3(2), 8-9). ISSN

1925-5497

Sheppard, R. (1998) A school failure. Macleans. Vol. 111 Issue 27, p52. ISSN 0024-9262

Toma, E., & Zimmer, R. (2012). Two decades of charter schools: Expectations, reality, and the

future. Economics of Education Review, 31, 209-212. Retrieved from

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2011.10.001

http://www.qp.alberta.ca/documents/Regs/2002_212.pdf

http://oldfraser.lexi.net/publications/books/market_schools/7_bosetti.pdf

https://uottawa.blackboard.com/bbcswebdav/pid-346420-dt-content-rid-1379934_1/xid-1379934_1

http://education.alberta.ca/media/6673323/charterschoolregulationchangeqa.pdf

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2011.10.001


Tupper, J. & Cappello, M. (2010). Locating citizenship: Curriculum, social class and the 'good'

citizen. Theory and Research in Social Education, 38(3), 298-327. doi

10.1080/00933104.2010.10473430

Wagner, M. (1999). Charter schools in Alberta: Change or continuity in progressive conservative

education policy? The Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 45(1), 52-66. ISSN

0002-4805

Werner, W. (2002). Reading authorship into texts. Theory and Research in Social Education,

28(2), 193-219. doi 10.1080/00933104.2000.10505904

Van Dijk, T. A., (1993). Principles of critical discourse analysis. Discourse & Society, 4(2), 249-

283. doi: 10.1177/0957926593004002006



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