Department of Earth and Planetary Science, andUniversity of California Museum of Paleontology

University of California, Berkeley2019

by

The ChronoZoom Time Atlas of

Earth History and Big History

Walter Álvarez • Roland Saekow • David H. Shimabukuro

Mark A. Richards • Alexis Ajello

© Walter Álvarez, 2019

Introduction to The ChronoZoom Time Atlas of Earth History and Big History

scientific

Journal of Big History

concept

anyone

110100110100110100110

13.8 10 5 0

thousandyears ago

(ka) years ago

millionyears ago

(Ma)

billionyears ago

(Ga)

billion years ago (Ga)

A logarithmic scale is badly distorted (it looks like all Cosmic historybefore Earth formed was briefer than from Columbus to World War II), and there can be no zero on the horizontal scale.

Neither a linear scale nor a logarithmic scale is satisfactory for portraying all of history. Thesolution adopted in ChronoZoom is to use 12 linear time lines, each covering about 10% of the previous one, as shown in this index. A problem is that details are available only for recent times.

On a linear scale, human history, whether written history or genus Homo, is reduced to invisibility, and most of the space is taken up bypre-Earth Cosmic history, for which little information is availble.

Cosmic history

Earth history

Life history

Th

e B

ig B

an

g

(beg

inni

ng o

f tim

e)

“No

w”

( =

2000

A.D

.)

Human history (thickness greatly exaggerated)

no timebefore

this

Ori

gin

of

the

Un

ive

rse

(1

3.8

Ga

)

Form

ati

on

of

the

Ea

rth

(4

.56

7 G

a)

Ch

icxu

lub

imp

act

a

nd

ma

ss e

xti

nct

ion

(6

6 M

a)

Hu

ma

ns

ou

t o

fA

fric

a (

~ 6

0 k

a)

Glo

ba

l re

con

ne

ctio

no

f H

um

an

ity

(14

92

)

En

d o

f Wo

rld

Wa

r II

(1

94

5 )

A pr

oble

m: t

here

is n

o ze

ro(=

”Now

”) o

n a

log

scal

e

110100110100110100110

thousandyears ago

(ka) years ago

millionyears ago

(Ma)

billionyears ago

(Ga)

1 Cosmos (13.8 Ga to now)

Panels

2 Earth and Life (4.567 Ga to now)

0 All Big Bang- and Big History (Log plot)

3 Phanerozoic – Abundant fossils (541 Ma to now)

4 Cenozoic – Age of mammals (66 Ma to now)

5 Plio-Pleisto – Rise of humanity (5.33 Ma to now)

6 Brunhes normal and Ice age (780 ka to now)

7 Out of Africa (60 ka to now)

8 Civilization and writing (3500 B.C. to now)

9 Global reconnection (1400 A.D. to now)

10 Post World War II (1945 to now)

11 Sunset of the Millenium (1995 to now)

12 Millennium’s end (1999.5 to now)Humanity

Earth

CosmosLiterate

humanity

Pre-literate

humanity

Earth

and

Life

ChronoZoom Graphical Index (logarithmic)All history on a linear scale

All history on a logarithmic scale

13.8 Ga

logarithmic scale

4.567 Ga

541 Ma

66 Ma

5.33 Ma

780 ka

60 ka

3500 B.C.

1400 A.D.

1945

1995

1999.5

A.D. = C.E.

B.C. = B.C.E.

© 2019 Walter Álvarez

Panel 0: Big-Bang and Cosmos, on a logarithmic time scale (13.8 Ga to now)

(A)

(B)(C)

most

(D)

(E)

(F)

see

(D)

(G)

(H)

(I)

(J)

(K)

(L)(M)

Re

(N)(O)

Inflation

The convex-upward curvature at the right end of this plot of Cosmic expansion at first sug-gests that expansion accelerated during the Photon epoch of the Big Bang and during the Dark Age, but this is an artifact produced by the log scale of time. After inflation, expansion decelerated, due to the pull of gravity, until ac-celeration due to dark energy began to take effect much later, as shown in the Cosmic-his-tory panel (B-1).

Cosmic expansion

Ra

diu

s of th

e o

bse

rved

Un

iverse

(m)

1020

100

10-20

10-40

10-60

10-20 10510-510-1010-1510-2510-3010-3510-40 10-20 1 1010 1015

380,000 yr

20 min

~100 Myr

Today

240,000 yr

10-6 sec

10-12 sec

~10-36 sec

3 min

1 sec

“Re

”-com

bin

atio

n: e

lectro

ns a

re ca

ptu

red

b

y H a

nd

He

nu

clei to

form

ne

utra

l ato

ms

Da

rk ag

eE

missio

n o

f CM

B(C

osm

ic Micro

wa

ve

Ba

ckgro

un

dra

dia

tion

)

No

thin

g in

Un

iverse

e

mits lig

ht

(con

tinu

ing

to p

rese

nt):

Sta

rs con

tinu

ally fo

rmin

g,

ga

laxie

s form

an

d e

volve

S

tarry (S

tellife

rou

s) Ep

och

Grandunification

epoch

Nu

cleo

synth

esis (H

eliu

m n

ucle

i form

ed

)

Hadronepoch

Quarkepoch

Lep

ton

ep

och

Electroweak epoch

Photonepoch

Ele

ctron

s an

d re

late

dp

article

s form

ed

Protons, neutrons, and related particles formed

First matter formed

Plasma: H and He nuclei in a sea of unattached electrons

The weak nuclear forceand the electro- magnetic force are unified; the strong nuclear force and gravity are separate.Strong and

weak nuclear forces and the electromagnet-ic force are uni-fied; gravitional force is sepa-rate.

10-43 sec:Planck time(beginning ofthe smoothtime we arefamiliar with)

4.3

6 x 1

01

7 sec =

13

.8 G

yr

Seconds after “the Beginning”

Years after “the Beginning”1 yr 1 kyrkyr = thousand (103) years

Myr = million (106) years

Gyr = billion (109) years

1 Myr 1 Gyr

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

HI

J AK

L M

N

O

© Walter Álvarez, 2019

A fundamentalparadox:

PANEL 0: BIG BANG AND COSMOS, on a logarithmic time scale

• On a linear time scale, the Big Bang, to the end of the Lepton epoch (3 minutes), is a trivial fraction of Cosmic history.

• On a log time scale like this, the Big Bang, with 45 orders of magnitude, is most of Cosmic history!

Panel 1: Cosmos (13.8 Ga to now)

see

(A)

(B)

accelerating

(C)

(D)

(E)

(F)

exactly

(G)

2 Ga4 Ga6 Ga8 Ga10 Ga12 Ga now

12 Ga 10 Ga11 Ga 8 Ga9 Ga 7 Ga 6 Ga 5 Ga

12 Ga 10 Ga 8 Ga 6 Ga 4 Ga 2 Ga now

“Dark Age” — no stars

Oldest known object (as of 2016): Galaxy GN-z11, 13.4 Ga

Formation maximum of quasars(supermassive black holes)

Galactic collisions Galactic collisions Galactic collisions

Fraction of spiral galaxies with central bars (like the Milky Way, unlike Andromeda) increases over the last 7 Gyr

Cosmic events Sun, Earth, andSolar System

form 4.567 GaMilky Way

Possible reorganization of solar system orbits, producing LHB(Late Heavy Bombardment)

Age vs. redshift

The redshift of light coming from distant objects can be measured ...

... but the age of distant objects must be calculated from their redshift2

4

6

After inflation, the expansion

of the Universe either......first decelerated, then accelerated...

... or has always decelerated.

Re

dsh

ift

Dark energy and the accelerating expansion of the Universe

0.001

~0.0001

0.01 0.1

Relative brightness of supernovae

1.0

0.5

1.52.0

3.0

00.0

Metallicity (Fe/H) of the Sun

Possible gap in M.W. (Milky Way) star formation

M.W. Disk starsuncertainty

Metallicity 10% of the Sun

Metallicity 1% of the Sun

Metallicity 0.1% of the Sun

100

10-1

10-2

10-3

Me

talli

city

Metallicity is defined as the ratio of the number of atoms of Fe to atoms of H in a star (determined spectroscopically) divided by the same ratio in the Sun (defined as 1). Metallicity is shown here on a log plot.

M.W. Halostars

Metallicity The Sun

PANEL 1: COSMOS (13.8 Ga to now)

Th

e B

ig B

an

g –

no

thin

g “

be

fore

” th

is (

13

.8 G

a)

Ga = billion years ago © Walter Álvarez, 2019

Panel 0 Panel 2

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

Panel 2: Earth and Life (4,567 Ma to now)

(A)

(B)

(C) (D)

(E)

(F)

(G)

(H)

(I)

Replace supercontinent bars with those from Evans et al., 2016, Fig. 1

Hadean Archean Proterozoic PhanerozoicEons

6,000

4,0

00

2,0

00

0

Ea

rth

ra

diu

s (k

m)

Liquid iron-nickel outer coreLiquid iron-nickel core

uncertainty

Solid Fe-Niinner core

Continental crustRocky silicate mantle

Whole-Earth Evolution

Moon-forming impact

Accretion

Continental crust Supercontinents:(Evans et al., 2016, GSL Sp. Pub. 424)

Zircon ages in orogenic granitoids and detrital zircons

Kenorland? Rodinia PangeaGondwanaNuna

Pannotia?

Laurussia

Snowball-Earth episodes (global glaciations) Marinoan (0.635 Ga) Sturtian (0.710 Ga) ** *

Makganyene (~2.25 Ga)

4 Ga 3 Ga 2 Ga 1 Ga

The very long ... ...quiet times The latest billion years`:COMPLEX LIFE

The earliest billion years:VERY HOT EARTH EARTH

0

100

200

800

400

0

Cra

ter

dia

me

ter

(km

)A

ge

s/3

0 M

yr

Late

He

av

yB

om

ba

rd-

me

nt

(?)Moon-forming

impactAccretion

of Earth

Vre

de

fort

Su

db

ury

Acr

am

anArchean impact-spherule layers

(source craters not known)

Impacts on Earth

Origin of Earth and Solar System at 4,567 Ma

Eubacteria

Archaea

(cells with nucleus andorganelles such as

mitochondria)

endosymbiosis leading

to mitochondria

Plants

(animals + fungi)

Fungi

Eumetazoa + Choanoflagellates*

Porifera (sponges)

(animals with tissues organized into germ layers)

EumetazoaProtostomata (arthropods, molluscs,

and relatives)

Deuterostomata(vertebrates, echinoderms, and relatives)

Radiata (corals, jellyfish)

(three germ layers, bilateral symmetry)Bilateria

Ambulacria (echinoderms, hemichordates)

Chordates(animals with a notochord, the embryological precursor of the vertebral column)

84

2 M

a

91

0 M

a

10

36

Ma

12

37

Ma

13

68

Ma

Vertebrates (animals with backbones or spinal columns)

77

4 M

a

Cephalochordates, Urochordates

To Homo sapiens

LUCA

(Last Universal Common Ancestor) 1

2

0 3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

15

94

Ma

* There is an inconsistency in Timetree of Life, p. 117 vs. 224: page 117 shows Animal-Choanoflagellate split at 1020 Ma; page 224 shows the (subsequent) Porifera-Eumetazoa split as 1237 Ma.

Opistokonts

Eukaryotes

Evolutionary relationships based on DNA, from Hedges and Kumar, 2009, The Timetree of Life

No fossils Chemical fossils only [[??]] Fossils small and rare, except for stromatolites L arge fossils

A

B

C

D

E

F

H

I

Stage 1 Stage 2Deposition of sedimentary iron formations (Bekker et al., 2010)

Stage 3 Stage 4

Stage 50

10

20

30

Ox

yge

n %

of

atm

osp

he

re

Oxygen( Holland2006)

G

PANEL 2: EARTH and LIFE (4.567 Ga to now)

LIFE on EARTH

Su

n, E

art

h, S

ola

r S

yste

m f

orm

ed

(4.5

67

Ga

)

3 Ga4 Ga Ga = billion years ago

2 Ga 1 Ga now© Walter Álvarez, 2019

Panel 3

Panel 3: Phanerozoic (541 Ma to now)

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

(E)

(F)

(G)

(H)

500 Ma 400 Ma 300 Ma 200 Ma 100 Ma

Silurian Neo-genePaleogeneCretaceousPermianCarboniferousDevonianOrdovicianCambrian JurassicTriassic

CenozoicMesozoicPaleozoic

Periods

Eras

OS F F CW PT+ T J KT = K-PgBioevents GOBE First

landplants

Firstland

animalsCoal forestsCoal forests

Dinosaurs dominate the land fauna until the KPg extinction

Mammals dominateGreatest extinction

Popigai

Deccan Traps(India)

Siberian Traps(Russia)

Emeishan Traps(China)

Viluy Traps(Siberia)

Paraná-Etendeka(S. America, Africa)

Central Atlantic = CAMP(U.S., S. America, Africa)

Ordovician impact storm ca. 462 Ma

Manicouagan 214±1 Ma, 85 km

Morokweng145±0.8 Ma, 70 km

35.7±0.2 Ma 90 km

PopigaiChicxulub66 Ma, 150 kmMain impact eventsOrdovician impact storm

ca. 462 MaManicouagan

214±1 Ma, 85 kmMorokweng

145±0.8 Ma, 70 kmChicxulub

66 Ma, 150 km Popigai*

35.7±0.2 Ma, 90 km*PopigaiMain Impact Events

Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs)?

Continents and Mountains

Gondwana, the great southern continent, was already in existence when the Phanerozoic began, having formed by collision of smaller continents during the Pan-African orogeny, about 700-550 Ma. Gondwana lasted until about 320 Ma. Gondwana, the great southern continent, was already in existence when the Phanerozoic began, having formed by collision of smaller continents during the Pan-African event, about 700-550 Ma. Gondwana lasted until about 320 Ma.

Two small northern continents – Baltica, and Laurentia (North America + Greenland) collided about 420 Ma to form theCaledonide Mountains and the amalgamated continent of Laurussia, staying separate from Gondwana until about 320 Ma.

A complex collisionbetween Gondwana,Laurussia, & Siberia,about 320-290 Ma,produced Pangea & the Appalachian-Variscan Mountains.

Pangea lasted about 100 million years, with complex motionsin the Tethys oceanic embayment of the eastern side of thesupercontinent. The first cracks in Pangea appeared between Africa and North America about 200 Ma, and fragmentation of Pangea was well   under way by 180 Ma.

Progressive fragmentation of Pangea, the most recent supercontinent, has continued since 180 Ma,producing the familiar continents of today, generating the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, eliminating the Tethys, and reducing the great Panthalassa Ocean that surrounded Pangea to the present Pacific Ocean.Collisions of Africa and India with Asia have built the mountains of the Mediterranean region, including the Alps, as well as the great chain of the Himalayas.

120 Ma150 Ma170 Ma200 Ma220 Ma240 Ma260 Ma280 Ma300 Ma340 Ma370 Ma400 Ma430 Ma450 Ma470 Ma500 Ma540 Ma 105 Ma 90 Ma 65 Ma 50 Ma 35 Ma 20 Ma120 Ma120 Ma120 Ma120 Ma150 Ma170 Ma200 Ma220 Ma240 Ma260 Ma280 Ma300 Ma340 Ma370 Ma400 Ma430 Ma450 Ma470 Ma500 Ma540 Ma 105 Ma 90 Ma 65 Ma 50 Ma 35 Ma 20 Ma120 Ma120 Ma120 Ma

These realistic-looking paleocontinental reconstruction maps are by Ronald C. Blakey, University of Northern Arizona, (http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/mollglobe.html)

Continent labels added to the Blakey maps: af=Africa; sa=South America; na=North America; eu=Europe; as= Asia; ch=China; in=India; au=Australia; an=Antarctica

na

saaf

eu

as

ch

au

an

in

na

saaf

eu

as

ch

au

an

in

na

sa af

eu

as

ch

au

an

in

na

sa af

eu

as

ch

au

an

in

na

sa af

eu

as

ch

au

an

in

na

sa af

eu

as

ch

au

an

in

na

sa af

eu

as

ch

au

an

in

na

sa af

eu

as

ch

auan

in

na

saaf

eu

as

ch

auan

in

na

sa

af

eu

as

ch

auan

in

NeotethysPangea

na

sa

af

eu

as

ch

auan

Neotethys

Pangea

Appalachiansna

sa

af

eu

as

au

an

Paleotethys

Pangea

Pangea

Appalachians

na

sa af

eu

as

auan

Paleotethys

NeotethysPangea

Pangea

Appalachians

na

saaf

eu

as

auan

Paleotethys

Pangea

Pangea

Appalachiansna

sa af

eu

au

an

Paleotethysna

sa af

eu

Siberia

au

an

Paleotethys

Gondwana

AppalachiansLaurussia

Siberia

Paleoteth

ys

Gondwana

Laurussia

Rheic Ocean

Panthalassa Ocean

Panthalassa OceanSiberia

Gondwana

Old Red Continent =Laurussia

RheicOcean

Panthalassa OceanPrototethys Ocean Panthalassa Ocean

Panthalassa Ocean

Panthalassa Ocean Panthalassa Ocean Panthalassa Ocean Panthalassa

Ocean

Panthalassa Ocean Panthalassa Ocean Panthalassa Ocean

Panthalassa Ocean Panthalassa Ocean

Panthalassa Ocean

Baltica

Avalonia Rheic Ocean

Panthalassa Ocean

Siberia

Gondwana

Gondwana

Laurentia Baltica

Rheic Ocean

Panthalassa Ocean

Siberia

Gondwana

Gondwana

Laurentia

Iapetus Ocea

n

Baltica Rheic Ocean

Panthalassa Ocean

Siberia

Gondwana

Gondwana

Laurentia

Iapetus Ocean

Baltica

Panthalassa Ocean

Siberia

Gondwana

GondwanaLaurentia

Iapetus Ocea

n

Pangea

Pangea

Neotethys

Panthalassa Ocean

Baltica

SiberiaGondwana

GondwanaLaurentia

Panthalassa Ocean

Neotethys Neotethys NeotethysNeotethys Neotethys

Neotethys

IndianOcean

IndianOcean

IndianOcean

Indian Ocean

as

HotColdGlacial timesTemperature

Modified after a chart of Phanerozoic Climate Change by Robert Rohde -2

0

2

δ1

8O

(p

er

mil)

2000

1000

0Number of genera of marine fossil animals

Ge

ne

raSepkoski (1997)KPg

TJCW PTFFOS

GOBE = Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event

Biodiversity * * *** *Mass extinctions

52

7 M

a

Osteichthyes (bony fishes)

Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes, e.g., sharks, rays)

45

5 M

a

36

1 M

a

43

0 M

a

Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes)

(lobe-finned fishes)

Sarcopterygii

Actinista; Dipnoi (Coelacanths and relatives; lungfish)

(four-legged vertebrates)Tetrapods 3

24

.5 M

a

Amphibia (Frogs, toads, salamanders, etc.)

(Tetrapods with terrestrially-adapted eggs) Amniotes 2

20

.2 M

a

(land vertebrates with sweat glands, hair, milk)Mammals

Reptiles, dinosaurs, birds

17

6.1

Ma

Prototheria(egg-laying mammals, including platypus and extinct relatives)

(mammals giving birth to young with no shelled egg; external ears)Theria 1

04

.7 M

a

Metatheria (marsupials and extinct relatives)

(placental mammals)Eutheria 9

7.4

Ma

Atlantogenata (mammals that originated and radiated in South America and Africa)

Boreoeutheria

Laurasiatheria + Euarchontoglires

(Supraprimates = primates + rodents + rabbits)

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19 Laurasiatheria (bats, hoofed mammals, carnivores, whales)

20

91

.0 M

a

21

Glires (rodents, rabbits, hares)

89

.1 M

a

Scadentia (tree shrews)

22

(primates, extinct Plesiodapiformes, tree shrews, colugos)

Euarchonta

Primates; Dermoptera

(colugos)

Dermoptera(colugos, or flying lemurs)

Primates

86

.2 M

a

23

(dry-nosed primates)Haplorrhini

24

Strepsirrhini (wet-nosed primates)

Tarsiers77

.5 M

a 71

.1 M

a

Platyrrhini; Catarrhini (New-World monkeys; Old-World monkeys and apes)

25

Catarrhini

Platyrrhini (New-World monkeys)

26 44

.2 M

a

Cercopithecidae (Old-World monkeys)

Hominoidea (apes)

27 29

.6 M

a

Hylobatidae (lesser apes, or gibbons)

(greater apes and humans)Hominidae

Homininae (gorillas, chimps, humans)

28

29 14 M

a

Orangutans

Gorillas

Hominini (chimps, humans)

30

8 Ma

Chimps

31 6 Ma

Humans andextinct relatives

(Old -World monkeys and apes)

Euarchontoglires

18

.8 M

a

Evolutionary relationships based on DNA from Hedges and Kumar, 2009, The Timetree of Life

Humans and extinct relatives

Genetic relationships derived from DNAstudies, like those shown here, are morereliable than can be inferred from fossils.However the ages of the splits are poorlyconstrained, and DNA is not available forextinct species, for which fossils providethe only information (see “Biodiversity”).

F

A

B

C

D

E

G

H

PANEL 3: PHANEROZOIC – Abundant fossils (541 Ma to now)

LIFE

EARTH

Ap

pe

ara

nce

of

ha

rd s

he

lls s

tart

s th

e r

ich

fo

ssil

reco

rd

(5

41

Ma

)

500 Ma 400 Ma 300 Ma 200 Ma 100 Ma Ma = million years ago

now© Walter Álvarez, 2019

Panel 4

Panel 4: Cenozoic (66 Ma to now)

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

(E)Homo sapiens

(F)

(G)

Homo

60 Ma 50 Ma 40 Ma 30 Ma 20 Ma 10 Ma

C29

C28

C27

C26

C25

C24

C23

C22

C21

C20

C19

C18

C17

C16

C15

C13

C12

C11

C10

C9 C8

C7A

C7

C6C

C6B

C6AA

C6A

C6

C5E

C5D

C5C

C5B

C5A

D

C5A

C

C5AB

C5AA

C5A

C5

C4A

C4

C3B

C3A

C3

C2A

C2 C1

White =reversed

Black =normalPolarity

chrons

Oligocene Miocene

Plio-cene

Pleist-oceneEocene

Danian Ypresian Lutetian Rupelian Chattian Burdigalian TortonianSelan-dian

Than-etian

Barton-ian

Priabon-ian

Aqui-tanian

Lan-ghian

Mes-sinian

Serra-vallian

Paleocene

Paleogene NeogenePeriod

Epoch

Age/stage

India-Asia collisioninitiates the growth

of the Himalayas Deformation of the Himalayas and Tibet continues to present time

Geological events

Catastrophic refilling

Dryingup

Mediterranean Sea

Cenozoic temperatures peaked in the Eocene, then declined to glacial levels today, and a major geological mys-tery is why this decline took place. Geological events may be responsi-ble, including the rise of

regions like Tibet and the Andes to very high elevation, and continen-tal movements that allowed ocean circula-tion to isolate Antarcti-ca, keeping warm water away, and leading to the formation of its ice

sheets. Unfortunately none of these events can presently be dated with the precision necessary to test this idea. The deformations within mountain belts can be dated, but dating the uplift of the

mountains is more difficult. Opening or closing of oceanic passages should be reflected in the deep-sea sediments, but this is complicated in practice. The reason for the ice age is still unsolved.

Antarctic glaciation

N. hemisphere glaciation

Bioevents Appearance of open, grass-dominated habitats

In contrast to the DNA-based time tree above, fossil evidence places most of the mammal divergence in the Paleocene and Eocene, shortly after the KPg impact and extinction at 66 Ma.

(gradients show uncertainties;arrows show limits)

S. America

N. America

W. Eurasia

After Strömberg et al., 2013, Nature Communications, 4:1478

Ge

nu

sH

omo

Data from Smith et al., 2010, Science, v. 330, p. 1216

Land-mammal maximum weight

0 kg

10,000

20,000

Primates

Platyrrhini; Catarrhini (New-World monkeys; Old-World monkeys and apes)

Catarrhini

Platyrrhini (New-World monkeys)

26 44

.2 M

a

Cercopithecidae (Old-World monkeys)

Hominoidea (apes)

27 29

.6 M

a

Hylobatidae (lesser apes, or gibbons)

(greater apes and humans)

Hominidae Homininae(gorillas, chimps, humans)

2829 1

4 M

a

OrangutansGorillas

Hominini(chimps, humans)

30 8 M

a

Chimps31

6 M

a

(Old -World monkeys and apes) 18

.8 M

a

Humans and extinct relativesEvolutionary relationships based on DNA

Hedges and Kumar, 2009, The Timetree of Life

In this DNA-based time tree, the original splits within the mammals take place inthe middle Cretaceous; fossil evidence places most of these splits in the Paleocene

65 Ma 50 Ma 35 Mana

sa af

eu

as

ch

au

an

in

na

sa af

eu

as

ch

au

an

in

na

sa af

eu

as

ch

au

an

in

Neotethys

IndianOcean

IndianOcean

IndianOcean

20 Mana

sa af

eu

as

ch

au

an

in

Indian Ocean

Hot

Cold

Modified after a chart by E.L. Grossman in GTS 2012, p. 190

Mid-Mioceneclimatic optimum

Mio-Pliocene coolingEarly Eocene

climatic optimum Ice Age

0

10

20

Iso

top

ic T

em

p °

C

Temperature

Hot

PANEL 4: CENOZOIC – Age of Mammals (66 Ma to now)

LIFE

EARTH

50 Ma60 Ma 30 Ma40 Ma Ma = million years ago

20 Ma 10 Ma now

Ch

icxu

lub

imp

act

an

d m

ass

ex

tin

ctio

n

(6

6 M

a)

© Walter Álvarez, 2019

Panel 5

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

Panel 5: Pliocene-Pleistocene (5.33 Ma to now)

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

Australopithecus afarensis

Ardipithecus ramidus

(E)

Homo erectus

Homo sapiens

(F)

5 Ma 4 Ma 3 Ma 2 Ma 1 Ma

PANEL 5: PLIOCENE-PLEISTOCENE – Rise of Humanity (5.33 Ma to now)

EARLY HUMANS

EARTH

Flo

od

ing

of

de

sicc

ate

d M

ed

ite

rra

ne

an

(5

.33

Ma

)

5 Ma 3 Ma4 Ma Ma = million years ago

2 Ma 1 Ma now

(

© Walter Álvarez, 2019

Panel 6

Ardipithecus ramidus. Described by Tim White and many co-authors in Science, 2 Oct 2009

Australopithecus afarensis. Named by Johanson and White, Science, 26 Jan 1979.

“Lucy,”3.2 Ma “Ardi,”

4.4 Ma

Australopithecus anamensis Australopithecus afarensisArdipithecus ramidus

Australopithecusgarhi

Australopithecus africanus

Australopithecus aethiopicus Australopithecus boisei

Australopithecusrobustus

Australopithecuscrassidens

Homo habilisHomo ergaster

Homo erectus Homo rhodesiensis

Homo floresiensis

Homo sapiens

Homoneanderthalensis

Homo heidelbergensis

Hominid Phylogeny

Hominid phylogeny is extremely contro-versial. This version is from Tim White (2009) Cold Spring Harbor Symposium, v. 54.

Hominid DomicileAll Hominids live in Africa

Early humans in Eurasia

H. sapiens in Eurasia, then global First Out-of-Africa migration,

H. erectus, ~1.8-1.7 Ma

Second Out-of-Africa migration, H. sapiens, ~1.8-1.7 Ma

All human species extinct except H. sapiens

Use of Fire and Tools Newly-discovered stonetools at Lomekwi-3 (Kenya)

dating from ~ 3.3 Ma(Harmand et al., Nature, 2015)

Early wooden toolswould not be preservedin archaeological sites

Interval One:No established tool evidence as of 2010

Interval Two:Olduwan artifacts

Interval Three:Olduwan artifacts

Interval Four:Olduwan and earlyAcheulian artifacts

Intervals Six and Seven:See Panel A-5

Interval Five:Acheuian tools

Toth and Schick, 2010, in The Human Brian Evolving: Stone-Age Institute Publication Series no. 4.

It is commonly assumed that humans living in ice-age Eurasia must have used fire, but evidence is lacking.

Roebroeks & Villa, 2011, PNAS, v. 108, no. 13, p. 5209.

Warm

41-kyr glacial cycles

100-kyr glacial cycles

The benthic stack of Lisiecki and Raymo (2005) Cold

1

3

5

79111315171921

23

25

2729

31

33353739414345

47495153

55575961

6365 61

67697173

7577

7179

818385

87899193959799101103105107

2.5

3.5

4.5

5.5

δ1

8O

(‰

)

Chron C1Chron C2Chron C2AChron C3

BrunhesGauss Matuyama

JaramilloCobb Mtn.

Gilbert

Normal polarity Bar 1 shows the original four named polarity intervals.

Bar 1

Bar 2

Bar 3

Bar 4

Bars 2 and 3 show the briefer polarity intervals discovered later.Bar 4 shows the current “C” (= chron) numbers that continue back to C33 (83.6 Ma).

Geomagnetic polarity

Continues to 6.033 Ma

OlduvaiKaenaCochitiNunivakSidufjallThvera ReunionMammoth

Reversed polarity

Period

Epoch

Age/stage

NeogenePliocene

Zanclean Piacenzian Gelasian Calabrian

Tarantian

Ionian

QuaternaryPleistocene

Holocene

A

B

C

D

E

F

Panel 6: Brunhes Normal and Ice Age (780 ka to now)

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

Homo sapiensHomo (E)

H. antecessor H. rhodesiensis

Homo sapiens

(F)

H. erectus

H. erectus

H. sapiens

(G)

Homo erectus

H. erectus

7 00 ka 6 00 ka 5 00 ka 4 00 ka 3 00 ka 2 00 ka 1 00 ka

PANEL 6: BRUNHES NORMAL and ICE AGE (780 ka to now)

HUMANITY

EARTH

Sta

rt o

f B

run

he

s n

orm

al m

ag

ne

tic

po

lari

ty c

hro

n (

78

0 k

a)

© Walter Álvarez, 2019

Panel 7

ka = thousand years ago500 ka600 ka700 ka 300 ka400 ka 200 ka 100 ka now

Brunhes normal magnetic polarity chron (780 ka to present)Magnetic polarity

Warm Lisiecki and Raymo (2005)

MIS (Marine isotope stage )

Glaciation2.5

3.5

4.5

5.5

1

3

57

9

111315

17

1816 14 12 10 8 6 4 2

19

δ1

8O

(p

er

mil

)

Cold

Second Out-of-Africa migration,through Sinai and/or the Gate of Grief,

involving Homo sapiensFirst Out-of-Africa migration, involving Homo erectus, began about 1.8-1.7 Ma. As a result, humans lived all over Eurasia through several ice ages.

ca. 60 ka

?

Human migrations

Human family tree

Homo heidelbergensisHomo erectus (or ergaster)Begins about 1.9 Ma

Homo sapiensNeanderthalsRightmire, G. P., 2007, Later Middle Pleistocene Homo, in Henke, H. C. W. et al.,

eds., Handbook of Paleoanthropology: Berlin, Springer-Verlag, p. 1695-1715.

1.92 1.47

20

Fire

use

*

15

10

5

MIS 3, 20.91

0.530.480.0

MIS >11*Fire-use units: Number of sites withgood evidence of fire per 10 kyr(Roebroeks & Villa, 2011, Fig. 2)

MIS 11-9 Fire use MIS 8 MIS 7 MIS 6 MIS 5, 5.25

MIS 4, 10.0

Tools and fire use

Middle Paleolithic stone toolsEarly Paleolithic stone tools(back to at least 2.6 Ma) Late Paleolithic stone tools

Toth, N., and Schick, K., 2007, Overview of Paleolithic archeology, in Henke et al., eds., Handbook of Paleoanthropology: Berlin, Springer-Verlag, p. 1943-1963.

Geologic events Toba volcanosuper-eruption

(74 ka) – possiblebottleneck in

human evolution

Barringerimpact crater, AZ (49 ka) 1.18 km diam

Term. I14 ka

Term. II130 ka

Term. III243 ka

Term. IV337 ka

Term. V424 ka

Term. VI533 ka

Term. VII621 ka

Lisiecki and Raymo,2005, Table 3:

Glacial terminations

Period

Epoch

Age/stage TarantianIonian

QuaternaryMiddle Pleistocene

GTS 2012

Holocene

Late Pleistocene

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

Panel 7: Homo sapiens out of Africa (ca. 60 ka to now)

(A)

(B)

(C)

Homo sapiens

(D)

Homo floresiensis

Homo

H. floresiensis

H. sapiens

Homo erectus Homo sapiens

H. sapiens

(E)H. sapiens

H. floresiensis

(F)

(G)

50 ka 40 ka 30 ka 20 ka 10 ka

Warm

Cold

Temperature-30

-35

-40

-45

18Dansgaard-Oeschger events (numbered)

Greenland ice core GISP-2: Stuiver & Grootes (2000)

14151617 13 12 11 10 9 7 6 5 4 3 2

Younger Dryas (cold)

Bølling-Allerød (warm)

Holocene = Postglacial (warm)

δ1

8O

(‰

)

PANEL 7: H. sapiens OUT OF AFRICA (60 ka to now)

HUMANITY

EARTH

Hom

o sa

pien

s mig

rati

on

ou

t o

f A

fric

a

(ca

. 60

ka

?)

ka = thousand years ago © Walter Álvarez, 2019

Panel 8

Geologic events

Heinrich events, H1-H6, are large accumulations of ice-rafted debris in the North Atlantic sediments. (Hemming, 2004)

Spokane (Missoula) Floods: dozens of catastrophic floods released when glacial Lake Missoula floated its ice dam off the bottom of the Clark Fork valley.

Very rapid deglaciation ends the Pleistocene ice age.

H6~60 ka

H545 ka

H438 ka

H3~31 ka

H224 ka

21.4 ka 13.4 ka

H116.8 ka

Period

Epoch

Age/stage Tarantian

Quaternary

HoloceneLate Pleistocene

GTS 2012

60 ka 30 ka40 ka 20 ka 10 ka now50 ka

Tools and fire

Intentional human use of fire is ubiquitous

Middle Paleolithic stone tools

Late Paleolithic stone tools Bronze Age and Iron Age

Agriculture

Human migrations

Australia? Eurasia? Siberia?

?

India? Alaska Americas

HoloceneLateGlacial

Late GlacialMaximumPre- Late Glacial Maximum (LGM)

Posth et al., 2016, Curr. Biol.Europe

Post-LGM

PacificArabia?

Human species

Anatomically modern Homo sapiens

Neanderthals extinct ~40 ka

Homo floresiensis (”hobbits”) perhaps extinct by ~50 ka

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

Panel B-8: Civilization and writing (3500 BC to now)

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

(E)

15 00 5 00 5 00 10 00 15 00BC AD10 0020 0025 0030 00

PANEL 8: LAST 5,500 YEARS – civilization and writing (3,500 BC to now)

Ap

pro

xim

ate

da

te o

f th

e e

arl

iest

wri

tin

g

(3

,50

0 B

C =

5.5

ka

)

Panel 9

© Walter Álvarez, 2019

(For population since 1500, see Panel 9)

ka = thousandyears ago

3,000 BC 1,000 BC2,000 BC BC - AD 1,000 AD now5 ka 3 ka4 ka 2 ka 1 ka

300

400

200

100

0

Wo

rld

po

pu

lati

on

(m

illio

ns)

500

Early writing

Appearance of cuneiform writing in Sumer (2700-2500 BC) Protoliterate period in Mesopotamia (35th to 32nd centuries)

Earliest (questionable) date on hieroglyphics in Egypt (ca. 3200 BC) Undeciphered writing from Harappa, in the Indus Valley (ca. 3000 BC)

Oldest Chinese script, on oracle bones (ca. 1200-1050 BC) Oldest writing in Mesoamerica (early first millenium BC)

Vesuvius (79 AD)destroyed Pompeiiand Herculaneum

Krakatoa (1883 AD) >30,000 dead

Tambora (1815 AD) >17,000 dead“Year without a summer” (1816)

Thera (Santorini) eruption mayhave ended Minoan civilization

Archaeological age~1500 BC

Radiocarbon age1600-1627 BC * *

*

*

*

The Black Death1347-1353

The Plagueof Athens430 BC

Great Drought in SW U.S.destroys Anasazi, Hohokam

towns (1276-1279)

The Plagueof Justinian541-542

*

* *

Volcanic eruptions, Plagues, Population

*

Near-East Bronze age (ca. 3300 BC - 1200 BC)

Dramatic end of the Near-East Bronze Age (ca. 1200 BC) mayhave been caused by advances in warfare, or by earthquakes

Near-East Iron Age (ca. 1200 BC - now)Chalco-lithic

Tool materials

A

B

C

E

D

Panel 9: Global reconnection (1400 to 2000 AD)

(A)

Homo sapiens

(B)

(C)

(D)

(E)(F)

Homo sapiens

(G)

15 00 16 00 17 00 18 00 19 00

PANEL 9: LAST 600 YEARS – Global reconnection (1400 to 2000 AD)

Ap

pro

xim

ate

be

gin

nin

g o

f g

lob

al e

xplo

rati

on

(

14

00

AD

= 6

00

a)

1500 AD1400 AD 1700 AD1600 AD 1800 AD 1900 AD 2000 AD© Walter Álvarez, 2019

Panel 10

Wo

rld

po

pu

lati

on

(b

illio

ns)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6Volcanic eruption of Mt. Tambora(Indonesia) 1815.04.10 “Year without a summer” (1816)

Shaanxi Earthquake (China)1556.01.23 ~800,000 fatalities;Deadliest earthquake in history

Lisbon Earthquake (Portugal)1755.11.01 est. 50,000 fatalities;

Destroyed Lisbon, and deeplyaffected Enlightenment philosophy

Outbreaks ofbubonic plague

Volcanic eruption of Krakatoa(Indonesia) 1883.05.20 “Loudest sound in recorded history”

Volcanic eruption of Huaynaputina (Perú) 1600.02.19 Many deaths, and global effects

Volcanic eruptions at Laki (Icelend) 1783-1784 Crop failures throughout Europe

Mila

n

Se

vill

e

Lon

do

n

Vie

nn

a

Ba

ltic

Ma

rse

ille

Flu pandemic, 1918-191920-50 (or 100) million deaths

(cf. ~ 15 million deaths in WW I)

***

*

*

* * * * * *

*

*

World population

Earthquakes, volcanoes, plagues, and population

G

A

B

C

AD

E

F

Panel 10: Cold War/Long Peace (1945 to 2000 AD)

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

(E)

(F)

1/1 ‘50 1/1 ‘60 1/1 ‘70 1/1 ‘80 1/1 ‘90

PANEL 10: LAST 55 YEARS – Cold War/Long Peace (1945 to 2000 AD)

EARTH

En

d o

f Wo

rld

Wa

r II

(19

45

AD

= 5

5 a

)

1 Jan 1950 1 Jan 1960 1 Jan 1970 1 Jan 1980 1 Jan 1990 1 Jan 2000© Walter Álvarez, 2019

Panel 11

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Wo

rld

po

pu

lati

on

(b

illio

ns)

World population

HIV/AIDS global pandemic (1981, continuing)

Great Chilean Earthquake (MW ~9.5) 1960.05.22 Most powerful earthquake ever recorded

Great Alaskan Earthquake (MW ~9.2) 1964.03.27 Most powerful North American earthquake recorded

Eruption of Mount St. Helens (Washington State, U.S.) 1980.05.18

Eruption of Mount Pinatubo (Philippines) 1991.06.15 major atmospheric effects

Eruption of Nevado del Ruíz (Colombia) 1985.11.13 > 20,000 fatalities

Three eruptions of El Chichón (Mexico) March-April 1982 ~2,000 fatalities

*

**

*

Mexico City Earthquake 1985.09.19 5,000-30,000 fatalities *

**

B

D

F

A

CE

Panel 11: Sunset of the Millennium (1995 to 2000 AD)

Dating and periodizing history

years

scientists

chemical

1999

1998199719961995 Jan

Feb

Ma

rA

pr

Ma

yJu

nJu

lA

ug

Se

pO

ctN

ov

De

c

EARTHColossal wildfires in Indonesia: mid-1997 to mid-1998

*Hanshin (Kobe) Earthquake, Japan;Mw = 6.9; ~6,400 fatalities: 1995.01.17

Izmit Earthquake, Turkey; Mw = 7.4; ~17,000 fatalities: 1999.08.17 *

Hurricane Mitch1998.10.23-1998.11.09;>12,000 fatalities

PANEL 11: SUNSET OF THE MILLENNIUM – (1995 AD to now)

5 y

ea

rs b

efo

re t

he

en

d o

f th

e S

eco

nd

Mill

en

ium

(

19

95

AD

= 5

a)

1 Jan 1995 1 Jan 19971 Jan 1996 1 Jan1998 1 Jan 1999 1 Jan 2000© Walter Álvarez, 2019

Panel 12

Panel 12: Millennium’s End (1995.5 to end of the Second Millennium)

The Character of History

can

process

did historical

lawscharacter

PANEL 12: MILLENNIUM’S END – (1999.5 AD to end of the Second Millennium)

6 m

on

ths

be

fore

th

e e

nd

of

the

Se

con

d M

ille

nn

ium

(

0.5

a)

months “ago”0123456 © Walter

Álvarez, 2019

July 1999 Aug 1999 Sept 1999 Oct 1999 Nov 1999 Dec 19991 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 3116 17 18 19 20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 3116 17 18 19 20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 3016 17 18 19 201 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 3116 17 18 19 20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 3016 17 18 19 20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 3116 17 18 19 201 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 3116 17 18 19 20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 3016 17 18 19 20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 3116 17 18 19 20

****Earthquake

Izmit, Turkey M 7.41999.08.17

EarthquakeTaiwan M 7.7

1999.09.20

EarthquakeOaxaca, MexicoM 7.5 1999.09.30

EarthquakeVanuatu M 7.51999.11.26

Flash floods and debris flowsin Vargas State, Venezuela killed

tens of thousands 1999.12.15

*

Hurricane Floyd Cat. 4Bahamas, N. America1999.09.7-17

Hurricane Gert Cat. 4Bermuda, N. America1999.09.11-23

Hurricane Lenny Cat. 4Colombia, Caribbean1999.11.13-23

Hurricane Bret Cat. 4Mexico, Texas

1999.08.18-25

333333333111113333333311113333333331111133333333111113333333331111133133333311111333333111113333333331113333333311111333333333111113333333331111133333333113113333331111

The ChronoZoom Time Atlas of Earth History and Big History – Footnotes and References

Introduction

Big Bang and Cosmos (Panel 0)

Cosmos (Panel 1)

Earth and Life (Panel 2)

in

Phanerozoic (Panel 3)

Cenozoic (Panel 4)

Pliocene-Pleistocene (Panel 5)

in

Ardipithecus ramidus

Bruhnes Normal and Ice Age (Panel 6)

in

Homo sapiens Out of Africa (Panel 7)

in

Homo floresiensis

in

Civilization and Writing (Panel 8)

Last 600 Years – Global Reconnection (Panel 9)

Cold War/Long Peace (Panel 10)

Sunset of the Millenium (Panel 11)

Millenium’s End (Panel 12)