THE CHURCH

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THE CHURCHEtymologyThe word Church (Latin ecclesia, from the Greek Ekklesia, to call out of) means a convocation or an assembly. It designates the assemblies of the people, usually for a religious purpose.

Ekklesia is used frequently in the Greek Old Testament for the assembly of the Chosen People before God, above all for their assembly on Mount Sinai where Israel received the Law and was established by God as his holy people.

The equivalent Greek term Kyriake, from which the English word Church and the German Kirche are derived, means what belongs to the Lord. (CCC, 751)In Christian usage, the word Church designates the liturgical assembly, but also the local community or the whole universal community of believers. These three meanings are inseparable. The Church is the People of God that gathers in the whole world. She exists in local communities and is made real as a liturgical, above all a Eucharistic, assembly. She draws her life from the word and the Body of Christ and so herself becomes Christs Body. (CCC, 752)What do we mean by Church? (CCC, 771) The Church appears as a visible reality. A reality of men gathered for religious goals, hierarchichally organized. She has her own way of life expressed in rites, ceremonies, and sacraments. She has temples, laws, and a wide body of moral and dogmatic doctrines that explicitate and facilitate the contents of the gospel.

These visible realities, however, do not constitute the deep reality of the Church. They only point out to the other realities of the Church: the spiritual and supernatural order. This society is not only a society of men but is, at the same time, a people chosen by God who become members of the mystical body of Christ. The Church, then, is a divine-human reality.

The word Church connotes a reality with two distinct but inter-related aspects. She is a visible assembly and at the same time a spiritual community. Christ instituted only one Church where the divine and human elements come together. Consequently, the Church is that community of the people of God, which serves as the living extension of Christs salvific action in time and history. The ecclesial reality then, should not only be an object of study, but also an object of faith. Although we can analyze her visible aspects, her history, her coherence, we need mostly our faith to understand in depth her supernatural reality.

FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH(CCC, 758-768)Whether the Church was Truly Founded by Christ

The origin of the Church lies in the will of the heavenly Father. The Father sent his Son into the world to give mankind a share in his divine life. And the Holy Spirit is to complete the work of Christ through the Church. Hence, the Church fulfills this task of extending Christs salvific act. However, we need to illustrate here two important facts:(i) that the Church has been truly instituted by Christ, for He is the only mediator between God and man;

(ii) that Jesus founded this Church for the purpose of continuing His divine mission throughout history.

Jesus Instituted a Church Scriptures give us the necessary data that Jesus indeed founded the Church. However, we have to distinguish two stages:

2134y6(i) Preparatory Stage

Even at creation, God already prefigures the Church of Christ as the family of God. He wants that mans social nature and character will have a religious link. Hence, God calls man to be a part of the family of God. This divine decision is indeed a pre-figuration of the Church of Christ, the people of God.

God prepared the Church in the history of the people of Israel in the OT. He chose Abraham and his descendants and established covenants with them: God made a covenant with Abraham and promised him a fruitful descendants. (Gn. 17:1-8). God made a covenant with the people of Israel through Moses and gave them the commandments, the natural moral law. (Ex 19:5-8). Finally, God promised David that the future Savior will come among his descendants and will establish an eternal Kingdom. (2 Sam 7:12-16). In all these covenants, God took the initiative. And through the prophets, God kept this hope for salvation. Consequently, we see these covenants, too, as figures and preparations of the Church.

(ii) The Stage of Institution

Unlike in a juridical society whose institution is proclaimed by signing an official document, Jesus accomplished the institution of the Church, not by a single act, but by a series of actions. The earthly life of Jesus was actually the laying of the foundation of the Church. However, His death on the cross and the sending of the Holy Spirit were most significant to the institution of the Church. And we have to consider other instances too that were essential.a) Election of the Disciples: This was one of the preparatory acts for the institution of the Church: the vocation of the disciples and the election by Jesus.

b) Election of the Apostles and the Institution of the Apostolic College: From the many who followed Him, Jesus chose twelve: (Mk 3:13-15). This initiative of Jesus to elect a permanent group is indeed the historical foundation of the College of Apostles. The number twelve, too, has a deep significance: it corresponds to the twelve Patriarchs of Israel. The Apostles therefore represent the new people of God, the Church founded by Jesus. In this way, Jesus manifested the continuity between the OT and the NT.

c) Jesus instituted the Primacy of Peter: I, for my part declare it to you, you are rock, and on this rock I will build my Church, and the jaws of death shall not prevail against it. I will entrust to you the keys of heaven. Whatever you declare bound on earth shall be bound in heaven; whatever you declare loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven. (Mt 16:17-19). Jesus declares that Peter will be an indispensable element in the essential structure of the Church.d) Institution of the Eucharist: With Jesus command to celebrate it in His memory, the institution of the Eucharist has a relevant place in the institution of the Church. The Eucharist recalls other acts important in the foundation of the Church. For connected with the Eucharist, is the institution of the sacrament of Holy Orders. In the Eucharist, the sacrifice of Jesus on the cross is renewed and becomes the spiritual food of the new covenant. The Eucharist therefore, realizes the work of our redemption and represents the accomplishments of the unity of the Church.

e) The Death on the Cross: Although the whole life of Jesus was ordained to the institution of the Church, the Fathers of the Church and the Magisterium have seen the birth of the Church especially at the cross. Her foundation and growth were symbolized in the water and blood that flowed from the wounded side of Christ (Jn 19:34) and were prophesied in the words of Jesus: I, once I am lifted up from earth, will draw all men to myself (Jn 12:32). Through His death, therefore, Christ established the New Covenant: Water and Blood---Baptism and Eucharist, were two of the sacraments which became the signs of the Church.f) Pentecost: The coming of the Holy Spirit completes the institution of the Church. On the day of Pentecost, the Church was completed, and manifested to men as a means of salvation. Jesus prepared the essential elements (doctrines, sacraments, apostolic college, primacy of Peter). It was the Holy Spirit that manifested her to men to sanctify her indefinitely. The Church was born by a divine decision: the Father and the Son sent the Holy Spirit in the community of believers to sanctify them and increase their number throughout the whole world.

Jesus Bestowed Sacred Powers Jesus bestowed sacred powers to the Apostles and their legitimate successors. As you have sent me into the world, so I have sent them into the world (Lk 10:16). In order to carry out that saving mission, Jesus bestowed on the Apostles sacred powers:a) to baptize (Mt 28:19)

b) to forgive sins (Mt 18:18)

c) to celebrate the Eucharist (Lk 22:19)

Jesus identifies Himself with them. He who hears you, hears me. He who rejects you, rejects me. And he who rejects me, rejects Him who sent me. (Lk 10:16). It was to the Church therefore that Jesus most emphatically commanded to continue His divine mission. All power in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Go, therefore, and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you; and behold I am with you all days, even unto the consummation of the world. (Mt 28:18-20).

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHURCH(CCC, 813-864)

This is the sole Church of Christ, which in the Creed we profess to be one, holy, catholic and apostolic. These four characteristics, inseparably linked with each other, indicate essential features of the Church and her mission. The Church does not possess them of herself; it is Christ who, through the Holy Spirit, makes his Church one, holy, catholic and apostolic, and it is he who calls her to realize each of these qualities. (CCC, 811)1. The Church is One (CCC, 813-822)The sacred mystery of the Churchs unity The Church is one because of her source: the highest exemplar and source of this mystery is the unity, in the Trinity of Persons, of one God, the Father, and the Son in the Holy Spirit. The Church is one because of her founder: for the Word made flesh, the prince of peace, reconciled all men to God by the crossrestoring the unity of all in one people and one body. The Church is one because of her soul: it is the Holy Spirit, dwelling in those who believe and pervading and ruling over the entire Church, who brings about that wonderful communion of the faithful and joins them together so intimately in Christ that he is the principle of the Churchs unity. Unity is of the essence of the Church. (CCC, 813) What are these bonds of unity? Above all charity binds everything together in perfect harmony. But the unity of the pilgrim Church is also assured by visible bonds of communion:

- profession of one faith received from the Apostles;

- common celebration of divine worship, especially of the sacraments;

- apostolic succession through the sacrament of Holy Orders, maintaining the fraternal concord of Gods family. (CCC, 815)Wounds to Unity

The ruptures that wound the unity of Christs Body---here we must distinguish heresy, apostasy and schism---do not occur without human sin.

However, one cannot charge with the sin of separation those who at present are born into these communities (that resulted from such separation) and in them are brought up in the faith of Christ, and the Catholic Church accepts them with respect and affection as brothersAll who have been justified by faith in Baptism are incorporated into Christ; they therefore have a right to be called Christians. And with good reason are accepted as brothers in the Lord by the children of the Catholic Church. (CCC, 817-818) Furthermore. Many elements of sanctification and of truth are found outside the visible confines of the Catholic Church: the written Word of God; the life of grace; faith, hope and charity, with the interior gifts of the Holy Spirit, as well as visible elements. Christs Spirit uses these Churches and ecclesial communities as means of salvation, whose power derives from the fullness of grace and truth that Christ has entrusted to the Catholic Church. (CCC, 819)Toward Unity (CCC, 820-821) Christ bestowed unity on His Church from the beginning. This unity, we believe, subsists in the Catholic Church as something she can never lose, and we hope that it will continue to increase until the end of time.

Certain things are required in order to respond adequately to this call:

- a permanent renewal of the Church in greater fidelity to her vocation; such renewal is the driving force of the movement toward unity;

- conversion of heart as the faithful try to live holier lives according to the gospel, for it is the unfaithfulness of the members to Christs gift which causes divisions;

- prayer in common, because change of heart and holiness of life, along with public and private prayer for the unity of Christians, should be regarded as the soul of the whole ecumenical movement, and merits the name spiritual ecumenism.

- fraternal knowledge of each other;

- ecumenical formation;- dialogue among theologians, and meetings among Christians of the different Churches and communities;

- collaboration among Christians in various areas of service to mankind.

2. The Church is Holy (CCC, 823-829) The Churchis held, as a matter of faith, to be unfailingly holy. This is because Christ, the Son of God, who with the Father and the Spirit is hailed as alone holy, loved the Church as his Bride, giving himself up for her so as to sanctify her; he joined her to himself as his body and endowed her with the gift of the Holy Spirit for the glory of God. The Church, then, is the holy People of God, and her members are called saints.

United with Christ, the Church is sanctified by him; through him and with him she becomes sanctifying. All the activities of the Church are directed, as toward their end, to the sanctification of men in Christ and the glorification of God. It is in the Church that the fullness of the means of salvation has been deposited. It is in her that by the grace of God we acquire holiness.

3. The Church is Catholic (CCC, 830-856)What does catholic mean? The word catholic means universal, in the sense of according to the totality or in keeping with the whole. The Church is catholic in a double sense: First, the Church is catholic because Christ is present in her. Where there is Christ Jesus, there is the catholic Church. In her subsists the fullness of Christs body united with its head; this implies that she receives from him the fullness of the means of salvation which he has willed; correct and complete confession of faith, full sacramental life, and ordained ministry in apostolic succession. The Church was, in this fundamental sense, catholic on the day of Pentecost and will always be so until the day of the Parousia.

Secondly, the Church is catholic because she has been sent out by Christ on a mission to the whole of human race.

Who belongs to the Catholic Church? All men are called to this catholic unity of the People of GodAnd to it, in different ways, belong or are ordered: the Catholic faithful, others who believe in Christ, and finally all mankind, called by Gods grace to salvation.

Mission-a requirement of the Churchs catholicity

The missionary mandate. Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you.

The origin and purpose of mission. The Lords missionary mandate is ultimately grounded in the eternal love of the Most Holy Trinity: The Church on earth is by her nature missionary since, according to the plan of the father, she has as her origin the mission of the Son and the Holy Spirit. The ultimate purpose of mission is none other than to make men share in the communion between the Father and the Son in their Spirit of love.

4. The Church is Apostolic (CCC 857-864) The Church is apostolic because she is founded on the apostles, in three ways:

- she was and remains built on the foundations of the Apostles, the witnesses chosen and sent on mission by Christ himself;

- with the help of the Spirit dwelling in her, the Church keeps and hands on the teaching she has heard from the apostles;

- she continues to be taught, sanctified and guided by the apostles until Christs return, through their successors in pastoral office: the college of bishops, assisted by priests, in union with the successor of Peter, the Churchs supreme pastor.

The Organization of the Roman Catholic Church

(www.bible.ca/catholic-church-hierarchy-organization.htm)

Pope (1 head)

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Bishops (2946 diocese, cathedrals)

Priests (219,583 parishes)

Catholics (1 Billion members)A. The Pope (also called the Patriarch) refer to the list of Popes (file)The following terms are applied to the Pope:

1. Bishop of the city of Rome (head of the a local diocese in Rome)

2. Vicar of Jesus Christ3. Successor of St. Peter4. Pope (Universal bishop over all other bishops)5. Prince of the Apostles6. Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church7. Patriarch of the West8. Primate of Italy9. Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman Province10. Sovereign of the Vatican City State11. Servant of the Servants of God12. Priest of St. John Lateran Basilica (Parish priest)

The Pope actually holds three positions in the Catholic Church:

1. Parish Priest at St. John Lateran Basilica: Priest who preaches at the pulpit of St. John Lateran Basilica on a day to day basis just like any other parish priest.

2. Bishop of the Diocese of the city of Rome.

3. Pope: head of the universal Church. Universal Bishop: Pope. The Pope is also the "Ruler of the Bishops".

B. The Bishops (also called Archbishop = Major-Archbishop) There are 2946 "Mother Churches" (and diocese) in the Catholic Church today. The local Church where a Bishop resides is always called a Cathedral, which is Latin for "chair". A Cathedral therefore means that a specific local Church is where the Bishops official chair is centered from over other local parishes. The Cathedral is the Bishops home Church. Each of these Mother Churches (Cathedrals) are assigned a geographic territory which is called a diocese. There is only one Bishop per diocese, although he may be assisted by other bishops who rank below him as servants. So from a power organization, there is one Bishop for each of the 2946 diocese. There is no difference in rank and power between a Bishop and an Archbishop. An archbishop is merely a bishop who controls a larger than average territory or is located in a city of political importance, like a capital city of a state, province or nation. An Archbishop has no power over other bishops outside his own diocese. The term Major-Archbishop is just a variation of Archbishop. In power terms, there is only one man who can "fire" a bishop: the Pope, who appointed him in the first place.

All Bishops hold two positions of power in the Catholic Church, which are separate offices.

Bishop of diocese where his local Church is in the world. He preaches for a "Mother Church" that is over other local Churches in his area. All Bishops are more than just a parish priests, they are also Bishop of a Church that is the head of diocese within which are several other local Churches he rules over. As the Bishop of Rome, he is equal to every other bishop in the Catholic Church including the Pope, who is also a mere bishop of a local diocese.

C. The Priests: They are also called, Reverend, Pastor, Priest, Father. There is one Priest for each of the 219,583 Parishes (local Churches) in the Catholic Church. Each Parish has is own geographic territory and boundary lines between local Churches are well defined. The Priest, is in charge of a single parish that is over common Catholics. The priest answers only to two men, his Bishop and the Pope. A bishop from one diocese has no power or control over a Priest from a different diocese. In power terms, there are only two men who can "fire" a priest: the Pope or the bishop who appointed him.

D. Three levels: As you can see, the Pope holds three separate offices, Bishops hold two separate offices and Priests hold one office.Head of BishopsHead of DioceseHead of Parish

Pope

Bishops

Priests

III. Arch-Bishops are not over Bishops. Arch-Diocese are not over Diocese!

Bishops and Arch-Bishops are the same power. Arch-Bishops are from larger cities, capital cities etc. Such a naming tradition of calling larger, politically powerful cities by seemly higher sounding titles, carries on the tradition that caused the Bishop of Rome (A large city that was the capital of Rome) to take the highest title of Pope! Small cities get Bishops, while BIG cities get ARCH-BISHOPS.Diocese and Arch-Diocese are the same power. Arch-Diocese are from larger cities, capital cities etc. Diocese have Bishops, while Arch-Diocese have Arch-Bishops. IV. What about Cardinals?

Cardinals have no power in the Catholic Church. They are not over Bishops or Priests. Cardinals are chosen by the Pope from the 2946 bishops to take on an additional title of Cardinal. The best way to think of a Cardinal, is a cabinet member in the Presidents Office. The President is like the Pope with total control. But there are also hundreds of elected officials called "Cabinet Members". Each "Members of the Cabinet", corresponds to a Bishop and rules over a specific territory. From this pool of elected "Cabinet Members of the President", the President chooses his "Cabinet" of men and women to fill positions like, "Defense Secretary", "Trade and Industry Secretary", "Department of Education Secretary". These cabinet members correspond to "Cardinals". So Cardinals are Bishops with additional privilege but do not rank over anyone outside their own diocese. Cardinals act as an advisory panel for the Pope and elect the new pope when the current one dies.

Catholic offices and positions:

Bishop: These men are the successors of the apostles and are usually the spiritual leaders of local Churches. One or several auxiliary bishops may assist in the ministry. Some local Churches with the largest population and territory are called archdioceses. These "archdioceses" are led by an "archbishop". Cardinal: This is essentially an honorary title conferred on bishops. Cardinals usually head a large archdiocese or hold a chief administrative position in the Church. Until he reaches the age of 80, a cardinal is allowed to vote in the election of a new pope. Apostolic Pronuncio (Papal Nuncio): An archbishop who acts as the official Vatican delegate to a country. He holds the rank of ambassador. Holy See: A term that refers to the pope and the Roman Curia--the Vatican officials and offices that are responsible for the day-to-day handling of Church affairs and resources worldwide. Diocese: This is the geographical area in which a bishop exercises his ministry of shepherding. In Canada, most dioceses consist of several counties or regional municipalities. Priest: Co-worker of the bishop. The priest shares in the power of the bishop as an ordained cleric. The priest can be a diocesan priest or religious priest. A diocesan priest is attached to a specific diocese, under the authority of the local bishop. A religious priest is a member of a religious community that has a particular mission in the Church (for example, missionary work or teaching) and works in many different parts of the world at the invitation of local bishops. In addition, the religious priest takes "vows" of poverty--to relinquish personal ownership and share possessions; chastity--not just to forego marriage as the vow of celibacy requires (which all priests take) but to strive for God-centered love; and obedience--to spread the gospel where requested. Pastor: The bishop is chief pastor of his diocese, but he delegates priests to be his direct representative in the pastoral care of a parish Church. The other appointed priests in the parish are called "associate pastors" or "parochial vicars." Monsignor: An honorary title given to a diocesan priest in recognition of his contributions to the life of the Church. Deacon: An ordained member of the clergy, ranked under bishops and priests. A deacon can either be transitional (a step while studying for the priesthood) or permanent (ordained only for the diaconate). Only permanent deacons may be married, and only if they were married at the time of their ordination. If their wives die, they cannot remarry. Otherwise, deacons are celibate. The deacon's ministry is performing pastoral works of charity and in assisting liturgical functions. Sister (nun): A member of a religious order of women. Sisters, or nuns, take vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, and their ministries to spread the gospel are diversified and widespreadBrother: A non-ordained (Priests and brothers as "monks.") Brothers obedience, and their widespread. member of a religious order of men. in monastic orders are referred to take vows of poverty, chastity, and ministries are also varied and Laity: The term used to designate all baptized Catholics who are not members of the clergy but exercise their baptism by leavening secular life with the presence of Christ and attaining holiness by fulfilling their own particular duties in life.

CBCP: Initials that stand for the Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines. This conference of bishops and attending agencies speak with one voice on important religious and social topics of our day and expresses Catholic teaching on these topics for the Church in the Philippines.

V. Catholic buildings and places: (from a Catholic publication)

Vatican City: A 108-acre plot of land in Rome that serves as the worldwide headquarters of the Catholic Church and is the official residence of the pope. Vatican City is a recognized "state," with the pope as its temporal leader, and has diplomatic relations with many countries. Basilica: A Church designated as a place of special importance (for example, Saint Peter's Basilica in Vatican City). Cathedral: The official Church of the bishop of a diocese. It gets its name from "cathedra," Latin for "chair," which is the symbol of the bishop's leadership. The bishop presides at this chair when he is present for cathedral services. Chancery: The place where the bishop works and where the (arch) diocesan offices and programs are centralized. In some places, the chancery is referred to as the "Catholic Centre." Parish Church: A Church with territorial boundaries that serves the needs of the people in its immediate area. Some parishes are not territorial but were built to serve specific groups of immigrants. Churches are named in honor of one or all Persons of the Trinity, the Virgin Mary, or one of the saints. Parish Center: A building or large space where parish activities are held. Shrine: A Church with devotional center.

Chapel: is a building used by Christians, members of other religions, and sometimes interfaith communities, as a place of fellowship and worship. It may be attached to an institution such as a large church, college, hospital, palace, prison or funeral home, located on board a military or commercial ship, or it may be an entirely free-standing building, sometimes with its own grounds.

Rectory: The residence of priests. Convent: The residence of sisters. Monastery: The residence of a religious community of men or a religious community of women.

The apostolate

We call an apostolate every activity of the Mystical Body that aims to spread the Kingdom of Christ over all the earth.

THE DIFFERENT MODELS OF THE CHURCH We can better understand the Church better by studying her aspects or models. There are basic models which have come from history. They are especially helpful in grasping the reality of the Catholic Church today and illuminating various aspects of the Churchs mystery. They are visible and tangible images of a deeper reality. These images are mutually complementary. None therefore should be interpreted in an exclusive sense so as to negate what the other models have to teach us.

1.As an Institution

This image pictures the Church as a hierarchically structured society (LG 20). This institutional model of the Church describes it primarily in terms of its visible structures, especially the rights and duties of its leaders (teaching, sanctifying, and governing). Insistence on the visibility of the Church occurred in the late Middle Ages and during the Counter-Reformation, when theologians and canonists, responding to attacks on the papacy and hierarchy, accented precisely those features that the adversaries were denying. The Council of Trent and the Counter-Reformation ecclesiology answered by stressing on the models of the Church as a hierarchical society. The peak of such an understanding of the Church was reached at Vatican I Council (1869-1870).

The Church is not conceived as a democratic or representative society, but as one in which the fullness of power is concentrated in the hands of the ordained ministers, a ruling class. This model tends to reduce the laity to a condition of passivity. It tends to exaggerate the role of human authority.

Through out its history, from the earliest years, Christianity has always had an institutionalized side. The Church could not perform its mission without some stable organizational features. We acknowledge that mission within the Church and in the world needs the support of a leadership and stable structures. Thus, the Church as institution is valid but within limits.

2.As People of God

The People of God is the key image and the principal model of the Church in Vatican II. Vatican II shifted the emphasis from the Church as institution towards the Church as people of God. It wanted to emphasize what is common to all disciples of the Lord and to stress the primacy of being disciples even before any organization or hierarchical structure.

All men and women are called to belong to the New People of God, so that, in Christ, they may form one family and one People of God. This model serves to emphasize the human, historical and communal aspects of the Church and it corrects the former common misunderstanding of identifying the Church only with bishops, priests and religious. This image of the Church is a collegial one. It explains what is common to all the members of the People of God, prior to any distinction of office, on the basis of the dignity of Christian existence.

This has also ecumenical implications. Collegiality is more obviously the characteristic linking all Christians in a unity of equals with one another. This image also shows that Christians are saved not merely as individuals but especially by making them into a single people. Through this image, communion is concretely experienced as a community of believers coming together and sharing with one another the experience of each in ones life of faith from day to day.

The People of God is a biblical concept having deep roots in the Old Testament, where Israel is constantly referred to as the nation God had chosen. In the New Testament, the Christian EKKLESIA is referred to as the new Israel or as the People of God of the New Covenant. It is one and the same God who through Christ in the Holy Spirit gathers the scattered children from all places and all ages and makes them into one people of God.

The Church is the New people of God, on pilgrimage in history, heading towards the kingdom. As Gods people, all members, including the leaders are fundamentally equal in basic dignity and in responsibility for ministry and mission because everyone shares in the one life of faith through baptism.

3.As Body of Christ

This model refers to the communion of believers who are united with Christ and among themselves in one body, the mystical body. St. Paul used this image to express the unity of Christians. He compared the group of believers to a human body called the body of Christ. In this one body there are different parts. Each part is needed by every other part.

In using this physiological description, St. Paul emphasizes the interconnectedness of the members: we belong to one another for we belong to one body. As the body of Christ the members of the Church are seen as organically interrelated and interdependent (Eph 4:15) with Christ as head. We are all baptized by one Spirit into one body of Christ (1 Cor 12:13). The bond of union is the invisible grace of Christ.

Using the Pauline image of the body of Christ, The Second Vatican Council points out the unity in diversity that should characterize the community of disciples. In the unity, there is equality in dignity by virtue of our rebirth in Christ in baptism which entitles us to take part in the life of the Church. Equality in Christian dignity of the believers is the ground for mutual relationship in the Church. As the concrete body of Christ, as we have received life from him, so we give life to others. What we need is to discover our parts in the body.

4.The Church as Community of Disciples

The Church as community of disciples is the image of a communion of peoples and Churches. This is one of the images the Church in the Philippines envisions to live. Discipleship gives the individual as well as the Christian community a unique identity and purpose. It demands from Christians a commitment to mission in the world. It is through the community of disciples that we can attain our objective of becoming the Church of the Poor. In the community of disciples of Christ, we follow Christ not as separate individuals but together. There is no such thing as an isolated disciple. This common discipleship binds us together in equal dignity and in common mission as a Christian community (PCP II 95).

It takes the first Jerusalem community as the model for the Church it desires for the Philippines. The PCP II vision of the Church as a community of disciples is a very big advance over the concept of the Church as primarily a social institution. In this way of presenting the Church, PCP II has moved from the SILA (they) Church to the TAYO (We, all of us together) Church. The pyramid ceases to be the dominant image of the Church. The circle has taken its place. The movement now is towards people, towards life; from the Church to the world, from the parish to the families and to the neighborhood, the school and the workplace. The image of humanity operating here is no longer the vertical one of high and low, but of persons who, being of equal worth, can be of service to one another on an equal footing. The community of disciples does not exist only for itself or its members. It exists for the world. It is sent to build up the Church, and to serve the Kingdom by permeating the world with Gospel values so that finally all creation may be united in Christ as head (PCP II 104).

THE HUMAN-DIVINE REALITYIN THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH The Church is not merely a social organization. Neither is she simply a spiritual establishment. Since the Church integrates both the human and divine elements, she is a mystery too that goes beyond our intellectual capacity. Consequently, her history is not only an external history but above all a revelation of a mystery. Through the history of the Church we truly can discover the salvific action of God and the revelation of the meaning of her mission.

In studying the history of the Church, one ought to recognize the changeable elements from the necessary elements of the Church. We hope therefore that by trying to understand the different periods of her history, we can penetrate how the Church understood herself better, her mission and her role.

FAMOUS DATES IN CHRISTIAN HISTORYc. 30 Jesus is crucified by the Romans; the Holy Spirit descends upon the apostles

c. 36 The conversion of Saul (Paul) of Tarsus, Christianitys first great thinker and missionary

c. 50 The Council of Jerusalem; apostles meet in Jerusalem and free the Gentile Christians from the demand of circumcision

64Persecution of Church by Nero

70 Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus

70-100Writing of the gospels

95-312 Various persecutions of the Church by different Roman emperors

312/3 The conversion of the emperor Constantine; Christianity is granted legitimate status by the Edict of Milan

325 Nicea: the first great ecumenical council affirms the divinity of Jesus against the heresy Arianism

400 Jerome translates the Bible into Latin (called the Vulgate)

430 Death of Augustine of Hippo, one of the most influential thinkers in the history of the Church451 The Council of Chalcedon declares that Jesus is the Second Person of the Trinity with both a human and divine nature

529 Benedict establishes a monastery at Monte Cassino and begins the influence of monasticism in the west

590-604 Pope Gregory the Great establishes the power of the pope as a model for the next 700 years

800 Pope Leo III crowns Charlemagne emperor of the Holy Roman Empire 1054 Schism between Constantinople (Orthodox) and Rome reaches final climax

1231 Pope Gregory IX authorizes the papal inquisition as a means of dealing with heresy

1308/09

1377/78 The popes live in Avignon (around 70 years)1517 Martin Luther nails his 95 theses to the door of Wittenberg Church, beginning the Protestant reformation

1545-63 The Council of Trent begins a new era in the history of the Catholic Church, called the counter-reformation

1789 The French Revolution marks the beginning of the end of the privileged Church in Europe and the new era of enlightenment

1869-70 The First Vatican Council declares the infallibility of the pope

1891 Pope Leo XIII issues the encyclical Rerum Novarum, defending the rights of workers in the midst of the industrial revolution

1962-65 The Second Vatican Council seeks renewal in the ChurchI. The Church during the First Three Centuries

The first Christians understood the Church as the community of Christ. Through the Eucharist, they strengthened their union with God and men and generously gave themselves for the others by proclaiming the faith and by providing material help. The early Christian communities centered in Jerusalem, around the twelve (St. Peter et al). Many miracles and wonders were being done through the apostles, and everyone was filled with love. The first recorded use of the term Christian is in the New Testament, in Acts11:26, which states "...in Antioch the disciples were first called Christians."All the believers continued together in close fellowship and shared their belongings with one another. They would sell their properties and possessions, and distribute the money among all, according to what each one needed. Day after day, they met as a group in the temple, and they had their meals together in their homes, eating with glad and humble hearts, praising God, and enjoying the goodwill of all people. And everyday, the Lord added to their group those who were saved. (Acts 2:42-47). St. Stephen 1st Christian Martyr and conversion of St. Paul (36 A.D.).The Apostles all gathered in Jerusalem (Acts 15) to discuss whether Gentiles who had been converted to Christianity had to observe all the ceremonial precepts of the Mosaic Law. This gathering of the Apostles became known as the Council of Jerusalem (50 AD), and set the pattern of future Councils to resolve issues that arose within the Church.

Difficulties the early Christians encountered under the Roman regime:a) they refused to do military service because of the precept thou shall not kill;

b) on account of idolatry, Christians refused to participate in the cult to the emperor. This eventually led to the persecution of the Christians which was initiated by Emperor Nero of Rome in the year 64.

The persecutions, however, were not obstacles for the Church which showed no fear against the temporal powers of the world. Rather, she saw in these persecutions the confirmation of her own faith, the mystery of Gods plan and that the presence of Christ was being realized in her. Instead of decreasing the number of Christians, the persecution intensified all the more the diffusion of Christianity. During the first three centuries, it was evident that the Christians were much aware of the spiritual link they have with one another. They were conscious that their community was a continuation of the mission of Jesus. From time to time they were subjected to persecution (built catacombs). Roman emperor Titus destroyed Jerusalem in 70 A.D. St. Ignatius of Antioch was Bishop of Syria about 75-110 AD, and is one of the Apostolic Fathers of the Church. The Apostolic Fathers were a group of early Christian writers from about 75-150 AD, such as St. Ignatius, St. Clement of Rome, St. Polycarp Bishop of Smyrna (martyred in 155 AD), and the author(s) of the Didache. St. Ignatius was the first to use the term Catholic Church in his Letter to the Smryneans (8:2):

"Wherever the bishop appears let the congregation be present; just as wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church."

The word catholic means universal and refers to the universal Church of Jesus Christ. The occasion of his trip to Rome proved to be a unifying event for all of the early Churches. He established the hierarchy of bishop, priest, and deacon for the early Churches, the pattern which still exists today. Ignatius of Antioch would not worship the Emperor Trajan (98-117), and thus was placed in chains and ordered to Rome to be thrown to the lions in the Roman Coliseum. St. Justin Martyr (100-165) was born of pagan parents in Palestine. As a young man searching for truth, he was walking along the sea and met an old man who advised him to turn to the faith of Jesus Christ. He began writing extensively in defense of the Christian faith, his three most famous works being the First and Second Apologies and Dialogue with Trypho.

In his early writings he describes the Tradition of the Eucharistic Liturgy in the Sunday community gathering, a Memorial of the Last Supper, an event which has remained the same essentially for 2000 years. Considered the first Apologist or Defender of the Faith, Justin was martyred in 165 AD for preaching Christianity to the Romans.

The development of the Apostles' Creed began from Apostolic times, as a profession of faith during the rite of Baptism, recalling the instruction of Jesus to his disciples to "teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit (Matthew 28:19-20)." This Baptismal formula was recorded in the Didache (7) as early as the second century AD. In accordance with this, the person about to be baptized was asked three questions: "Do you believe in God the Father Almighty...? Do you believe in Jesus Christ, his Son our Lord...? Do you believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy catholic church...?" The person being baptized would answer, Credo or I Believe.

One of the worst of Christian persecution was that of Emperor Diocletian (284-305) who ordered the martyrdom of St. Sebastian in 288. When he abandoned the throne, it would have been impossible for Christians to predict that they were soon to become the dominant religion of the empire and the most dominant force in shaping western civilization.

II. Constantine and the Growth of Christianity

When Constantine succeeded Diocletian, he brought with him a new element: a mother (Helena) who was a Christian. While Constantine was still a pagan, he had a vision in battle which led him to believe he would be victorious under the sign of Christ. He was victorious, and later, with his co-emperor Licinius (Eastern emperor), he passed the Edict of Milan which granted freedom of religion to Christians. Roman emperors were accustomed to taking an active part in religious matters, and Constantine applied this to Christianity. It was he who called the bishops together for the great Council of Nicea in 325 (Jesus Christ as divine - against Arianism).Constantine considered himself Christian, and did much to protect and support Christianity. Sunday as the Lord's Day was made a day of rest, and December 25 was celebrated as the birthday of Jesus. He restored property that once belonged to Christians. Often at the request of his mother Helena, he built exquisitely beautiful churches, particularly the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, and the Church of St. Peter in Rome.

Constantine was baptized just prior to his death in 337. Because he saw himself as both head of state and father of the Christian Churches, he is considered the architect of the Middle Ages as founder of Christendom.

The next centuries brought forth some extraordinary Christians. The so-called Fathers of the Church began to embark on extraordinary scholarship on behalf of the Church. Jerome (ca.345-420) was a monk who translated the Bible from its original languages into Latin. This translation is called the Vulgate and was later officially recognized as the official translation of the Catholic Church.

The most influential of the Fathers of the Church was St. Augustine. Originally from Northern Africa, Augustine had a pagan father and a Christian mother, St. Monica. He was an extraordinarily brilliant young man who was prone to lifes pleasures: gambling, prostitutes and drinking. He later calmed down, took a mistress who bore him a son, and taught in Milan. It was there that he met another great Christian, the bishop Ambrose (d. 397). After much procrastination and another mistress, Augustine at the age of 33 finally converted to Christianity under the influence of his mother and St. Ambrose (who baptized him). He wrote a book describing his conversion, called The Confessions, which is one of the greatest descriptions of a spiritual journey ever recorded. Augustine quickly became a priest and shortly after was appointed bishop of Hippo (d.430). The canon of the New Testament was formed within the early Christian community, the Church. Three Fathers of the Church St. Athanasius of Alexandria in his Letter of 367, St. Jerome in Bethlehem with the publication of his Latin New Testament in 384, and St. Augustine at the Council of Hippo in 393 - agreed that 27 Books were the inspired Word of God. The Canon of the New Testament of the Bible was confirmed at the Third Council of Carthage in 397 AD.Veneration of Mary, Mother of God (Theotokos) official title bestowed 431 at Council of Ephesus. Mary increasingly viewed as mediator interceding with the Son of mercy on sinners.

The fifth century also produced Leo the Great, the pope who not only was a spiritual leader but also became the most powerful man of his time in the west. He presided over the Council of Chalcedon in 451, which ultimately supported Leo's stance that Christ had two natures, both Divine and human, without confusion, in one Person. Resolution of the controversy by Leo was important to the primacy of the Pope and Christian unity. He set the tone for a powerful papacy which would be intimately involved in not only the affairs of the Church but those of the state as well. He also met face to face with Atilla the Hun (452) who decided to call off the invasion! Later when Geneseric the Vandal invaded Rome in 455, Leo influenced him to spare the destruction of Rome. By the time of his death, the connection between Church and state was inseparable.

III. Monasticism

In time, conversions to Christianity had little to do with Jesus Christ and much to do with ones local leader or king. As Christianity became the preferred religion, masses of people were baptized. Christianity lost much of its original force as the power of Gods love and Spirit in the world. Many historians credit monasticism with preserving both the spirit of Christianity and the ancient wisdom of civilization. As people continued to long for a purer form of faith, they entered monasteries for a life of prayer and community. St. Anthony (251-356) of Egypt is often credited as the founder of monasticism in the Church. In the year 285 he withdrew into the desert as a hermit. St. Pachomius (292-348) was at the same time beginning a communal (cenobitic) experiment with monasticism. These movements to withdraw from the life of society became extremely important as the Church became more closely wedded to the state. The most important figure in this movement was St. Benedict (480-547) who built a monastery at Monte Cassino. The community was composed of ordinary people who lived by the motto ora et labora (prayer and work). Benedicts Rule became the standard for monastic life for centuries. The monastery was a self-contained community in which all the material as well as the spiritual needs of the monks were provided. The first monk to become Pope was St. Gregory the Great (540-604). A man of great energy, he is known for four historic achievements. His theological and spiritual writings shaped the thought of the Middle Ages; he made the Pope the de facto ruler of central Italy; his charisma strengthened the Papacy in the West; and he was dedicated to the conversion of England to Christianity. Moreover, during this period Pope Gregory the Great establishes the power of the pope as a model for the next 700 years.By copying the works of the fathers of the Church and the classics of western civilization, the monks kept alive this tradition in an age in which the Roman Empire was crumbling. By the ninth century the monasteries had become the centers of learning and their abbots were powerful men.IV. The Schism Between East and West The two great centers of Christianity were Rome and Constantinople. Although geographically they were not so distant, they became more and more separated by theology and politics. Those in the east (Constantinople) often resented the Roman claims to primacy. After the fall of the Roman Empire, there was only one emperor (in the east). His failure to protect the west from invading peoples led Pope Leo III (d. 816) to crown Charlemagne (d. 814) as Holy Roman Emperor in then year 800. This also brought about great resentment from the east.

The iconoclastic controversy. "Thou shall not make unto thee any graven images" (Exodus 20:4), Emperor Leo III attacked the use of images. St. John of Damascus (d. 749) defended the use of icons in worship by differentiating between veneration and worship. He also argued that the use of images is an affirmation of Christs humanity, because the real person can de depicted.

In 858, the Roman Emperor in the East Michael III removed the patriarch of Constantinople and replaced him with his own man named Photius (d. 891), who refused to accept the authority of the Pope Benedict III (d. 858). This argument was patched up but relations remain strained. When Michael Cerularius (d. 1059) became patriarch of Constantinople in 1043, he had little respect for the papacy. When Pope Leo IX (d. 1054) insisted that easterners living in the west conform to western rituals, Michael did the same to those westerners living in the east. One bad decision was followed by another. Diplomatic relations broke down, and the patriarch, the emperor, and their followers were all excommunicated in1054. Despite repeated attempts at reconciliation, all hope was lost after the fourth crusade in which the city of Constantinople was sacked by armies representing western Christianity. The result was the break that divides the Roman and Orthodox (correct teaching) Churches to this day.

Pope Urban II (d. 1099) launched 200 years of the Crusades at the Council of Clermont, France in 1095. He urged the knights and noblemen to win back the Holy Land, to face their sins, and called upon those present to save their souls and become Soldiers of Christ. Those who undertook the venture were to wear an emblem in the shape of a red cross on their body (so derived the word Crusader to mark with a cross).Three reasons are primarily given for the beginning of the Crusades: (1) to reclaim the Land of Christ and stop the Moslem invasion; (2) to heal the rift between Roman and Orthodox Christianity following the Schism of 1054; and (3) to marshal the energy of the constantly warring feudal lords and knights into the one cause of penitential warfare. One cannot help but observe that the effort restored Papal Primacy and Christendom.The only successful Crusade (of eight major efforts) was the First, when the Crusaders conquered Jerusalem in 1099. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre was once again in Christian hands. The four Crusader states of Jerusalem, Tripoli, Antioch, and Edessa were established. The effort lasted only 88 years, when Saladin (d. 1193) recaptured Jerusalem in 1187. Richard the Lionheart (d. 1199) of England negotiated a settlement with Saladin during the Third Crusade whereby Christian pilgrims were given free access to Jerusalem. The four Crusader states eventually collapsed, and with the surrender of Acre in 1291, formal Christian presence in the Holy Land ended.V. The Pope Grows in Power

The connection between Church and state became so powerful that the Church became increasingly corrupted by secular forces. Church offices were bought and sold by men interested more in wealth and power than faith. Church property was passed on to the children of priests or bishops (celibacy was not yet mandatory in the Church), and bishops were appointed by secular rulers. The power of the pope had virtually disappeared. Into this mess came Pope Gregory VII or Hildebrand (d. 1085) with a determination to reform the Church. He did so by strengthening the structure of the institutional Church and the power of the pope. Under his leadership, the Church developed a wide array of offices under the pope (known as the curia). Under Gregory, the papacy was granted extraordinary powers within the Church which were further developed by Innocent III (d. 1216). These reforms also gave rise to the dominance of the code of canon law. Under canon law the rules of the Church were strictly codified. This had the advantage of clarity of purpose, but the disadvantage of redefining spiritual matters in legal terms. The Church was defined more and more in institutional terms with the pope as the supreme head and the laity and priests in totally subservient roles.

These were some of the best and worst days in the history of the Church. Under Innocent III the Inquisition began its terrible chapter in Church history. However, at the same time, St. Francis (d. 1226) (with St. Clare) and St. Dominic (d. 1221) Mendicant Orders were offering powerful signs of what Christian life was truly meant to be. They began religious orders of men interested in living the gospel in its pristine simplicity: lives of poverty, prayer, preaching and service. In addition, these orders gave rise to a renewal in theology in the Church, led by the Dominicans Albertus Magnus (d. 1280) and St. Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274) and the Franciscans St. Bonaventure (d. 1274) and Blessed John Duns Scotus (d. 1308).

Veneration of Mary. Queen of Heaven 13th century designation composed St. Anthony (d. 1231) of Padua as Mary our Queen. Titles continue to be interpreted, e.g. Queen of Heaven was further elaborated in 1954 in the papal encyclical Ad Caeli Reginam by pope Pius XII (d. 1958).VI. The Exile to Avignon

The power of the papacy came to a crashing halt in September 1303. Pope Boniface VIII (d. 1303) had issued a statement (called a bull, Unam Sanctam) declaring his authority over the French government. This initiated one of the most bizarre series of events in Church history. He was soon arrested by the French king, Philip IV - the Fair (d. 1314). After the death of Boniface, a French bishop, who was a friend of the king, was elected pope. He took the name Clement V (d. 1314) and moved his residence from Rome to the south of France in a town named Avignon. He appointed many French cardinals, and they in turn elected another Frenchman as pope, John XXII (d.1334), who moved all the papal offices to Avignon. Seven French popes lived in Avignon from 1309 to 1377. This was not a good time for the papacy, as it became increasingly concerned with finances and greatly increased taxation while some of the Avignon popes lived in open extravagance. Finally, Gregory XI (d. 1378) decided to return the papacy to Rome (1377) under the influence of an extraordinary woman of his time, a 30-year old religious sister, St. Catherine of Siena (d. 1380).

Just when there appeared to be hope for restoring the papacy to its rightful position, things went bad to worse. When Gregory XI died, the crowds in Rome insisted on the election of an Italian pope. The cardinals obliged, choosing Urban VI (he was succeeded by Boniface IX then by Innocent VII then by Gregory XII). They were not happy with this choice, however, and since they had elected him under duress, they left Rome and voted again. This time they chose a Frenchman Clement VII (he was succeeded by Benedict XIII then by Clement VIII) who went to live in Avignon. Now there were two popes. A council was held at Pisa in 1408/09, seeking to choose a compromise candidate and unify the Church they elected Alexander V (he was succeeded by Johannes XXII). Instead, the two popes already chosen refused to let go of their authority, and then there were three popes (Urban VI, Clement VII & Alexander V) known as the Great Schism of the West. In 1414-17 the Emperor Sigismund of Luxembourg (of the Holy Roman Empire) called a Council at Constance. The Roman pope (Gregory XII) resigned, but before he did he recognized the validity of the council. The Pisa pope (Johannes XXII) departed, the Avignon pope (Clement VIII) was deposed, and Martin V (Roman pope, d. 1431) was elected.VII. The Reformation

As the Church entered the 16th century, one thing was perfectly clear: it was badly in need of reform. Unfortunately, those in the Church with the power to lead this reform seemed to have little interest or ability in this regard. With the hindsight provided by history we can see some of the reforms that were necessary in the Church:1. There was a need to return to the message of the gospel and the person of Jesus. A great deal of the theology of the Church had lost touch with its biblical roots.2. There was a need for reform in spirituality. At the time there was a great focus on life after death and especially on the souls in purgatory. There developed the practice of the Church selling indulgences which could release a soul from purgatory.3. There was great need for reform in the papacy. The era of the renaissance popes was a scandalous one in which many of the popes were more interested in pleasure and wealth than in the spiritual interests of the Church.4. There was need for reform within the Church concerning the selling of offices and the lack of education and devotion among many priests.

5. The relationship between the Church and the secular governments was also in need of reform.

Although some good bishops and priests were seriously interested in reform, their powers were not great enough. The Church was in crisis. Into the midst of this crisis stepped one of the most important figures of western culture and Christianity: Martin Luther (d. 1546). Luther was a Roman Catholic priest and monk who was devoutly religious and somewhat scrupulous. On October 31, 1517 he posted his now famous Ninety-Five Theses on the door of the castle Church at Wittenberg. Luther saw himself as a reformer, not as someone seeking to begin a new form of Christianity. The attempt at dialogue between Luther and Church officials became a tragedy of errors. More and more, Luther hardened his position. He believed the following:1. Salvation comes from faith alone. In no way did the person merit his or her eternal life with God through good works. It was grace alone that brought salvation.

2. The Bible is the sole authority in the life of the Christian. While Church traditions may be helpful, they are completely secondary to the Bible.

3. Luther recognized only two sacraments as having a biblical basis: the Eucharist and Baptism. He believed that the Mass should be said in the language of the people. He did not believe in celibacy for priests since it was not in the Bible.

4. He discredited all intermediaries between God and the believer. Thus, there was no need for the rosary, prayers to saints, statues of saints, indulgences, etc.

5. He emphasized the role of the laity in the Church and believed that all should have access to reading Gods word.

6. Because of his belief in the Bible, he stressed the importance of preaching (which was often not done at all).

Luther was excommunicated from the Catholic Church on January 3, 1521 by Pope Leo X (d. 1521). He was protected by German royalty, and his ideas and popularity spread rapidly. He was later married to Katarina von Bora. The Antichrist? Some contemporaries thought that Luthers first son would be the Antichrist. It was because a popular legend said that the Antichrist would be born of a monk and a nun. Erasmus ironically commented: Were this true, there would have been too many Antichrist in the world already. Luther was not the only one taking the Church by storm. In Switzerland Ulrich Zwingli (d. 1531) was beginning a highly democratized approach to the faith that sought to get the Church back to its biblical roots and away from any beliefs not rooted in the Bible. In France John Calvin (d. 1564) was winning the hearts and minds of many with his teaching concerning predestination. Meanwhile, in England the king was not so much a reformer as a man seeking to divorce his wife (Catherine of Aragon). When Pope Clement VII (d. 1534) would not allow this, Henry VIII (d. 1547) declared himself head of the Church in England (married Anne Boleyn) and along with most of the bishops of the country set himself against Rome. This marked the establishment of the Anglican Church. One of the Catholic martyrs (tortured in a most barbarous manner) in England was Sir Thomas More (beheaded in 1535) because of his refusal to obey Henry VIIIs claim for divorce.VIII. The Counter-Reformation

The results of the reformation were astounding on every level: political, religious, social and economic. Both the Church and Europe were in a state of nearly unparalleled change. The Catholic Church had to respond to the challenges of the reformers. It was unable to do so until it had an able pope in Paul III (d. 1548). He called together the Council of Trent which was to become the most influential council in the Churchs history. The council met 25 times in 3 different sessions (1545-1547, 1551-1552, 1562-1563), was suspended for long periods of times, and sometimes very poorly attended. Nevertheless it articulated the teaching of the Church on many important issues and helped to begin a new reform within the Church. As opposed to the reformers, it taught:1. Salvation comes from Gods grace but requires human cooperation as well.

2. The Bible is not the sole source of authority. The tradition of the Church (the ongoing interpretation of the faith of the scriptures) is a source of authority along with the Bible.

3. The pope is the supreme head of the Church.

4. There are seven sacraments divinely chosen by Christ and the Church. Christ is truly present in the bread and wine of the Eucharist.

5. The saints can act as intermediaries for us.

6. Mary has a unique role as the mother of God and the Church.

The Council of Trent inspired a period of reform within the Catholic Church that was badly needed. Unfortunately, these reforms came only after the Church had been torn asunder by the reformation. At Trent the Church was on the defensive, and in many ways it would stay in this defensive posture until the Second Vatican Council in 1962. Trent defined the life of the Church for the next 300 years. Churchs reformers during this period are St. Charles Borromeo (Bishop, d. 1584) and St. Philip Neri (Priest, d. 1595).IX. The Missions

At the same time as the Church in Europe was undergoing reform and counter-reform, the Catholic Church was embarking on great missionary projects throughout the world, especially by the Jesuits (Society of Jesus) founded by St. Ignatius of Loyola (d. 1556) in 1534.

In China the Jesuit Matteo Ricci (d. 1610) had made his way into the upper echelons of society through his knowledge of the sciences. He studied the culture of the Chinese and soon began to converse with them about his religion. He had some success, but the Chinese were reluctant to adopt western culture since they already had a highly sophisticated civilization of their own. The missionaries tried to adapt Christian practices to Asian culture, but ultimately this was forbidden by Rome and the missions there could achieve little. Meanwhile the Spanish and the Portuguese were in the midst of colonizing the New World (American Continent), like Amerigo Vespucci (d. 1512) and Christopher Columbus (d. 1506) for example. While Luther criticized the Church, Hernando Cortez (d. 1547) led his band of soldiers into Mexico and slaughtered Aztec people and looted their invaluable gold. At nearly the same time, Francisco Pizarro (d. 1541) was doing the same to the Incas of Peru. The Indian peoples were slaughtered for their wealth and were considered sub-human. The missionaries who came to South America worked with the native people and converted many to Christianity. Unlike the situation in Asia, however, there was no attempt to assimilate the native customs to into Christian faith. In order to accept Christianity, one was forced to accept the western culture that came with it. Often the missionaries were the chief defenders of the Indian people against such abuses as slavery. Eventually the king of Spain forbade slavery, under the influence of Bishop Bartolome de las Casas (d. 1566) of Chiapa in the New World. Portugal, however, continued to permit slavery in its regions. By the 17th century the Jesuits had established great missions in which the Indians could share in the wealth and authority of the plantations. These cut into the profits of the colonizers, and eventually these too were destroyed by those who intent on material gain. (Special insertion about Our Lady of Guadalupe, Mexico apparition to an Aztec Indian St. Juan Diego, d. 1548) By the 19th century the missionary movements began to focus on Asia and Africa. There was tremendous success in the Philippines, while inroads were made in China, Hongkong, Thailand, Malaysia and India. Likewise, many parts of Africa were responding to the message of the gospel.

X. The Enlightenment

The intellectual and religious upheavals that had occurred in Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries (the renaissance, the reformation and the counter-reformation) helped give birth to a period known as the enlightenment - started by Nicolaus Copernicus (d. 1543) and followed by Galileo Galilei (d. 1642). The philosophers of the enlightenment placed great value on human thought as a science. That which can be known is that which can be observed and studied. The human mind cannot know anything about a spiritual realm of existence. The French philosopher summed up the mentality: What our eyes and mathematics demonstrate, we must take as true. In all the rest, we can only say: We are ignorant. Some of the philosophers believed that Christianity had to be rejected as a religion of revelation and authority. The only revelations they would accept were those made by the human mind. Likewise, the mind was the only true authority. These thinkers were also greatly optimistic about the human capacity to think and thus make the world a better place. Such thinking threatened not only the Church but society as well. Threats to the Church were obvious. It undermined much of the authority of the Church and its basis for authority---divine revelation. It was also a threat to kings who saw themselves as chosen to rule by God. The French Revolution (changed monarchy into democratic form of government executed their nobles like King Louis XVI in 1793) followed on the heels of the enlightenment. The Church was seen as an element of the old order of power and underwent extraordinary persecution during this revolution which further hardened Rome against the movement. This revolution brought an end to the hierarchical and feudal relationships upon which much of Catholicism had been built, but did so at a terrible cost. France went through a terrible period of terror, followed by the dictator Napoleon Bonaparte (d. 1821) He was excommunicated by pope Pius VII (d. 1823). Meanwhile other nationalistic movements would occur in Italy, Spain and Germany, in each case limiting the authority of the Church.

Oddly enough, the Catholic Church regained some strength in Anglican England during the 19th century. Led by John Henry Newman (d. 1890) and Henry Edward Manning (d. 1892), the Oxford Movement brought about the conversion of many Anglicans to Catholicism.

XI. The First Vatican Council

Pope Pius IX was pope from 1846 to 1878, the longest rule of any pontiff. Veneration of Mary, Immaculate Conception Mary born free of original sin (declared by Pope Pius IX, 1854). Perpetual Virgin (Jesus brothers = cousins).

During this time he actively condemned the onslaught of modern philosophical, social and economic ideas. This was done most exhaustively in his Syllabus of Errors (1864), in which he declared the Churchs traditional belief that there should be only one religion protected and endorsed by the government: Catholicism (this position would be officially reversed at Vatican II in 1965). He also called the first ecumenical council in 300 years: Vatican I. Although the council was never officially concluded, its main goal was to ensure the authority of the pope. It did this by declaring the pope to be infallible (free to commit error) when speaking on matters of faith and morals.

XII. The Industrial Revolution

The 19th century is best known as the age of industrialization. With great breakthroughs in technology, the world began to work in new and different ways. The big loser, however, was the worker. The sources of wealth were in the hands of the few, and the masses of workers often had terrible wages and working conditions. Into this crisis came Karl Marx (d. 1883) the father of communism. He blamed capitalism itself for its abuses and excesses and called for a socialist order in which the worker would contribute according to his ability and receive according to his need. Religion for Marx functioned as an escape from the demands of the real world. It was, in his words, the opium of the people. It distracted them from their real mission in this world while pointing to life in the next. Communism was adopted by Russia, China and other nations. (The founder of Communism in the Philippines was Jose Maria Sison). May 1 (Labor Day) was instituted in 1889 as an international day of fight against the abuses of capitalism. The working men asked for eight-hour working day, better social conditions, and higher wages. Leo XIII (d. 1903), however, was a pope very much concerned with the realities of this world. He wrote an encyclical called Rerum Novarum in which he encouraged the development of trade unions, as well as just wages and working conditions. He criticized both extreme capitalism and extreme socialism. Leo also set the stage for a Church which would begin to become more and more involved in the quest for social justice. Many Christian heroes, like St. John Bosco - Don Bosco (d. 1888) founder of Salesians, inflamed the people to a peaceful fight for charity and social justice. He opened the famous oratory where the youth and street children could learn a job and the basics of Christian life. This is the period of the apparition of Our Lady of Fatima (1917) in Portugal (similar to Our Lady of Manaoag devotion in the Philippines).XIII. The Twentieth Century

During the 20th century the Church has involved itself in a wide spectrum of affairs. It began the century condemning modernism, which was an intellectual movement that sought to bring some of the principles of the enlightenment to Christian faith. In time, however, the Church became more open to modern ideas. There was growing concern for growth in the areas of liturgy, biblical studies, ecumenism and social justice. The movement for Italian Unification. In 1870, the Italians took Rome. Victor Emmanuel II, King of Italy, proclaimed Rome the new capital and formally ended the States of the Church. The papacy continued to contest the loss of its territorial sovereignty until 1929, when the Lateran Treaty created the independent state of Vatican City (smallest country in the world) signed by pope Pius XI (d.1939) and Italian prime minister Benito Mussolini. The Church was finally liberated from her temporal power. It took more than thousand years to understand that the Churchs treasures are not properties and wealth, but the Gospel and the poor.

Perhaps no event of the first half of the century was more important than the encyclical Divino Afflante Spiritu, written by pope Pius XII (d. 1958), which opened the doors of modern scripture study for Catholic scholars. The effects of this document are still being felt in the Church. Pope Pius XII declared the Dogma of the Assumption of Mary in 1950. Another major thrust of the Church of the 20th century was its battle against communism. Because of its atheistic and materialistic doctrines, communism has been repeatedly condemned by the Church throughout the world. Also promoting universal justice and peace (avoid the World War to occur). The unquestionable highlight of the century was the Second Vatican Council held in Rome from 1962-1965, convened by Pope John XXIII (d. 1963). Although its effects are still being weighed, it is considered by many historians to be the most important event in Church history since the reformation. (Special insertions: Pope Paul VI (d. 1978), the 1st pope that visited the Philippines in 1971, Fr. Pio de Pietralcina (d. 1968) received stigmata and attracted millions of pilgrims, Pope John Paul I the smiling pope for only 33 days (d. 1978), Pope John Paul II (d. 2005) visited the Philippines twice in 1981 for the Beatification of St. Lorenzo Ruiz (d. 1637) and 1995 for the World Youth Day, St. Maximillian Kolbe (d. 1941) and Mo. (Blessed) Teresa of Calcutta (d. 1997). Veneration of Mary, Pope John Paul II referred to Mary as Co-Redemptrix and as Co-Operator in the Redemption (not yet official).

XIV. The Second Vatican Council

It is impossible to understand the Church today without understanding the events and results of the Second Vatican Council. Although it concluded more than a quarter-century ago, its effects are still being felt throughout the Church. It brought about a period of renewal in the Catholic Church more dramatic than at any other time in history.

Background to the Council: The Election of John XXIII The Church had been in a defensive position for many of the 400 years following the reformation. In the 20th century it gradually started to come out of its cocoon again. There was much talk of reform in the Church and some small signs that it was on its way. However, when Pope Pius XII died in 1958, little did the Church know that it was about to embark on a new era of its history. The election of Angelo Roncalli as the new pope was seen as a choice of moderation. He was elderly with a reputation for holiness, but few imagined that he would bring about an extraordinary process of change in the Church. In fact, he may have been elected because it was thought that he would not rock the boat. Instead he sent the Spirit blowing through the Churchs sails. He chose the name John XXIII, and from the beginning he gave a new direction to the papacy. He described himself as a shepherd and a priest. He visited the sick, the elderly and those in prison. Perhaps most importantly, John XXIII believed in the goodness of the world and in the possibilities of progress. John XXII was an optimist. He saw in human progress the hand of God, and he believed that the Church must open itself up to the modern world. If the Church could not speak to real problems of men and women in the world, it would become increasingly irrelevant to their lives. He also believed that the divisions of the Church brought about in history by the schism of east and west and the reformation were a scandal. He believed that the Church is one and must work for reunification. With these ideas in mind, the pope called for an ecumenical council, a meeting of all bishops throughout the world to reflect on the meaning of the Church in the modern world. The purpose was, in itself, revolutionary. In the past, ecumenical councils were called in response to heresies. Vatican II was to be different. Its purposes were not to condemn, but to build up and renew and help the Church face the challenges of the 20th century. The council would not (could not) change the basic teaching of the Church, but as the pope in his opening address to the council:

The substance of the ancient doctrine of the deposit of faith is one thing, but the way in which it is presented is another. It is the latter that must be given much consideration.

In other words, John XXIII was saying that the essential teaching of the Church must not change, but it must be communicated in such a way that it is helpful for real people living in the real world. It must adapt its style to the time and place.

The Council Meetings The Second Vatican Council met in 4 sessions from 1962 through 1965. The sessions generally went from October to the beginning of December. Those who came to the council included all bishops throughout the world and their advisors. In addition, observers were welcomed from the laity and from the Protestant and Eastern Orthodox Churches. At the opening session which attracted worldwide public attention, there were more than 2,500 participants. Pope John XXIII died in June 1963 between the first and second sessions. He was succeeded by Paul VI who continued the council, and under his leadership not only its work but also its spirit was maintained. One would like to think that the bishops would get together and the Holy Spirit would gently and swiftly guide them in the right direction. The Spirit, however, works through human beings, and human beings are not so easy to manage. At the council there were many different points of view, ranging from very conservative bishops who wanted little change, to the very liberal bishops who wanted drastic and sweeping changes. The largest group was in the middle. It was clear, however, that the council would be a defeat for the minority who wanted to maintain the status quo.

Various commissions would meet and write statements concerning different issues. These would be debated (sometimes fiercely), rewritten, revised, until eventually a document would receive a two-thirds majority vote from the bishops. When this occurred, the document was officially accepted and became part of the highest teaching authority of the Church. In the course of the council, 16 documents were produced on a variety of topics. The single most important topic was clearly the Church itself. This was not a council debating the person of Jesus or the meaning of salvation or the number of sacraments; rather the focus was on the meaning and role of the Church itself.

The following are the key areas that have had the most dramatic effects on the Church.

1. The Church: Lumen Gentium The Dogmatic Constitution on the Church (also known as Lumen Gentium) is one of the most important documents of the Council. This document describes the very nature and meaning of the Church. Its main significance is found in its spirit as well as its words. Unlike previous teaching on the Church, this document does not define the Church primarily in terms of the hierarchy. Such a document was presented at the council and rejected. Instead, the Church is at first described as a mystery. It is a mystery because Gods grace is at work in it, and it is more than human words can adequately describe. Secondly, the Church is called the people of God, a biblical image which emphasizes the call of God and the responsibility of an entire people to respond to that call and be a light to the world. The Church, as the people of God, is a pilgrim people, a people on a journey who have not yet fully realized their goal and purpose. By saying this, the council wished to move away from the previous notion that the Church was a perfect society. It is only after these descriptions that the Church is described as a hierarchy. In other words, the hierarchy gains its meaning from the entire people of God and the mystery of Gods love. In addition, one of the chapters of this document is entitled The Call of the Whole Church to Holiness. The council clearly wished to break down the walls separating the laity from the clergy which often relegated the laity to second-class citizenship in the Church. It made it clear that holiness was not intended only for an elite group in the Church. Rather, holiness is the vocation of all Christians.

Finally, the council recognized that the Church is broader than the Roman Catholic Church. It includes all the baptized. (This will be discussed later).

2. Authority in the Church The Second Vatican Council affirmed the role of the pope as the supreme head of the Church, but it did so in a new context. The authority of the pope is discussed in the context of the authority of the bishops:

This council has decided to declare and proclaim before all men its teaching concerning bishops, the successors of the apostles who, together with the successor of Peter, the Vicar of Christ and the visible head of the whole Church, govern the house of the living God (LG #18).

Although the unique authority of the pope is affirmed, he is seen as the head of the body of bishops. This mentality is called collegiality, in which the pope is joined with all bishops as those called to authority in the Church. This does not in any way take away from the authority of the pope. It does, however, return that authority to its original setting. Peter was one of the apostles, even though the head one. The pope is one of the bishops, although first among equals.

We saw before that this authority of the pope and bishops is primarily to teach on behalf of the Church and to govern the Church in practical affairs. The council also reaffirmed the infallibility of the pope, the bishops in union with the pope, and the whole Church in essential matters of faith.

3. Ecumenism The divisions that existed among Christians were a scandal to the faith. Throughout the 20th century, many of the Protestant Churches had begun a process of dialogue aimed at uniting the Churches (known as the ecumenical movement). The Anglican and Orthodox Churches became part of this dialogue, but the Catholic Church remained an outsider, praying for unity, but uninvolved in the dialogue. The Catholic Church was waiting for the other Churches to come back. They were seen as fallen away and in error. Unity would be achieved only when they returned to the true Church, the Catholic Church.

This attitude died at the Second Vatican Council. Pope John XXIII made it one of the councils chief objectives to enter into the process of attaining Christian unity. Observers were invited from other Christian Churches, and they were able to share their thoughts and observations with a special papal representative. In the end, the council issued a Decree on Ecumenism. This decree was in some ways revolutionary, for it admitted that the Church was not limited to the Catholic Church and that the reasons for the divisions between Christians came from both sides of the division. In other words, unity would be restored through an effort on the part of both sides, not a unilateral demand that the other Churches rejoin the Catholic Church. This was a major breakthrough which has dramatically changed the nature of the relationship between the Catholic Church and all other Christians. Christian leaders are now likely to work with one another and pray with one another, rather than condemn each other.4. Non-Christian Religions Originally, the Decree on Ecumenism was intended to deal with non-Christian religions as well, but the council decided to develop a separate decree for this, The Decree on the Relationship Between the Church and Non-Christian Religions. It is a small document which is important as a starting point and for its spirit. In it the Church recognizes the genuine contributions of all religions as they seek to bring men and women closer to God.

Although the document says little in detail about the religions, it encourages dialogue with them and respect for their religious and cultural values. This is a far cry from a previous mentality which would have simply dismissed them as false religions. The Church is also clear in maintaining the uniqueness and validity of Christian faith while admitting that other religions may share in the truth.

This document is best known for its section on the Churchs relationship with Judaism. Throughout the history of the Church, the Jews had often been portrayed as a people cursed by God and responsible for the death of Jesus. This sad legacy had contributed to the feelings of anti-Semitism which were at the heart of the holocaust by the Nazis. In this decree the Church recognized the many common elements of faith shared by Christians and Jews. More importantly, it sought to eliminate any mentality among Christians which perpetuated anti-Semitism. Although the decree did not explicitly admit and apologize for previous attitudes, it certainly condemned them, and this marked the beginning of a new era in Jewish-Christian relations.5. The Church and the World For many years the Catholic Church had perpetuated something of a fortress mentality: the Church is the fortress guarding its people against the evils of the world. Its attitude toward the world was one of profound mistrust. John XXIII did not share that attitude. He used an Italian word to describe one of the main goals of the council: aggiornamento. This means something like updating, or modernizing, getting in touch with the times.

Since this was such an important theme, the council produced a separate document related to it. It had already done one on the Church. The new one would be more practical, less theological. It was called the Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, also known by its Latin name, Gaudium et Spes. Its opening sentence has become famous for establishing a new relationship between the Church and the world:

The joys and the hopes, the griefs and the anxieties of the men and women of this age, especially those who are poor or in any way afflicted, these too are the joys and the hopes, the griefs and anxieties of the followers of Christ (GS #1).

The Church immediately sought to unite itself with the human race rather than separate itself from them. It was also made clear that the Church is a servant Church that identifies in a special way with the poor and the afflicted. We find in this document much of the basis for the model of the Church as servant and for the preferential option for the poor. The document emphasizes that the Church must exist in the world, scrutinizing the signs of the times and interpreting them in light of the gospel (GS # 4). The mission of the Church then is not to simply continue to repeat the formulas of faith, but to show how that faith should affect the way that Christians live in the world and respond to the various situations in the world. It recognized the genuine advances made by society in culture, the arts and science and taught that the Church need not be threatened by such advances. It also recognized the importance and dignity of individual conscience. It encouraged a common human solidarity in the search for justice and peace on ea