the coal resource - world coal association using methane from coal mines ... into lignite or...

48
THE COAL RESOURCE A COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF COAL WORLD COAL INSTITUTE

Upload: vantu

Post on 03-Apr-2018

222 views

Category:

Documents


4 download

TRANSCRIPT

THE COAL RESOURCEA COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF COAL

WORLD COAL INSTITUTE

Coal is one of the world’s most importantsources of energy, fuelling almost 40% ofelectricity worldwide. In many countries thisfigure is much higher: Poland relies on coal forover 94% of its electricity; South Africa for92%; China for 77%; and Australia for 76%.Coal has been the world’s fastest growing energysource in recent years – faster than gas, oil,nuclear, hydro and renewables.

Coal has played this important role for centuries– not only providing electricity, but also anessential fuel for steel and cement production,and other industrial activities.

The Coal Resource provides a comprehensiveoverview of coal and the role it plays in our lives.It covers how coal is formed, how it is mined,through to its use and the impact it has on oursocieties and natural environment. It describescoal’s important role as an energy source andhow coal – along with other sources of energy –will be vital in meeting the world’s rapidlygrowing energy needs.

We hope that we will answer any questions youmay have about the coal industry but if you wouldlike further information, a number of other WorldCoal Institute (WCI) publications may be helpful.

>> The Role of Coal as an Energy Source (2003)describes the role that coal plays in our worldtoday and examines this role in the context ofwider issues, such as increasing energydemand, energy security and environmentalchallenges.

>> Clean Coal – Building a Future throughTechnology (2004) discusses how theenvironmental challenges facing coal –specifically the use of coal – can be overcomethrough the development and use of clean coaltechnologies.

>> In 2001 the World Coal Institute publishedSustainable Entrepreneurship, the WayForward for the Coal Industry – inconjunction with the United NationsEnvironment Programme (UNEP) – looking at coal within the wider context ofsustainable development.

Copies of all WCI publications and furtherinformation on the coal industry are availableon our website: www.worldcoal.org

THE COAL RESOURCE

WHERE DOES COAL COME FROM? WHAT IS IT

USED FOR? IS IT USED ANYMORE?

The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 1

2 SECTION 1 WHAT IS COAL?2 Types of Coal3 Where is Coal Found?4 Finding Coal

7 SECTION 2 COAL MINING7 Underground Mining7 Surface Mining8 Coal Preparation9 Coal Transportation10 Safety at Coal Mines11 Coal Mining & the Wider Community

13 SECTION 3 THE GLOBAL COAL MARKET13 Coal Production13 Coal Consumption14 Coal Trade16 Energy Security

19 SECTION 4 HOW IS COAL USED?19 History of Coal Use20 How is Coal Converted into Electricity?21 Importance of Electricity Worldwide22 Coal in Iron & Steel Production24 Coal Liquefaction24 Coal & Cement25 Other Uses of Coal

27 SECTION 5 COAL & THE ENVIRONMENT27 Coal Mining & the Environment27 Land Disturbance27 Mine Subsidence28 Water Pollution28 Dust & Noise Pollution28 Rehabilitation29 Using Methane from Coal Mines29 Coal Use & the Environment31 Technological Response31 Reducing Particulate Emissions32 Preventing Acid Rain33 Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions36 Coal & Renewable Energy37 Overcoming Environmental Impacts

39 SECTION 6 MEETING FUTURE ENERGY DEMAND39 The Role of Coal40 Making Further Environmental Gains41 Coal & Our Energy Future

42 FURTHER READING

Contents

2 World Coal Institute

The build-up of silt and other sediments,together with movements in the earth’s crust(known as tectonic movements) buried theseswamps and peat bogs, often to great depths.With burial, the plant material was subjectedto high temperatures and pressures. Thiscaused physical and chemical changes in thevegetation, transforming it into peat and theninto coal.

Coal formation began during theCarboniferous Period – known as the first coal age – which spanned 360 million to 290million years ago.

The quality of each coal deposit is determinedby temperature and pressure and by the lengthof time in formation, which is referred to as its‘organic maturity’. Initially the peat is convertedinto lignite or ‘brown coal’ – these are coal-types with low organic maturity. In comparisonto other coals, lignite is quite soft and itscolour can range from dark black to variousshades of brown.

Over many more millions of years, thecontinuing effects of temperature andpressure produces further change in thelignite, progressively increasing its organic

maturity and transforming it into the rangeknown as ‘sub-bituminous’ coals.

Further chemical and physical changes occuruntil these coals became harder and blacker,forming the ‘bituminous’ or ‘hard coals’. Underthe right conditions, the progressive increasein the organic maturity can continue, finallyforming anthracite.

Types of CoalThe degree of change undergone by a coal as itmatures from peat to anthracite – known ascoalification – has an important bearing on itsphysical and chemical properties and isreferred to as the ‘rank’ of the coal.

Low rank coals, such as lignite and sub-bituminous coals are typically softer, friablematerials with a dull, earthy appearance. Theyare characterised by high moisture levels andlow carbon content, and therefore a low energycontent.

Higher rank coals are generally harder andstronger and often have a black, vitreouslustre. They contain more carbon, have lowermoisture content, and produce more energy.Anthracite is at the top of the rank scale and

Definition

Coal is a fossil fuel. It is acombustible, sedimentary,organic rock, which iscomposed mainly of carbon,hydrogen and oxygen. It isformed from vegetation,which has been consolidatedbetween other rock strataand altered by the combinedeffects of pressure and heatover millions of years toform coal seams.

Photographs courtesy of theAustralian Coal Association

SECTION ONE

WHAT IS COAL?

>> Coal is the altered remains of prehistoric vegetationthat originally accumulated in swamps and peat bogs. >>

Peat

Brown Coal

Sub-bituminous

Bituminous

The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 3

has a correspondingly higher carbon andenergy content and a lower level of moisture(see diagram on page 4).

Where is Coal Found?It has been estimated that there are over 984billion tonnes of proven coal reservesworldwide (see definitions). This means thatthere is enough coal to last us over 190 years(see graph). Coal is located worldwide – it canbe found on every continent in over 70countries, with the biggest reserves in theUSA, Russia, China and India.

ResourceThe amount of coal that may be present in adeposit or coalfield. This does not take intoaccount the feasibility of mining the coaleconomically. Not all resources arerecoverable using current technology.

ReservesReserves can be defined in terms of proved (ormeasured) reserves and probable (orindicated) reserves. Probable reserves havebeen estimated with a lower degree ofconfidence than proved reserves.

Proved ReservesReserves that are not only considered to berecoverable but can also be recoveredeconomically. This means they take intoaccount what current mining technology canachieve and the economics of recovery. Provedreserves will therefore change according tothe price of coal; if the price of coal is low,proved reserves will decrease.

Source: IEA Coal Information 2004

0

50

100

150

200

250

USA

RussiaChina

India

Australia

Germany

South Afri

ca

Ukraine

0

50

100

150

200

Countries with the Largest Reserves of Coal, 2003 (billion tonnes)

Source: BP 2004

Reserves-to-production Ratios, 2003 (Years)

Source: BP 2004

4 World Coal Institute

Low Rank Coals47%

Sub-Bituminous30%

Bituminous52%

ThermalSteam Coal

MetallurgicalCoking Coal

Anthracite~1%

Lignite17%

Hard Coal53%

Largely power generation

Power generation Cement manufacture

Industrial uses

Power generation Cement manufacture

Industrial uses

Manufacture of iron and steel

Domestic/industrial including

smokeless fuel

USE

S%

OF

WO

RLD

RES

ERV

ES

HIGH

HIGH

MOISTURE CONTENT OF COAL

CARBON/ENERGY CONTENT OF COAL

Types of Coal

While it is estimated that there is enough coal to last us 190 years, this could extend still further through a number ofdevelopments, including:

>> the discovery of new reserves throughongoing and improved explorationactivities;

>> advances in mining techniques, which willallow previously inaccessible reserves to bereached.

All fossil fuels will eventually run out and it isessential that we use them as efficiently aspossible. Significant improvements continue tobe made in how efficiently coal is used so thatmore energy can be generated from eachtonne of coal produced.

Finding CoalCoal reserves are discovered throughexploration activities. The process usuallyinvolves creating a geological map of the area,then carrying out geochemical and geophysicalsurveys, followed by exploration drilling. Thisallows an accurate picture of the area to bedeveloped.

The area will only ever become a mine if it islarge enough and of sufficient quality that thecoal can be economically recovered. Once thishas been confirmed, mining operations begin.

SECTION ONE END

The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 5

Coal Reserves Showing Regional Shares (at end of 2003)

■ Europe and Eurasia 36%

■ Asia Pacific 30%

■ North America 26%

■ Africa 6%

■ South and Central America 2%

Middle East coal reserves less than 1% of total reserves

Source: BP 2004

Gas Reserves Showing Regional Shares (at end of 2003)

■ Middle East 41%

■ Europe and Eurasia 35%

■ Asia Pacific 8%

■ Africa 8%

■ North America 4%

■ South and Central America 4%

Source: BP 2004

Oil Reserves Showing Regional Shares (at end of 2003)

■ Middle East 63%

■ Africa 9%

■ South and Central America 9%

■ Europe and Eurasia 9%

■ North America 6%

■ Asia Pacific 4%

Source: BP 2004

Large opencast mines can cover an area of many squarekilometres and use very large pieces of equipment, such asdraglines (pictured here). Photograph courtesy of Anglo Coal.

6 World Coal Institute

The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 7

The choice of mining method is largelydetermined by the geology of the coal deposit.Underground mining currently accounts forabout 60% of world coal production, althoughin several important coal producing countriessurface mining is more common. Surfacemining accounts for around 80% of productionin Australia, while in the USA it is used forabout 67% of production.

Underground MiningThere are two main methods of undergroundmining: room-and-pillar and longwall mining.

In room-and-pillar mining, coal deposits aremined by cutting a network of ‘rooms’ into thecoal seam and leaving behind ‘pillars’ of coal tosupport the roof of the mine. These pillars canbe up to 40% of the total coal in the seam –although this coal can sometimes be recoveredat a later stage. This can be achieved in what isknown as ‘retreat mining’, where coal is minedfrom the pillars as workers retreat. The roof isthen allowed to collapse and the mine isabandoned.

Longwall mining involves the full extraction ofcoal from a section of the seam or ‘face’ usingmechanical shearers. A longwall face requires

careful planning to ensure favourable geologyexists throughout the section beforedevelopment work begins. The coal ‘face’ canvary in length from 100-350m. Self-advancing, hydraulically-powered supportstemporarily hold up the roof while coal isextracted. When coal has been extracted fromthe area, the roof is allowed to collapse. Over75% of the coal in the deposit can beextracted from panels of coal that can extend3km through the coal seam.

The main advantage of room–and-pillarmining over longwall mining is that it allowscoal production to start much more quickly,using mobile machinery that costs under $5million (longwall mining machinery can cost$50 million).

The choice of mining technique is site specificbut always based on economic considerations;differences even within a single mine can leadto both methods being used.

Surface MiningSurface mining – also known as opencast oropencut mining – is only economic when thecoal seam is near the surface. This methodrecovers a higher proportion of the coal

SECTION TWO

COAL MINING

>> Coal is mined by two methods – surface or ‘opencast’mining and underground or ‘deep’ mining. >>

8 World Coal Institute

deposit than underground mining as all coalseams are exploited – 90% or more of the coalcan be recovered. Large opencast mines cancover an area of many square kilometres anduse very large pieces of equipment, including:draglines, which remove the overburden; powershovels; large trucks, which transportoverburden and coal; bucket wheel excavators;and conveyors.

The overburden of soil and rock is firstbroken up by explosives; it is then removed by draglines or by shovel and truck. Once thecoal seam is exposed, it is drilled, fracturedand systematically mined in strips. The coal is then loaded on to large trucks orconveyors for transport to either the coal preparation plant or direct to where it will be used.

Coal PreparationCoal straight from the ground, known as run-of-mine (ROM) coal, often contains unwantedimpurities such as rock and dirt and comes in amixture of different-sized fragments.However, coal users need coal of a consistentquality. Coal preparation – also known as coalbeneficiation or coal washing – refers to thetreatment of ROM coal to ensure a consistentquality and to enhance its suitability forparticular end-uses.

The treatment depends on the properties ofthe coal and its intended use. It may requireonly simple crushing or it may need to gothrough a complex treatment process toreduce impurities.

To remove impurities, the raw run-of-mine coalis crushed and then separated into various sizefractions. Larger material is usually treatedusing ‘dense medium separation’. In this

process, the coal is separated from otherimpurities by being floated in a tank containinga liquid of specific gravity, usually asuspension of finely ground magnetite. As thecoal is lighter, it floats and can be separatedoff, while heavier rock and other impuritiessink and are removed as waste.

The smaller size fractions are treated in anumber of ways, usually based on differencesin mass, such as in centrifuges. A centrifuge isa machine which turns a container around veryquickly, causing solids and liquids inside it toseparate. Alternative methods use thedifferent surface properties of coal and waste.In ‘froth flotation’, coal particles are removed ina froth produced by blowing air into a waterbath containing chemical reagents. Thebubbles attract the coal but not the wasteand are skimmed off to recover the coalfines. Recent technological developmentshave helped increase the recovery of ultrafine coal material.

Definition

Overburden is the layer ofsoil and rocks (strata)between the coal seams andthe surface.

Longwall mining involves thefull extraction of coal from asection of the seam usingmechanical shearers.Photograph courtesy of Joy Mining Machinery.

Definition

DWT – Deadweight Tonneswhich refers to thedeadweight capacity of aship, including its cargo,bunker fuel, fresh water,stores etc.

Continuous MinersDeveloping Roadways

Next Longwall Panelto be Mined

Direction of Mining Mined Area

Coal Conveyor

Coal Pillar

Coal Shearerand Roof Supports

Coal Pillars Retainedfor Roof Support

Coal Conveyor to Surface

Mine SurfaceFacilities

Previously MinedLongwall PanelMined Area

Coal Shearerand Roof Supports

Coal Seam

The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 9

Coal TransportationThe way that coal is transported to where itwill be used depends on the distance to becovered. Coal is generally transported byconveyor or truck over short distances. Trainsand barges are used for longer distanceswithin domestic markets, or alternatively coalcan be mixed with water to form a coal slurryand transported through a pipeline.

Ships are commonly used for internationaltransportation, in sizes ranging fromHandymax (40-60,000 DWT), Panamax (about60-80,000 DWT) to large Capesize vessels(about 80,000+ DWT). Around 700 milliontonnes (Mt) of coal was traded internationallyin 2003 and around 90% of this was seabornetrade. Coal transportation can be veryexpensive – in some instances it accounts forup to 70% of the delivered cost of coal.

Underground Mining Operations

Diagram courtesy of BHP Billiton Illawara Coal

10 World Coal Institute

Measures are taken at every stage of coaltransportation and storage to minimiseenvironmental impacts (see Section 5 for moreinformation on coal and the environment).

Safety at Coal MinesThe coal industry takes the issue of safety veryseriously. Coal mining deep undergroundinvolves a higher safety risk than coal mined inopencast pits. However, modern coal mines have rigorous safety procedures, health andsafety standards and worker education andtraining, which have led to significantimprovements in safety levels in bothunderground and opencast mining (see graph onpage 11 for a comparison of safety levels in UScoal mining compared to other industry sectors).

There are still problems within the industry.The majority of coal mine accidents andfatalities occur in China. Most accidents are insmall scale town and village mines, oftenillegally operated, where mining techniques arelabour intensive and use very basic equipment.The Chinese government is taking steps toimprove safety levels, including the forced

Graded embankment to act as baffle against

noise and dust

Topsoil and subsoilstripped by motor scrapers

and carefully stored

Overburden from benchesdug by shovels and hauled

by dump trucks

Overburden being excavatedby dragline

Coal seams Overburden Draglineexcavation

Froth flotation cells atGoedehoop Colliery are usedfor fine coal beneficiation.Photograph courtesy of Anglo Coal.

Surface Coal Mining Operations and Mine Rehabilitation

The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 11

closure of small-scale mines and those that failto meet safety standards.

Coal Mining & the Wider CommunityCoal mining generally takes place in rural areaswhere mining and the associated industries areusually one of, if not, the largest employers inthe area. It is estimated that coal employs over7 million people worldwide, 90% of whom are indeveloping countries.

Not only does coal mining directly employmillions worldwide, it generates income andemployment in other regional industries thatare dependent on coal mining. These industriesprovide goods and services into coal mining,such as fuel, electricity, and equipment, or aredependent on expenditure from employees ofcoal mines.

Large-scale coal mines provide a significantsource of local income in the form of wages,community programmes and inputs intoproduction in the local economy.

However, mining and energy extraction cansometimes lead to land use conflicts anddifficulties in relationships with neighbours andlocal communities. Many conflicts over land usecan be resolved by highlighting that mining isonly a temporary land use. Mine rehabilitationmeans that the land can be used once again forother purposes after mine closure.

Spoil pileDragline bucketunloads burden

After the soils are replaced in their proper sequence, they are ripped to relieve compaction and

then cultivated, limed and fertilised

Draglinebackfill

levelled by bulldozers

Tippingoverburden

from benchesto backfill

Subsoil andtopsoil being

replacedand shaped

Grass and trees

Service Providing

Leisure & Hospitality

Trade, Transportation & UtilitiesEducation & Health Services

Coal Mining

Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing & Hunting

Manufacturing

Construction

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Injury Rates in Selected US Industries, 2003

(per 100 full-time employees)

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Department of Labor

SECTION TWO END

Coal is traded internationally, with coal shipped huge distancesby sea to reach markets. Photograph courtesy of PortsCorporation of Queensland

12 World Coal Institute

The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 13

The world currently consumes over 4050 Mt ofcoal. Coal is used by a variety of sectors –including power generation, iron and steelproduction, cement manufacturing and as aliquid fuel. The majority of coal is either utilisedin power generation – steam coal or lignite – oriron and steel production – coking coal.

Coal ProductionOver 4030 Mt of coal is currently produced – a38% increase over the past 20 years. Coalproduction has grown fastest in Asia, whileEurope has actually seen a decline inproduction.

The largest coal producing countries are notconfined to one region – the top five producersare China, the USA, India, Australia and SouthAfrica. Much of global coal production is usedin the country in which it was produced, onlyaround 18% of hard coal production isdestined for the international coal market.

Global coal production is expected to reach7 billion tonnes in 2030 – with Chinaaccounting for around half the increase overthis period. Steam coal production isprojected to have reached around 5.2 billiontonnes; coking coal 624 million tonnes; andbrown coal 1.2 billion tonnes.

Coal ConsumptionCoal plays a vital role in power generation andthis role is set to continue. Coal currently fuels39% of the world’s electricity and thisproportion is expected to remain at similarlevels over the next 30 years.

Consumption of steam coal is projected togrow by 1.5% per year over the period 2002-2030. Lignite, also used in power generation,will grow by 1% per year. Demand for cokingcoal in iron and steel production is set toincrease by 0.9% per year over this period.

The biggest market for coal is Asia, whichcurrently accounts for 54% of global coalconsumption – although China is responsiblefor a significant proportion of this. Manycountries do not have natural energy resourcessufficient to cover their energy needs, andtherefore need to import energy to help meettheir requirements. Japan, Chinese Taipei andKorea, for example, import significantquantities of steam coal for electricitygeneration and coking coal for steel production.

It is not just a lack of indigenous coal suppliesthat prompts countries to import coal but alsothe importance of obtaining specific types ofcoal. Major coal producers such as China, the

SECTION THREE

THE GLOBAL COALMARKET>> Coal is a global industry, with coal mined commercially

in over 50 countries and coal used in over 70. >>

Major Coal Importers, 2003

(Mt)

Japan 162 Republic of Korea 72 Chinese Taipei 54 Germany 35 UK 32 Russia 24 India 24 USA 23 Netherlands 22 Spain 22

Source: IEA Coal Information 2004

USA and India, for example, also importquantities of coal for quality and logisticalreasons.

Coal will continue to play a key role in theworld’s energy mix, with demand in certainregions set to grow rapidly. Growth in both thesteam and coking coal markets will bestrongest in developing Asian countries,where demand for electricity and the need forsteel in construction, car production, anddemands for household appliances willincrease as incomes rise.

Coal TradeCoal is traded all over the world, with coalshipped huge distances by sea to reach markets.

Over the last twenty years, seaborne trade insteam coal has increased on average by about8% each year, while seaborne coking coal tradehas increased by 2% a year. Overallinternational trade in coal reached 718 Mt in2003; while this is a significant amount of coalit still only accounts for about 18% of totalcoal consumed.

Transportation costs account for a large shareof the total delivered price of coal, thereforeinternational trade in steam coal is effectivelydivided into two regional markets – theAtlantic and the Pacific. The Atlantic market ismade up of importing countries in WesternEurope, notably the UK, Germany and Spain.The Pacific market consists of developing andOECD Asian importers, notably Japan, Koreaand Chinese Taipei. The Pacific marketcurrently accounts for about 60% of worldsteam coal trade. Markets tend to overlapwhen coal prices are high and suppliesplentiful. South Africa is a natural point ofconvergence between the two markets.

14 World Coal Institute

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

ChinaUSA

India

Australia

South Afri

ca

Russia

Indonesia

Poland

Kazakhstan

Ukraine

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

ChinaUSA

India

South Afri

caJa

pan

Russia

Poland

Rep. of K

orea

Germany

Australia

Top Ten Coal Producing Countries Worldwide, 2003 (Mt)

Source: IEA 2004

Top Ten Coal Consumers Worldwide, 2003 (Mt)

Source: IEA 2004

Definition

OECD is the Organisation forEconomic Cooperation andDevelopment. It is a group of30 member countries whoare committed todemocratic government andthe market economy.

The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 15

Australia is the world’s largest coal exporter;exporting over 207 Mt of hard coal in 2003,out of its total production of 274 Mt. Coal isone of Australia’s most valuable exportcommodities. Although almost three-quartersof Australia’s exports go to the Asian market,Australian coals are used all over the world,including Europe, the Americas and Africa.

International coking coal trade is limited.Australia is also the largest supplier of cokingcoal, accounting for 51% of world exports. TheUSA and Canada are significant exporters andChina is emerging as an important supplier.Coking coal is more expensive than steam coal,which means that Australia is able to affordthe high freight rates involved in exportingcoking coal worldwide.

2002 2030

35 51

6477

17

35 20

103

116

119

14

16 13

47

66

1224

24

37

14 15

23

62

19

19

16 1322 2023

19

18

21

29

18

35

21

Major Inter-Regional Coal Trade Flows, 2002-2030 (Mt)

Source: IEA 2004

16 World Coal Institute

Energy SecurityMinimising the risk of disruptions to ourenergy supplies is ever more important –whether they are caused by accident, politicalintervention, terrorism or industrial disputes.Coal has an important role to play at a timewhen we are increasingly concerned withissues relating to energy security .

The global coal market is large and diverse,with many different producers and consumersfrom every continent. Coal supplies do notcome from one specific area, which wouldmake consumers dependent on the security ofsupplies and stability of only one region. Theyare spread out worldwide and coal is tradedinternationally.

Many countries rely on domestic supplies ofcoal for their energy needs – such as China, theUSA, India, Australia and South Africa. Othersimport coal from a variety of countries: in2003 the UK, for example, imported coal fromAustralia, Colombia, Poland, Russia, SouthAfrica, and the USA, as well as smalleramounts from a number of other countries andits own domestic supplies.

Coal therefore has an important role to play inmaintaining the security of the global energymix.

>> Coal reserves are very large and will beavailable for the foreseeable futurewithout raising geopolitical or safetyissues.

>> Coal is readily available from a wide varietyof sources in a well-supplied worldwidemarket.

>> Coal can be easily stored at power stationsand stocks can be drawn on in emergencies.

Total World Electricity Generation (% by Fuel, 2002)

■ Coal 39%

■ Gas 19%

■ Nuclear 17%

■ Hydro 16%

■ Oil 7%

■ Other* 2%

* Other includes solar, wind, combustible renewables, geothermal and waste

Source: IEA 2004

Total World Electricity Generation (% by Fuel, projected for 2030)

■ Coal 38%

■ Gas 30%

■ Hydro 13%

■ Nuclear 9%

■ Other* 6%

■ Oil 4%

* Other includes solar, wind, combustible renewables, geothermal and waste

Source: IEA 2004

The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 17

>> Coal-based power is not dependent on theweather and can be used as a backup forwind and hydropower.

>> Coal does not need high pressure pipelinesor dedicated supply routes.

>> Coal supply routes do not need to beprotected at enormous expense.

These features help to facilitate efficient andcompetitive energy markets and help tostabilise energy prices through inter-fuelcompetition.

Australia

China

Indonesia

South Afri

ca

Russia

ColombiaUSA

Canada

Kazakhstan

Poland0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Major Coal Exporters, 2003 (Mt)

■ Steam

■ Coking

Source: IEA 2004

Minimising the risk ofdisruption to our energysupplies is ever moreimportant. Coal supply routesdo not need to be protectedat enormous expense.Photograph courtesy of CN.

SECTION THREE END

Coal currently supplies 39% of the world’s electricity. The availability of low cost supplies of coal has been vital to achieving high rates of electrification worldwide. Photograph courtesy of Vattenfall.

18 World Coal Institute

The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 19

History of Coal UseCoal has a very long and varied history. Somehistorians believe that coal was first usedcommercially in China. There are reports thata mine in northeastern China provided coalfor smelting copper and for casting coinsaround 1000 BC. One of the earliest knownreferences to coal was made by the Greekphilosopher and scientist Aristotle, whoreferred to a charcoal like rock. Coal cindersfound among Roman ruins in England indicatethat the Romans used energy from coalbefore AD 400. Chronicles from the MiddleAges provide the first evidence of coalmining in Europe and even of an internationaltrade as sea coal from exposed coal seamson the English coast was gathered andexported to Belgium.

It was during the Industrial Revolution in the18th and 19th centuries that demand for coalsurged. The great improvement of the steamengine by James Watt, patented in 1769, waslargely responsible for the growth in coal use.The history of coal mining and use isinextricably linked with that of the IndustrialRevolution – iron and steel production, railtransportation and steamships.

Coal was also used to produce gas for gaslights in many cities, which was called ‘towngas’. This process of coal gasification saw thegrowth in gas lights across metropolitan areasat the beginning of the 19th century,particularly in London. The use of coal gas instreet lighting was eventually replaced withthe emergence of the modern electric era.

With the development of electric power in the19th century, coal’s future became closelytied to electricity generation. The firstpractical coal-fired electric generatingstation, developed by Thomas Edison, wentinto operation in New York City in 1882,supplying electricity for household lights.

Oil finally overtook coal as the largest sourceof primary energy in the 1960s, with the hugegrowth in the transportation sector. Coal stillplays a vital role in the world’s primary energymix, providing 23.5% of global primary energyneeds in 2002, 39% of the world’s electricity,more than double the next largest source, andan essential input into 64% of the world’ssteel production.

SECTION FOUR

HOW IS COAL USED?

>> Coal has many important uses worldwide. The mostsignificant uses are in electricity generation, steelproduction, cement manufacturing and other industrialprocesses, and as a liquid fuel. >>

Definition

Primary Energy is all energyconsumed by end-users. Thisincludes the energy used togenerate electricity, butdoes not include theelectricity itself.

20 World Coal Institute

How is Coal Converted into Electricity?Modern life is unimaginable withoutelectricity. It lights houses, buildings, streets, provides domestic and industrial heat, and powers most equipment used inhomes, offices and machinery in factories.Improving access to electricity worldwide is a key factor in alleviating poverty. It isstaggering to think that 1.6 billion peopleworldwide, or 27% of the world’s population,do not have access to electricity.

Steam coal, also known as thermal coal, isused in power stations to generate electricity.The earliest conventional coal-fired powerstations used lump coal which was burnt on agrate in boilers to raise steam. Nowadays, thecoal is first milled to a fine powder, whichincreases the surface area and allows it toburn more quickly. In these pulverised coalcombustion (PCC) systems, the powdered coalis blown into the combustion chamber of aboiler where it is burnt at high temperature.The hot gases and heat energy producedconverts water – in tubes lining the boiler –into steam.

The high pressure steam is passed into aturbine containing thousands of propeller-likeblades. The steam pushes these bladescausing the turbine shaft to rotate at highspeed. A generator is mounted at one end ofthe turbine shaft and consists of carefullywound wire coils. Electricity is generatedwhen these are rapidly rotated in a strongmagnetic field. After passing through theturbine, the steam is condensed and returnedto the boiler to be heated once again (seediagram on page 21).

The electricity generated is transformed intothe higher voltages – up to 400,000 volts –

0

20

40

60

80

100

Poland

South Afri

caChina

Australia

India

Kazakhstan

Czech Republic

Greece

Denmark

Germany

USA

Indonesia

Percentage of Electricity Generated from Coal in Selected

Countries (mixture of 2003 & 2002 data)

Source: IEA 2004

China

Thailand

Philippines

IndonesiaIndia

South Afri

ca

Nigeria

Botswana

Mozambique

Uganda

Ethiopia

0

20

40

60World average73.7%

80

100

Electrification Rates for Selected Developing

World Countries, 2002 (%)

Source: IEA 2004

The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 21

used for economic, efficient transmission viapower line grids. When it nears the point ofconsumption, such as our homes, theelectricity is transformed down to the safer100-250 voltage systems used in thedomestic market.

Modern PCC technology is well-developed andaccounts for over 90% of coal-fired capacityworldwide. Improvements continue to be madein conventional PCC power station design andnew combustion techniques are beingdeveloped. These developments allow moreelectricity to be produced from less coal – thisis known as improving the thermal efficiencyof the power station. More details on thesetechnologies and how they enhance theenvironmental performance of coal-firedpower stations can be found in Section 5.

Importance of Electricity WorldwideAccess to energy, and specifically electricity,is a driving force behind economic and socialdevelopment. Dependable and affordableaccess to electricity is essential for improvingpublic health, providing modern informationand education services, and saving peoplefrom subsistence tasks, such as gathering fuel.Around 2.4 billion people rely on primitivebiomass fuels – such as wood, dung and cropresidues – for cooking and heating.Improving access to electricity and allowingpeople to move away from the combustion offuels in household fires would have asignificant health impact. The World HealthOrganisation has estimated that smoke fromburning solid fuels indoors is responsible for1.6 million deaths each year in the world’spoorest countries.

Improving access to energy also supportseconomic development:

>> Labour that would otherwise be spentcollecting fuel is freed for more productiveuse, such as in agricultural andmanufacturing industries. This increaseshousehold income, labour supply and theproductive capacity of developingeconomies.

>> The intensive collection of biomass for fuelfor household consumption in many casesdegrades the productivity of agriculturalland – through desertification (by removingtrees) or through depriving soil of nutrients(by collecting animal waste).

>> Inefficient combustion of unconventionalfuels, especially in households withoutflues, creates health complications. Movinghouseholds towards modern energysources, such as electricity, improveshealth and productivity.

>> The provision of household electricityprovides for the use of modern appliances– such as washing machines – and lightingwhich improves the productivity of homelabour and frees time.

Top Five Coking CoalProducers (Mt)

China 159 Australia 112 Russia 55 USA 40 Canada 23

Source: IEA 2004

World Crude SteelProduction (Mt)

1970 5951975 6441980 7171985 7191990 7701995 7521996 7501997 7991998 7771999 7892000 8482001 8502002 9022003 965

Source: IISI

Converting Coal to Electricity

22 World Coal Institute

Coal currently supplies 39% of the world’selectricity. In many countries this role is muchhigher. The availability of low-cost supplies ofcoal in both developed and developingcountries has been vital to achieving high ratesof electrification. In China, for example, 700million people have been connected to theelectricity system over the past 15 years. Thecountry is now 99% electrified, with around77% of the electricity produced in coal-firedpower stations.

Coal in Iron & Steel ProductionSteel is essential to everyday life – cars, trains,buildings, ships, bridges, refrigerators, medicalequipment, for example, are all made withsteel. It is vital for the machines which makenearly every product we use today.

Coal is essential for iron and steel production;some 64% of steel production worldwidecomes from iron made in blast furnaces whichuse coal. World crude steel production was965 million tonnes in 2003, using around 543 Mt of coal.

Raw MaterialsA blast furnace uses iron ore, coke (made fromspecialist coking coals) and small quantities oflimestone. Some furnaces use cheaper steamcoal – known as pulverised coal injection (PCI)– in order to save costs.

Iron ore is a mineral containing iron oxides.Commercial ores usually have an iron contentof at least 58%. Iron ore is mined in around 50 countries – the seven largest producersaccount for about 75% of world production. Around 98% of iron ore is used in steel making.

Coke is made from coking coals, which havecertain physical properties that cause them tosoften, liquefy and then resolidify into hard butporous lumps when heated in the absence ofair. Coking coals must also have low sulphurand phosphorous contents and, being relativelyscarce, are more expensive than the steamcoals used in electricity generation.

Sized coke

LimestoneFlux

Iron oreSinter +Pellets or Lump

Water cooledrefractory lining

Slag notch

Slag ladle

Injection nozzleTap hole

Iron ladle

Hot air blast

Coal Use in Steel Production

The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 23

The coking coal is crushed and washed. It isthen ‘purified’ or ‘carbonised’ in a series ofcoke ovens, known as batteries. During thisprocess, by-products are removed and cokeis produced.

Blast FurnaceThe raw materials – iron ore, coke and fluxes(minerals such as limestone which are usedto collect impurities) – are fed into the top ofthe blast furnace. Air is heated to about1200°C and is blown into the furnace throughnozzles in the lower section. The air causesthe coke to burn producing carbon monoxide,which creates the chemical reaction. The ironore is reduced to molten iron by removing theoxygen. A tap at the bottom of the furnace isperiodically opened and molten iron and slagis drained.

It is taken to a basic oxygen furnace (BOF)where steel scrap and more limestone areadded and 99% pure oxygen is blown ontothe mixture. The reaction with the oxygenraises the temperature up to 1700°C,oxidises the impurities, and leaves almostpure liquid steel. Around 0.63 tonnes (630kg) of coke produces 1 tonne (1000 kg) of steel.

Basic oxygen furnaces currently produceabout 64% of the world’s steel. A further33% of steel is produced in electric arcfurnaces (EAF). EAFs are used to producenew steel from scrap metal. If scrap steel isreadily available, this method is lower costthan the traditional blast furnace. The electricarc furnace is charged with scrap steel andiron. Electrodes are placed in the furnace andwhen power is applied they produce an arc ofelectricity. The energy from the arc raises thetemperature to 1600°C, melting the scrap

and producing molten steel. Much of theelectricity used in EAF is produced from coal.

Developments in the steel industry haveenabled ‘pulverised coal injection’ technology tobe used. This allows coal to be injected directlyinto the blast furnace. A wide variety of coalscan be used in PCI, including steam coal.

Steel is 100% recyclable, with some 383 Mt ofrecycled steel used in 2003 and around 400 Mtused in 2004. The BOF process uses up to 30%recycled steel and around 90-100% is used inEAF production. By-products from iron andsteel making can also be recycled - slag, forexample, can be solidified, crushed, and used insoil mix, road surfaces and cement.

ChinaJa

panUSA

Russia

South Kore

a

Germany

UkraineIndia

Brazil

Italy

0

50

100

150

200

250

Top Ten Steel Producing Countries, 2003 (Mt)

Source: IISI

24 World Coal Institute

Coal LiquefactionIn a number of countries coal is converted intoa liquid fuel – a process known as liquefaction.The liquid fuel can be refined to producetransport fuels and other oil products, such asplastics and solvents. There are two keymethods of liquefaction:

>> direct coal liquefaction – where coal isconverted to liquid fuel in a single process;

>> indirect coal liquefaction – where coal isfirst gasified and then converted to liquid.

In this way, coal can act as a substitute forcrude oil, a valuable role in a world ever moreconcerned with energy security. The costeffectiveness of coal liquefaction depends toa large extent on the world oil price withwhich, in an open market economy, it has tocompete. If the oil price is high, coalliquefaction becomes more competitive.

There have been instances in the past wherethe isolation of a country from reliable, securesources of crude oil has forced the large-scaleproduction of liquid fuels from coal. Germanyproduced substantial amounts of coal-derivedfuels during the Second World War, as didembargoed South Africa between the mid-1950s and 1980s. South Africa continueslarge-scale production of liquid fuels to thepresent day.

The only commercial-scale coal liquefactionprocess currently in operation worldwide isthe indirect Sasol (Fischer-Tropsch) process.South Africa leads the world in coalliquefaction technologies – it has seen themost research and development (R&D) inindirect coal liquefaction and currentlysupplies about a third of its domestic liquidfuel requirements from coal. China is also

experiencing growth in coal liquefaction as away of utilising the country’s enormousreserves of coal and lessening dependence onimported oil.

Coal and CementCement is critical to the construction industry– mixed with water, and gravel it formsconcrete, the basic building element in modernsociety. More than 1350 million tonnes ofcement are used globally every year.

Cement is made from a mixture of calciumcarbonate (generally in the form of limestone),silica, iron oxide and alumina. A high-temperature kiln, often fuelled by coal, heatsthe raw materials to a partial melt at 1450°C,transforming them chemically and physicallyinto a substance known as clinker. This greypebble-like material is comprised of specialcompounds that give cement its bindingproperties. Clinker is mixed with gypsum andground to a fine powder to make cement.

Coal is used as an energy source in cementproduction. Large amounts of energy arerequired to produce cement. Kilns usually burncoal in the form of powder and consumearound 450g of coal for about 900g of cementproduced. Coal is likely to remain an importantinput for the global cement industry for manyyears to come.

Coal combustion products (CCPs) can also playan important role in concrete production. CCPsare the by-products generated from burningcoal in coal-fired power plants. These by-products include fly ash, bottom ash, boilerslag and flue gas desulphurisation gypsum. Flyash, for example, can be used to replace orsupplement cement in concrete. Recycling coalcombustion products in this way is beneficial

The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 25

to the environment, acting as a replacementfor primary raw materials.

Other Uses of CoalOther important users of coal include aluminarefineries, paper manufacturers, and thechemical and pharmaceutical industries.Several chemical products can be producedfrom the by-products of coal. Refined coal taris used in the manufacture of chemicals, suchas creosote oil, naphthalene, phenol, andbenzene. Ammonia gas recovered from cokeovens is used to manufacture ammonia salts,nitric acid and agricultural fertilisers.Thousands of different products have coal orcoal by-products as components: soap,aspirins, solvents, dyes, plastics and fibres,such as rayon and nylon.

Coal is also an essential ingredient in theproduction of specialist products:

>> Activated carbon - used in filters for waterand air purification and in kidney dialysismachines.

>> Carbon fibre – an extremely strong butlight weight reinforcement material used inconstruction, mountain bikes and tennisrackets.

>> Silicon metal – used to produce siliconesand silanes, which are in turn used to makelubricants, water repellents, resins,cosmetics, hair shampoos and toothpastes.

Technologies continue to be developed to improve theenvironmental performance of coal fired power stations – theNordjyllandsværket coal fired power station in Denmark has anefficiency level of 47%. Photograph courtesy of Elsam.Photographer Gert Jensen.

SECTION FOUR END

The Ulan coal mine in Australia includes the innovative Bobadeen Irrigation Scheme, which usessurplus mine water to irrigate 242 hectares of land specially planted with perennial pastures and ismaintained at an optimal level by beef cattle. Photo courtesy of Xstrata Coal

26 World Coal Institute

The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 27

However, it is important to balance concernsfor the environment alongside the priorities ofeconomic and social development. ‘Sustainabledevelopment’ encapsulates all three areas andhas been defined as: “…development thatmeets the needs of the present withoutcompromising the ability of future generationsto meet their own needs”.

While coal makes an important contribution toeconomic and social development worldwide,its environmental impact has been a challenge.

Coal Mining & the EnvironmentCoal mining – particularly surface mining –requires large areas of land to be temporarilydisturbed. This raises a number ofenvironmental challenges, including soilerosion, dust, noise and water pollution, andimpacts on local biodiversity. Steps are takenin modern mining operations to minimisethese impacts. Good planning andenvironmental management minimises theimpact of mining on the environment andhelps to preserve biodiversity.

Land DisturbanceIn best practice, studies of the immediateenvironment are carried out several years

before a coal mine opens in order to define theexisting conditions and to identify sensitivitiesand potential problems. The studies look at theimpact of mining on surface and ground water,soils, local land use, and native vegetation andwildlife populations (see koala case study onpage 30). Computer simulations can beundertaken to model impacts on the localenvironment. The findings are then reviewed aspart of the process leading to the award of amining permit by the relevant governmentauthorities.

Mine SubsidenceA problem that can be associated withunderground coal mining is subsidence,whereby the ground level lowers as a result ofcoal having been mined beneath. Any land useactivity that could place public or privateproperty or valuable landscapes at risk isclearly a concern.

A thorough understanding of subsistencepatterns in a particular region allows theeffects of underground mining on the surfaceto be quantified. This ensures the safe,maximum recovery of a coal resource, whileproviding protection to other land uses.

SECTION FIVE

COAL AND THEENVIRONMENT>> Our consumption of energy can have a significant

impact on the environment. Minimising the negativeimpacts of human activities on the natural environment– including energy use – is a key global priority. >>

28 World Coal Institute

Water PollutionAcid mine drainage (AMD) is metal-rich waterformed from the chemical reaction betweenwater and rocks containing sulphur-bearingminerals. The runoff formed is usually acidicand frequently comes from areas where ore- orcoal mining activities have exposed rockscontaining pyrite, a sulphur-bearing mineral.However, metal-rich drainage can also occur inmineralised areas that have not been mined.

AMD is formed when the pyrite reacts with airand water to form sulphuric acid and dissolvediron. This acid run-off dissolves heavy metalssuch as copper, lead and mercury into groundand surface water.

There are mine management methods that canminimise the problem of AMD, and effectivemine design can keep water away from acid-generating materials and help prevent AMDoccurring. AMD can be treated actively orpassively. Active treatment involves installing awater treatment plant, where the AMD is firstdosed with lime to neutralise the acid and thenpassed through settling tanks to remove thesediment and particulate metals. Passivetreatment aims to develop a self-operating

system that can treat the effluent withoutconstant human intervention.

Dust & Noise PollutionDuring mining operations, the impact of air andnoise pollution on workers and localcommunities can be minimised by modern mineplanning techniques and specialised equipment.Dust at mining operations can be caused bytrucks being driven on unsealed roads, coalcrushing operations, drilling operations and windblowing over areas disturbed by mining.

Dust levels can be controlled by spraying wateron roads, stockpiles and conveyors. Othersteps can also be taken, including fitting drillswith dust collection systems and purchasingadditional land surrounding the mine to act asa buffer zone between the mine and itsneighbours. Trees planted in these bufferzones can also minimise the visual impact ofmining operations on local communities.Noise can be controlled through the carefulselection of equipment and insulation andsound enclosures around machinery. In bestpractice, each site has noise and vibrationmonitoring equipment installed, so that noiselevels can be measured to ensure the mine iswithin specified limits.

RehabilitationCoal mining is only a temporary use of land, so itis vital that rehabilitation of land takes placeonce mining operations have ceased. In bestpractice a detailed rehabilitation or reclamationplan is designed and approved for each coalmine, covering the period from the start ofoperations until well after mining has finished.Land reclamation is an integral part of modernmining operations around the world and the costof rehabilitating the land once mining has ceasedis factored into the mine’s operating costs.

The Moura mine was the firstoperation in Australia toestablish a commercial coalmine methane businessalongside its coal miningoperations. The project hasthe potential to make overallGHG emissions savingsequivalent to 2.8 milliontonnes of CO2 per annum.Photograph courtesy of Anglo Coal Australia.

The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 29

Mine reclamation activities are undertakengradually – with the shaping and contouring ofspoil piles, replacement of topsoil, seeding withgrasses and planting of trees taking place onthe mined-out areas. Care is taken to relocatestreams, wildlife, and other valuable resources.

Reclaimed land can have many uses, includingagriculture, forestry, wildlife habitation andrecreation.

Using Methane from Coal MinesMethane (CH4) is a gas formed as part of theprocess of coal formation. It is released fromthe coal seam and the surrounding disturbedstrata during mining operations.

Methane is a potent greenhouse gas – it isestimated to account for 18% of the overallglobal warming effect arising from humanactivities (CO2 is estimated to contribute50%). While coal is not the only source ofmethane emissions – production of rice in wetpaddy fields and other agricultural activitiesare major emitters – methane from coalseams can be utilised rather than released tothe atmosphere with a significantenvironmental benefit.

Coal mine methane (CMM) is methane releasedfrom coal seams during coal mining. Coalbedmethane (CBM) is methane trapped within coalseams that have not, or will not, be mined.

Methane is highly explosive and has to bedrained during mining operations to keepworking conditions safe. At activeunderground mines, large-scale ventilationsystems move massive quantities of airthrough the mine, keeping the mine safe butalso releasing methane into the atmosphere atvery low concentrations. Some active and

abandoned mines produce methane fromdegasification systems, also known as gasdrainage systems, which use wells to recovermethane.

As well as improving safety at coal mines, theuse of CMM improves the environmentalperformance of a coal mining operation andcan have a commercial benefit. Coal minemethane has a variety of uses, including on-site or off-site electricity production, use inindustrial processes and fuel for cofiringboilers.

Coalbed methane can be extracted by drillinginto and mechanically fracturing unworked coalseams. While the CBM is utilised, the coalitself remains unmined.

Coal Use & the Environment Global consumption of energy raises a numberof environmental concerns. For coal, therelease of pollutants, such as oxides of sulphurand nitrogen (SOx and NOx), and particulateand trace elements, such as mercury, havebeen a challenge. Technologies have beendeveloped and deployed to minimise theseemissions.

Major Sources of Methane Emissions

■ Livestock 32%

■ Oil and Natural Gas 16%

■ Solid Waste 13%

■ Rice 11%

■ Waste Water 10%

■ Other 10%

■ Coal 8%

Source: US EPA

Environmental management andrehabilitation at coal mines does notsimply mean protecting the naturalvegetation – it also includesprotecting the wildlife at the mine. Atthe Blair Athol opencast coal mine inQueensland, Australia, this meanstaking care of the native koalapopulation.

The Koala Venture project between RioTinto Coal Australia – operators of themine – and the University ofQueensland began when the minemanagement approached theuniversity for help on how to minimisethe impact of its mining operations onthe colony of koalas on the land.

The project aims to manage the koalapopulation, their safety and security

on the Blair Athol mine lease andadjacent areas. The koalas feeding androosting habits are monitored toimprove rehabilitation practices, whiletheir health and reproductive statusare studied to ensure that thepopulation of koala is maintained.

In order to advance operations at theopencast mine, vegetation thatincludes koala habitat must be cleared.A two-stage tree clearing procedure isused to minimise disruption to thekoalas. This process involves leavingsome of the trees used by koalas forseveral months, while removing theremainder. Research has shown thatthe koalas will then voluntarily tend tomove into the rehabilitated areasfeaturing their preferred trees or intoadjacent undisturbed areas.

The Koala Venture is the first everstudy undertaken of the breedingecology of free-ranging koalas usingDNA testing and has made someimportant breakthroughs in theunderstanding of how koalas breed.

Information gathered at the BlairAthol mine has been incorporated intothe National Strategy for theConservation of the Koala in Australia.

More information on the KoalaVenture can be found atwww.koalaventure.com

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

KOALA VENTURE

30 World Coal Institute

The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 31

A more recent challenge has been that ofcarbon dioxide emissions (CO2). The release ofCO2 into the atmosphere from humanactivities – often referred to as anthropogenicemissions – has been linked to global warming.The combustion of fossil fuels is a majorsource of anthropogenic emissions worldwide.While the use of oil in the transportationsector is the major source of energy-relatedCO2 emissions, coal is also a significant source.As a result, the industry has been researchingand developing technological options to meetthis new environmental challenge.

Technological ResponseClean coal technologies (CCTs) are a range oftechnological options which improve theenvironmental performance of coal. Thesetechnologies reduce emissions, reduce waste,and increase the amount of energy gainedfrom each tonne of coal.

Different technologies suit different types ofcoal and tackle different environmentalproblems. The choice of technologies can alsodepend on a country’s level of economicdevelopment. More expensive, highly advancedtechnologies may not be suitable in developingcountries, for example, where cheaper readily-available options can have a larger and moreaffordable environmental benefit.

Reducing Particulate EmissionsEmissions of particulates, such as ash, havebeen one of the more visible side-effects ofcoal combustion in the past. They can impactlocal visibility, cause dust problems and affectpeople’s respiratory systems. Technologies areavailable to reduce and, in some cases, almosteliminate particulate emissions.

Coal CleaningCoal cleaning, also known as coalbeneficiation or coal preparation, increasesthe heating value and the quality of the coal bylowering levels of sulphur and mineral matter(see Section 2 for a description of coalpreparation techniques). The ash content ofcoal can be reduced by over 50%, helping tocut waste from coal combustion. This isparticularly important in countries where coalis transported long distances prior to use,since it improves the economics oftransportation by removing most of the non-combustible material. Coal cleaning can alsoimprove the efficiency of coal-fired powerstations, which leads to a reduction inemissions of carbon dioxide.

Electrostatic Precipitators & Fabric FiltersParticulates from coal combustion can becontrolled by electrostatic precipitators (ESP)and fabric filters. Both can remove over 99.5%of particulate emissions and are widely appliedin both developed and developing countries. Inelectrostatic precipitators, particulate-ladenflue gases pass between collecting plates,where an electrical field creates a charge onthe particles. This attracts the particlestowards the collecting plates, where theyaccumulate and can be disposed of.

Fabric filters, also known as ‘baghouses’, are analternative approach and collect particles fromthe flue gas on a tightly woven fabric primarilyby sieving.

The use of particulate control equipment has amajor impact on the environmentalperformance of coal-fired power stations. Atthe Lethabo power station in South Africa,

Definition

Carbon dioxide is acolourless, odourless,incombustible gas formedduring decomposition,combustion and respiration.

32 World Coal Institute

electrostatic precipitators remove 99.8% offly ash, some of which is sold to the cementindustry. For Eskom, the plant operator, theuse of ESPs has had a major impact on theenvironmental performance of its powerstations. Between 1988 and 2003, it reducedparticulate emissions by almost 85% whilepower generated increased by over 56%.

Preventing Acid RainAcid rain came to global attention during thelatter part of the last century, whenacidification of lakes and tree damage in partsof Europe and North America was discovered.

Acid rain was attributed to a number of factors,including acid drainage from deforested areasand emissions from fossil fuel combustion intransportation and power stations.

Oxides of sulphur (SOx) and nitrogen (NOx) areemitted to varying degrees during thecombustion of fossil fuels. These gases reactchemically with water vapour and othersubstances in the atmosphere to form acids,which are then deposited in rainfall.

Steps have been taken to significantly reduceSOx and NOx emissions from coal-fired powerstations. Certain approaches also have theadditional benefit of reducing other emissions,such as mercury.

Sulphur is present in coal as an impurity andreacts with air when coal is burned to form SOx.In contrast, NOx is formed when any fossil fuelis burned. In many circumstances, the use oflow sulphur coal is the most economical way tocontrol sulphur dioxide. An alternativeapproach has been the development of flue gasdesulphurisation (FGD) systems for use in coal-fired power stations.

An Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle Unit

A Flue Gas Desulphurisation System

The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 33

FGD systems are sometimes referred to as‘scrubbers’ and can remove as much as 99% ofSOx emissions. In the USA, for example,sulphur emissions from coal-fired powerplants decreased by 61% between 1980 and2000 – even though coal use by utilitiesincreased by 74%.

Oxides of nitrogen can contribute to thedevelopment of smog as well as acid rain. NOxemissions from coal combustion can be reducedby the use of ‘low NOx’ burners, improvingburner design and applying technologies thattreat NOx in the exhaust gas stream. Selectivecatalytic reduction (SCR) and selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) technologies canreduce NOx emissions by around 80-90% bytreating the NOx post-combustion.

Fluidised bed combustion (FBC) is a highefficiency, advanced technological approach toreducing both NOx and SOx emissions. FBC isable to achieve reductions of 90% or more. InFBC systems, coal is burned in a bed of heatedparticles suspended in flowing air. At high airvelocities, the bed acts as a fluid resulting inthe rapid mixing of the particles. This fluidisingaction allows complete coal combustion atrelatively low temperatures.

Reducing Carbon Dioxide EmissionsA major environmental challenge facing theworld today is the risk of ‘global warming’.

Naturally occurring gases in the atmospherehelp to regulate the earth’s temperature bytrapping other radiation - this is known as thegreenhouse effect (see diagram on page 36).Human activities, such as the combustion offossil fuels, produce additional greenhousegases (GHG) which accumulate in theatmosphere. Scientists believe that the build-

up of these gases is causing an enhancedgreenhouse effect, which could cause globalwarming and climate change.

The major greenhouse gases include watervapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons andsulphur hexafluoride.

Coal is one of many sources of greenhouse gasemissions generated by human activities andthe industry is committed to minimising itsemissions.

Greenhouse gases associated with coal includemethane, carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrousoxide (N2O). Methane is released from deepcoal mining (see earlier section). CO2 and N2Oare released when coal is used in electricitygeneration or industrial processes, such assteel production and cement manufacture.

Combustion EfficiencyAn important step in reducing CO2 emissionsfrom coal combustion has been improvementsin the thermal efficiencies of coal-fired powerstations. Thermal efficiency is a measure ofthe overall fuel conversion efficiency for theelectricity generation process. The higher theefficiency levels, the greater the energy beingproduced from the fuel.

CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuels

■ Oil 41%

■ Coal 38%

■ Gas 21%

Source: IEA 2004

34 World Coal Institute

The global average thermal efficiency of coal-fired power stations is around 30%, with theOECD average at around 38%. In comparison,China has an average thermal efficiency of allits installed coal-fired capacity of some 27%(though newer stations with significantlyimproved efficiencies are increasingly beinginstalled).

New ‘supercritical’ technology allows coal-firedpower plants to achieve overall thermalefficiencies of 43-45%. These higher levels arepossible because supercritical plant operate athigher steam temperatures and pressures thanconventional plant. Ultrasupercritical powerplants can achieve efficiency levels of up to50% by operating at even higher temperaturesand pressures. More than 400 supercriticalplant are operating worldwide, including anumber in developing countries.

An alternative approach is to produce a gasfrom coal – this is achieved in integratedgasification combined cycle (IGCC) systems. InIGCC, coal is not combusted directly butreacted with oxygen and steam to produce a‘syngas’ composed mainly of hydrogen and

carbon monoxide. This syngas is cleaned ofimpurities and then burnt in a gas turbine togenerate electricity and to produce steam fora steam power cycle.

IGCC systems operate at high efficiencies,typically in the mid-40s but plant designsoffering close to 50% efficiencies areavailable. They also remove 95-99% of NOxand SOx emissions. Work is being undertakento make further gains in efficiency levels, withthe prospect of net efficiencies of 56% in thefuture. There are around 160 IGCC plantsworldwide.

IGCC systems also offer future potential forhydrogen production linked with carboncapture and storage technologies (described inmore detail in the next section).

Carbon Capture & StorageAn important factor in the future use of coalwill be the level to which CO2 emissions can bereduced. Much has been done to achieve this,such as the improvements in efficiency levels.One of the most promising options for thefuture is carbon capture and storage (CCS).

The Coal-fired Route to CO2 Reductions

TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION

Up to 5% CO2 Reductions

Coal UpgradingIncludes coal washing/drying,briquetting. Widespread usethroughout the world.

Up to 22% CO2 Reductions

Efficiency Improvements of Existing PlantConventional coal-fired subcriticalgeneration has improved significantlyin its efficiency (38-40%) so reducingemissions. Supercritical andultrasupercritical plant offer evenhigher efficiencies (already up to45%). Improved efficiency subcriticalplant operate around the world.Supercritical and ultrasupercriticalplant operate successfully in Japan,USA, Europe, Russia and China.

Up to 25% CO2 Reductions

Advanced TechnologiesVery high efficiencies and lowemissions from innovativetechnologies such as integratedgasification combined cycle (IGCC).pressurised fluidised bed combustion(PFBC) and in the future integratedgasification fuel cells (IGFC). IGCC andPFBC operational in USA, Japan andEurope, IGFC at R&D stage.

Up to 99% CO2 Reductions

Zero EmissionsCarbon capture and storage.Significant international R&D effortsongoing. FutureGen project aims tohave demonstration plant operationalwithin 10 years.

The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 35

Carbon capture and storage technologies allowemissions of carbon dioxide to be stripped outof the exhaust stream from coal combustion orgasification and disposed of in such a way thatthey do not enter the atmosphere.Technologies that allow CO2 to be capturedfrom emission streams have been used formany years to produce pure CO2 for use in thefood processing and chemicals industry.Petroleum companies often separate CO2from natural gas before it is transported tomarket by pipeline. Some have even startedpermanently storing CO2 deep underground insaline aquifers.

While further development is needed todemonstrate the viability of separating out CO2from high volume, low CO2 concentration fluegases from coal-fired power stations, carboncapture is a realistic option for the future.

Once the CO2 has been captured, it isessential that it can be safely andpermanently stored. There are a number ofstorage options at various stages ofdevelopment and application.

Carbon dioxide can be injected into the earth’ssubsurface, a technique known as geologicalstorage. This technology allows largequantities of CO2 to be permanently storedand is the most comprehensively studiedstorage option. As long as the site is carefullychosen, the CO2 can be stored for very longperiods of time and monitored to ensure thereis no leakage.

Depleted oil and gas reservoirs are animportant option for geological storage.Latest estimates suggest that depletedoilfields have a total capacity of some 126Gigatonnes (Gt) of CO2. Depleted natural gasreservoirs have a considerably larger storagecapacity of some 800 Gt of CO2. Unmineable

coal beds are estimated to have a storagecapacity of some 150 Gt of CO2.

Large amounts of CO2 can also be stored indeep saline water-saturated reservoir rocks,allowing countries to store their CO2emissions for many hundreds of years. Firmestimates of the CO2 storage capacity in deepsaline formations have not yet been fullydeveloped, though it has been estimated thatit could range between 400 and 10,000 Gt.There are a number of projects demonstratingthe effectiveness of CO2 storage in salineaquifers. The Norwegian company Statoil isundertaking a project at the Sleipner fieldlocated in the Norwegian section of theNorth Sea. The Nagaoka project, started inJapan in 2002, is a smaller-scale, five-yearproject researching and demonstrating thepotential of CO2 storage in on-shore and off-shore aquifers.

Deep SalineAquifer

Depleted Oilor Gas Reservoirs

Pipeline

UnminableCoal Beds

Power Stationwith CO2 Capture

Underground Storage Options for CO2

Diagram courtesy of IEA GHG R&D Programme

ATMOSPHERE

GREENHOUSE GASES

Solar energy is absorbed by the Earth’s surface and warms it

Solar radiation passes throughthe clear atmosphere

Some of the infrared radiationpasses through the atmosphereand is lost in space

Some solar radiation is reflected by the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface

Surface gains moreheat and infrared radiationis emitted again

Some of the infrared radiation is absorbedand re-emitted by the greenhouse gas molecules.

The direct effect is the warming of the Earth’s surface and the troposphere

The energy is converted into heat causing the emission of longwave (infrared) radiation back to the atmosphere

36 World Coal Institute

The storage of CO2 can also have an economicbenefit by allowing increased production ofoil and coalbed methane. These techniquesare referred to as enhanced oil recovery(EOR) and enhanced coalbed methanerecovery (ECBM). The CO2 can be used to‘push’ oil out of underground strata and isalready widely used in the oil industry. TheWeyburn Enhanced Oil Recovery project usesCO2 from a lignite-fired power station in theUSA and transports it through a 205 milepipeline to the Weyburn oilfield in Canada toboost oil production. Around 5000 tonnes or2.7 m3 of CO2 per day are injected into theoilfield, an amount which would otherwisehave been released into the atmosphere.

ECBM allows CO2 to be stored in unmineablecoal seams and improves the production ofcoalbed methane as a valuable by-product.

Carbon capture and storage offers thepotential for the large-scale CO2 reductionsneeded to stabilise atmosphericconcentrations of CO2.

Coal & Renewable EnergyThe continued development and deployment ofrenewable energy will play an important role inimproving the environmental performance offuture energy production. However, there are anumber of significant practical and economicbarriers that limit the projected rate of growthof renewable energy.

Renewable energy can be intermittent orunpredictable and ‘site-dependent’, whichmeans they are only available at specificlocations. Wind energy, for example, dependson whether and how strongly the wind isblowing and even the best wind farms do notnormally operate for more than about one-third of the time. Many forms of biomass are

The Greenhouse Effect

Diagram courtesy of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 37

seasonal and can be difficult to transport.Coal-fired electricity can help support thegrowth of renewable energy by balancing outtheir intermittencies in power supply. Coalcan provide convenient, cheap base-loadpower while renewables can be used to meetpeak demand. The economics and efficiencyof biomass renewables can also be improvedby co-firing with coal.

While clean coal technologies are improvingthe environmental performance of coal-firedpower stations, its role as an affordable andreadily available energy source offers widerenvironmental benefits by supporting thedevelopment of renewables.

Overcoming Environmental ImpactsThe environmental impact of our energyconsumption is a concern for us all. Limitingthe negative effects of coal production anduse is a priority for the coal industry and onewhich has been the focus of research,development and investment. Much has beenachieved – technologies have been developedand are widely used to limit particulateemissions, NOx and SOx and trace elements.Improvements in the efficiency of coalcombustion have already achieved significantreductions in carbon dioxide emissions. Thewider use of technologies to improve theenvironmental performance of coal will beessential, particularly in developing countrieswhere coal use is set to markedly increase.

Technological innovation and advancement,such as carbon capture and storage, offersmany future prospects for tackling CO2emissions from coal use in the future.

The United Nations Framework Conventionon Climate Change (UNFCCC) sets anoverall framework for intergovernmentalefforts to tackle climate change. It openedfor signature at the Earth Summit in Rio deJaneiro in 1992 and entered into force in1994. Under the Convention, governments:

>> Gather and share information on GHGemissions, national policies and bestpractices.

>> Launch national strategies for addressingGHG emissions and adapting to expectedimpacts, including the provision offinancial and technological support todeveloping countries.

>> Cooperate in preparing for adaptation tothe impacts of climate change.

Countries that are parties to the UNFCCCmeet annually at the Conference of theParties (COP). It was at COP3, held in Kyotoin 1997, that countries negotiated theKyoto Protocol, which set legally-bindingtargets for emissions reductions.

The Kyoto Protocol entered into force inFebruary 2005. At that time there were128 countries who were Parties to theProtocol, 30 of whom are developedcountries with emissions targets. BothAustralia and the USA have refused toratify the Protocol but are undertakingtheir own domestic measures to stabiliseGHG emissions.

Kyoto sets targets for industrialisedcountries “with a view to reducing theiroverall emissions of such gases by at least5% below existing 1990 levels, in thecommitment period 2008-2012”.

Kyoto covers emissions of the six maingreenhouse gases: carbon dioxide (CO2),methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O),hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphurhexafluoride. (SF6). Rather than placing aspecific target on each of the gases, theoverall emissions targets for all six iscombined and translated into ‘CO2equivalents’, used to produce a single figure.

The UNFCCC & GHG Emissions

+10% +8% +1% +0% -5% -6% -7% -8%

Iceland

* The base year is flexible in the case of Economies in Transition (EIT) countries** Countries who have declared their intention not to ratify the Protocol

Australia** Norway Croatia USA** EU15Bulgaria

Czech RepublicEstoniaLatvia

LiechtensteinLithuaniaMonacoRomaniaSlovakiaSlovenia

Switzerland

CanadaHungary

JapanPoland

New ZealandRussian

FederationUkraine

Kyoto Protocol Emissions Targets (1990* to 2008/2012)

SECTION FIVE END

Access to energy, and specifically electricity, is a driving forcebehind economic and social development. Photograph courtesyof Anglo Coal.

38 World Coal Institute

The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 39

Over the next 30 years, it is estimated thatglobal energy demand will increase by almost60%. Two thirds of the increase will come fromdeveloping countries – by 2030 they willaccount for almost half of total energy demand.

However, many of the world’s poorest peoplewill still be deprived of modern energy in 30years time. Electrification rates in developingcountries will rise from 66% in 2002 to 78% in2030 but the total number of people withoutelectricity will fall only slightly, from 1.6 billionto just under 1.4 billion in 2030 due topopulation growth (see map on page 40).

Energy is vital to human development. It isimpossible to operate a factory, to run ashop, deliver goods to consumers, or growcrops, for example, without some form ofenergy. Access to modern energy servicesnot only contributes to economic growth and household incomes but also to theimproved quality of life that comes withbetter education and health services. Unlessaccess to energy is improved, many of theworld’s poorest countries will remain trappedin a circle of poverty, social instability and under-development.

If we are to significantly improve access toenergy worldwide – and maintain a secureenergy system – all forms of energy will beneeded. This includes coal, gas, oil, nuclear,hydro and renewables.

The Role of CoalAs the most important fuel for electricitygeneration and a vital input into steelproduction, coal will have a major role to playin meeting future energy needs.

During the past two years, the use of coal hasgrown at a faster rate than for any other fuel,rising by almost 7% in 2003. Demand in Chinagrew by 15%, in Russia by 7%, in Japan by 5%and in the USA by 2.6%.

Demand for coal and its vital role in the world’senergy system is set to continue. Asiancountries will see the most increase in the useof coal, with China and India alone accountingfor 68% of the increase.

Coal will continue to play a vital role inelectricity generation worldwide – while itcurrently supplies 39% of the world’selectricity, this figure will only drop onepercentage point over the next three decades.

SECTION SIX

MEETING FUTUREENERGY DEMAND>> The global energy system faces many challenges in thiscentury. It will have to continue to supply secure andaffordable energy in the face of growing demand. At the same time society expects cleaner energy and lesspollution, with an increasing emphasis on environmental sustainability. >>

40 World Coal Institute

With the availability of abundant, affordableand geographically disperse reserves, coal hasa vital role to play in a world where reliablesupplies of affordable energy will be essentialto global development.

Making Further Environmental GainsTechnological innovation will allow demand forcoal to be met without an unacceptableenvironmental impact.

The wider deployment of clean coaltechnologies will have a significant impact onthe environmental performance of coal in bothdeveloped and developing countries. It hasbeen suggested, for example, that if theefficiency of the world’s coal-fired powerstations was improved to the level ofGermany’s coal-fired power stations, thereduction in CO2 emissions would be greaterthan will be achieved under the Kyoto Protocol.

In the longer term, carbon capture and storageoffers the potential for significant reductionsin CO2 emissions from coal consumption,nearing almost zero-emissions.

Research and development is focusing onincreasingly innovative ways of generatingenergy. One important option for the longerterm is the move towards hydrogen-basedenergy systems, in which hydrogen is used toproduce electricity from gas turbines and,ultimately, fuel cells. Fuel cells useelectrochemical reactions between hydrogenand oxygen instead of a combustion process toproduce electricity.

Hydrogen does not occur naturally in usablequantities; it would have to be manufactured.Fossil fuels are one probable source. Coal, withthe biggest and most widespread reserves of

2002 2030

526

221

584

98

683

798

46 21

623

World Coal Demand by Sector - 2002

■ Power Generation 69%

■ Industry 16%

■ Other 12%

■ Residential 3%

Source: IEA 2004

World Coal Demand by Sector - 2030

■ Power Generation 79%

■ Industry 12%

■ Other 8%

■ Residential 1%

Source: IEA 2004

Number of People Without Electricity in the Developing World (millions)

Source: IEA 2004

The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 41

any fossil fuel, is a prime candidate to providehydrogen – via coal gasification – in thequantities needed.

Until recently, the energy intensive nature ofthe processes involved, the high costs, and theCO2 by-products made the development of thistechnology unlikely. However, majortechnological advances together with carbonstorage have opened up renewed prospects forenvironmentally acceptable, large-volumeproduction of hydrogen. Coal is well-positioned to provide the quantities ofhydrogen needed to move towards a new anddifferent energy economy. Europe, Japan, theUSA and New Zealand all have active hydrogenprogrammes and are considering coal as anoption to produce hydrogen.

Coal & Our Energy FutureAlleviating poverty, maintaining securesupplies of energy, and protecting the naturalenvironment are some of the biggestchallenges facing our world today. Theproduction and use of coal is linked to each ofthese challenges.

World Coal Demand (Mt)

2002 2030

Million Coal’s Share Million Coal’s Share

Tonnes of Electricity Tonnes of Electricity

Generation (%) Generation (%)

OECD North America 1051 46 1222 40

OECD Europe 822 29 816 24

OECD Pacific 364 36 423 29

OECD 2237 38 2461 33

Russia 220 19 244 15

Other Transition Economies 249 27 340 18

Transition Economies 469 22 584 16

China 1308 77 2402 72

East Asia 160 28 456 49

South Asia 396 60 773 54

Latin America 30 4 66 5

Middle East 15 6 23 5

Africa 174 47 264 29

Developing Countries 2085 45 3984 47

World 4791 39 7029 38

Source: IEA 2004

SECTION SIX END

42 World Coal Institute

>> Anglo Coalwww.angloamerican.co.uk

>> Australian Coal Associationwww.australiancoal.com

>> Australian Government Department of theEnvironment & Heritagewww.deh.gov.au

>> BHP Billiton Illawarra Coal, Longwall Mining & Subsistence, 2005

>> Bluescope Steelwww.bluescopesteel.com

>> BP Statistical Review of Energy 2004

>> British Geological Surveywww.bgs.ac.uk

>> Cement Industry Federation www.cement.org.au

>> China Labour Bulletin www.china-labour.org.hk

>> Coal Association of Canada, ‘The Coal Classroom’ www.coal.ca/class.htm

>> Coalition for Affordable & Reliable Energy www.careenergy.com

>> EDF Energy, Power Up websitewww.edfenergy.com/powerup

>> Encarta onlinehttp://encarta.msn.com

>> Energy Information Administration www.eia.doe.gov

>> Energy Quest www.energyquest.ca.gov

>> IEA Clean Coal Centre, Clean CoalTechnologies, 2003

>> IEA Clean Coal Centre www.iea-coal.org.uk

>> IEA Coal Information 2004, OECD/IEA

>> IEA Electricity Information 2004, OECD/IEA

>> IEA GHG R&D Programmewww.ieagreen.org.uk

>> IEA GHG R&D Programme CO2Capture & Storagewww.co2captureandstorage.info

>> IEA World Energy Outlook 2004, OECD/IEA

>> Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change www.ipcc.ch

FURTHER READING

The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 43

>> IISI, Steel Statistical Yearbook 2004,International Iron & Steel Institute

>> IISI, World Steel in Figures 2004,International Iron & Steel Institute

>> International Labour Organization www.ilo.org

>> Koala Venturewww.koalaventure.com

>> National Mining Associationwww.nma.org

>> NSW Minerals Councilwww.nswmin.com.au

>> Organisation for Economic Cooperation andDevelopmentwww.oecd.org

>> PA Consultingwww.paconsulting.com

>> Portland Cement Associationwww.cement.org

>> Roger Wicks, “Coal – Issues and Options in aCarbon-Constrained World”, Optima, Volume51, Number 1, February 2005

>> Sasol www.sasol.com

>> Solid Energy New Zealand, Coal – the World’sLeading Energy Sourcewww.solidenergy.co.nz/download/UsesofCoal.pdf

>> UK Coalwww.ukcoal.com

>> UNDP & Energy for SustainableDevelopment, United Nations DevelopmentProgramme, 2004

>> United Nations Development Programmewww.undp.org/energy

>> UNFCCC, United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change: The First TenYears, 2004

>> UNFCCCwww.unfccc.int

>> US Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy www.fe.doe.gov

>> US Department of Labor www.dol.gov

>> US Environmental Protection Agencywww.epa.gov

>> US Geological Surveywww.usgs.gov

>> WCI, Clean Coal – Building a Future throughTechnology, World Coal Institute, 2004

>> WCI, Coal Facts fact card, World Coal Institute, 2004

>> WCI, Coal – Power for Progress, 4th edition, World Coal Institute, 2000

>> WCI, Coal & Steel Facts fact card, World Coal Institute, 2005

>> WCI, Ecoal, Volume 52, January 2005

>> WCI, The Role of Coal as an Energy Source,World Coal Institute, 2002

>> WCI, Shipping Facts 1 & 2 fact cards, 2004

>> WCI, Sustainable Entrepreneurship, the WayForward for the Coal Industry, World CoalInstitute, 2001

>> World Coal Institutewww.worldcoal.org

>> World Energy Council, 2004 Survey of Energy Resources

44 World Coal Institute

The WCI is a UN-accredited organisation andthe only international group working worldwideon behalf of the coal industry. The WCI isbased in London, with member companieslocated worldwide. The WCI promotes:

>> Coal as a strategic resource, essential for amodern quality of life, a key contributor tosustainable development, and an essentialelement in enhanced energy security.

>> A progressive industry committed totechnological innovation and improvedenvironmental outcomes within the contextof a balanced and responsible energy mix.

The objectives of the World Coal Institute are to:

>> Provide a voice for coal in internationalpolicy debates;

>> Improve public awareness of the meritsand importance of coal as the singlelargest source of fuel for the generation of electricity;

>> Widen understanding of the vital role thatmetallurgical coal fulfils in the worldwideproduction of the steel on which allindustry depends;

>> Ensure that decision makers - and publicopinion generally - are fully informed onthe advances in modern clean coaltechnologies; advances that are steadilyimproving the efficient use of coal andgreatly reducing the impact of coal on theenvironment;

>> Support other sectors of the worldwidecoal industry in emphasising theimportance of coal and its qualities as aplentiful, clean, safe and economical energyresource;

>> Promote the merits of coal and upgrade theimage of coal as a clean, efficient fuel,essential to both the generation of theworld's electricity and the manufacture ofthe world's steel.

Membership is open to coal enterprises fromanywhere in the world, with member companiesrepresented at Chief Executive level.

For more information on the activities of theWorld Coal Institute, please visit our website:www.worldcoal.org

WORLD COAL INSTITUTE

>> The World Coal Institute (WCI) is a non-profit, non-governmental association of coal enterprises. >>

For enquiries on how to become a member ofthe WCI, please contact the Secretariat:

World Coal InstituteCambridge House, 180 Upper Richmond Road,Putney, London SW15 2SH, UK

t: +44 (0) 20 8246 6611f: +44 (0) 20 8246 6622e: [email protected]

This publication may be reproduced in part for educational or non-profit purposes without

special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is

made. The World Coal Institute would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that

uses this publication as a source. No use of this publication may be made for resale or for

any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission in writing from the

World Coal Institute.

First published in the UK in May 2005

Copyright © 2005 World Coal Institute

This publication was formerly known as ‘Coal – Power for Progress’

World Coal InstituteCambridge House, 180 Upper Richmond Road,Putney, London SW15 2SH, UK

t: +44 (0) 20 8246 6611f: +44 (0) 20 8246 6622e: [email protected]