the construction industry mass balance: resource use ... (revised).pdf · 7 wastes 61 7.1...

The Construction Industry Mass Balance:resource use, wastes and emissions

Viridis Report VR4 (Revised)

by R A Smith, J R Kersey and P J Griffiths

The Construction Industry Mass Balance:resource use, wastes and emissions

R A Smith, J R Kersey and P J Griffiths

Viridis Report VR4 (Revised)

First Published 2002Revised 2003ISSN 1478–0143Copyright Viridis 2002.

This project was funded by Biffaward under the Landfill TaxCredit Scheme, with contributions from Atkins, HighwaysAgency and Laing.

Viridis was the Entrust Approved Environmental Body (AEB)responsible for the project and the work was undertaken by ateam comprising Viridis and CIRIA. The project team wasassisted by a ‘Construction Industry Advisory Group’ made upof representatives of Government and stakeholders drawn fromthe construction industry. This group provided invaluableguidance and advice throughtout the project.

Viridis is committed to optimising energy efficiency, reducingwaste and promoting recycling and re-use. In support of theseenvironmental goals, this report has been printed on recycledpaper, comprising 100% post-consumer waste, manufacturedusing a TCF (totally chlorine free) process.

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Biffaward Programme on Sustainable Resource Use

This report forms part of the Biffaward Programme on Sustainable Resource Use. The aim of thisprogramme is to provide accessible, well-researched information about the flows of differentresources through the UK economy based either singly or on a combination of regions, materialstreams or industry sectors.

Information about material resource flows through the UK economy is of fundamental importanceto the cost-effective management of the flows, especially at the stage when the resources become‘waste’.

In order to maximise the programme’s full potential, data is being generated and classified in waysthat are consistent both with each other, and with methodologies of other generators or resourceflow / waste management data.

In addition to the projects having their own individual means of dissemination, their data andinformation will be gathered together in a common format to facilitate policy making at corporate,regional and national levels.

Members of the Construction Industry Advisory Group

Richard Smith Viridis

Jeff Kersey CIRIA

Martin Brock Balfour Beatty Major Projects (Representing theInstitution of Civil Engineers)

Roger Berry FBE Management Ltd

Chris Chiverrell Laing

Robert Dudgeon Highways Agency

Suzy Edwards Building Research Establishment

Richard Griffiths Quarry Products Association

Gilli Hobbs Building Research Establishment

James Ley The Steel Construction Institute

Dr Conor Linstead Forum for the Future

Barrie Mould Atkins

Dr Michael R Sansom The Steel Construction Institute

Jean Sheward DTI

Rita Singh Construction Products Association

Additional assistance in compiling the report was given by a wide range of industry representatives.Although too many to mention by name, their co-operation and assistance was gratefully received.

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CONTENTS

Page

1 The Construction Industry Mass Balance 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 The construction industry 1

1.3 The mass balance 1

1.4 The choice of indicators 1

1.5 The structure of this report 2

2 Key findings on resource use, wastes and emissions 3

2.1 The ‘headline’ figures 3

2.2 Total material resource use 3

2.3 Total energy consumed 3

2.4 Total water consumption 3

2.5 Total waste generated 3

2.6 Total emissions to the atmosphere 6

3 Definition of the ‘construction industry’ 7

3.1 The approach taken 7

3.2 The issue of ‘stock’ 7

3.3 Resource requirement 8

3.4 Total resource requirement 11

3.5 Avoiding double counting 11

3.6 Data gaps 11

3.7 Wastes 11

3.8 Emissions to the atmosphere 12

4 Primary material resource use 13

4.1 Introduction 13

4.2 Quarry products 13

4.3 Wood products 22

4.4 Finishes, coatings, adhesives etc. 25

4.5 Plastic products 29

4.6 Fabricated metal products 31

4.7 Cabling, wiring and lighting 35

4.8 Glass based products 36

4.9 Ceramic products 39

4.10 Bricks and other clay-based products 41

4.11 Cement, concrete and plaster products 44

4.12 Stone and other non-metallic mineral products 49

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5 Secondary, recycled and reclaimed products 53

5.1 Introduction 535.2 Secondary materials 535.3 Recycled material 545.4 Reclaimed and salvaged materials 555.5 Summary 55

6 Energy use in the construction industry 57

6.1 Introduction 576.2 Summary 576.3 Mineral extraction and construction product and

material manufacture 596.4 Transport 596.5 Construction and demolition site activity and

related transport 59

7 Wastes 61

7.1 Introduction 617.2 Solid, sludge and liquid wastes 617.3 Special wastes 637.4 Aqueous wastes 647.5 Summary 64

8 Emissions to air from the construction industry 65

8.1 Introduction 658.2 Summary 658.3 Mineral extraction and construction product and material

manufacture 66

9 Trends and influences and their impacts on the constructionindustry 70

9.1 Introduction 709.2 External forces, construction processes and design 709.3 Characterisation of the influences, trends and impacts 749.4 Policy 759.5 Developing a more coherent approach 759.6 Summary 78

10 Conclusions and recommendations 79

10.1 Conclusions 7910.2 Recommendations 80

Appendix 1: Glossary 83

Appendix 2: References 85

Appendix 3: Definition of the construction industry 88

Appendix 4: Precursor and successor material and product tables 92

Executive Summary

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There is a lack of strategic understanding of the impact of theconstruction industry on natural resources and the environment.The Construction Industry Mass Balance study has for the firsttime identified and quantified the natural resources used, andthe wastes and emissions produced by the industry. Thisinformation is presented in order to encourage an ‘holistic’view being taken on how the resource sustainability of theindustry might be improved.

The research undertaken to quantify these impacts has not beenconfined to construction site activity but has considered thebroader construction industry from raw material extraction,through construction product manufacture, material andproduct transport, construction and demolition site activities,to waste transport, treatment and disposal.

This report presents a comprehensive overview of resourceflows through the industry. It then considers future trends andinfluences, and makes recommendations as to how resourceproductivity can be improved.

Addition to the construction industry stock

Construction activity is associated with the creation andmaintenance of the built environment. Additions to the builtenvironment are considered as additions to the ‘stock’ of theconstruction industry. The addition to the stock of theconstruction industry in 1998 has been calculated to be nearly275 million tonnes.

Material resource use

In adding 275 million tonnes to its stock, there was a totalrequirement for over 420 million tonnes of material resources,of which only 360 million tonnes were incorporated intoconstruction products – the remainder becoming waste (mostlyquarrying waste). 420 million tonnes is equivalent to each man,woman and child in the UK annually using resources with themass of 7 family cars.

Of the resources used over 350 million tonnes were primarymaterials, 43 million tonnes were recycled materials, 22 milliontonnes were secondary materials (e.g. industrial by-products)and 3 million tonnes were reclaimed for reuse.

If the efficiency of material resource use is measured simply interms of the ratio of products created to resources required, theresource efficiency of the construction materials and productssupply industry is 86%. If the efficiency of the industry ismeasured in terms of ratio of additions to stock to resourcesrequired, the resource efficiency of the industry is 64%.

Energy use

In addition to material resources, energy equivalent to justunder 8 million tonnes of oil is used each year in themanufacture of products and the transport of products andwaste. The largest consumer of energy is product manufacture,followed by the transport of materials and products accountingfor 50% and 20% of energy use respectively.

If the transport of waste materials and the transport associatedwith site activities are taken into account, transport accountsfor just under 40% of all energy use.

The energy used during the occupation of a building was notaddressed in this study.

Wastes

Wastes arise in three forms: solid, liquid and aqueous. It wasnot possible to separately identify and quantify the liquid andaqueous wastes produced by the construction industry. Somedata on ‘special waste’ produced by the industry was identified,some of which will be liquid waste, however the majority ofdata presented in the report relate to solid wastes.

These wastes arise at two main stages of activity, at productmanufacture and during construction and demolition. The totalmass of all solid waste from the construction industry in 1998was estimated to be over 150 million tonnes, nearly 3 tonnesfor each man woman and child in the UK. 40% of these wasteswere from product manufacture and 60% were fromconstruction and demolition activity.

Quarry wastes were by far the largest component of productmanufacturing wastes accounting for nearly 97% of these. Ofthe construction and demolition wastes just over 50% wererecycled or reclaimed for use back in construction. Specialwastes produced were estimated to total just over 1 milliontonnes.

Emissions to the air

Emissions to the air by the construction industry in 1998totalled just under 28 million tonnes of which nearly 99% wascarbon dioxide (CO

2). When some of the other emissions are

calculated in terms of their global warming potential, thisfigure rises very slightly to approximately 28.3 million tonnesof CO

2 equivalent reflecting the comparatively small quantity

of non CO2 emissions made by the construction industry.

Of the 28 million tonnes of emissions, approximately 70%come from mineral extraction and product manufacture. Ofthis component, cement, concrete and plaster product manu-facture accounts for over 60% with a further 11% beinggenerated by the finishings, coatings and adhesives manufac-turing sector.

Data availability

In adopting a mass balance approach it was necessary toidentify all resource flows in terms of their mass. While somemass data were available other data had to be converted fromalternative units including number, length, area and value.

There were geographic areas where data relating to someconstruction industry activities were not available. In order toarrive at the required UK wide basis it was necessary to estimateresource flows in these areas using proxy data such as economicdata, employment data and population statistics.

Trends and influences

The research also looked at trends in and influences on theindustry, and in particular, how these are reflected in resourceuse, and the generation of wastes and emissions. These trendsand influences are broadly characterised under three headings- external, construction process and design.

External influences include macro-economic conditions,demographic trends and climatic and geographical factors overwhich the construction industry has little or no direct control.Where improvement is possible, it would need to be effectedat the level of macro policy.

Construction processes are increasingly adoptingenvironmental improvement and waste minimisation practices,however the outcomes are limited to reducing environmentalimpacts as opposed to addressing resource inputs.

It is considered that design is the area where the greatest degreeof positive influence lies for the industry. Improvements inmaterials, technologies and design will lead to improvementsin resource efficiency.

In order to achieve improvements in resource productivity,changes are required in the approach industry takes to resourceuse. Three possible future scenarios were considered. Thesewere - ‘business as usual’, ‘radical change’ and ‘evolutionarychange’.

It was concluded that ‘evolutionary change’ held the mostrealistic prospects for improved sustainability.

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Conclusions and recommendations

The report has shown the scale of construction resourcerequirements and uses, and the wastes and emissions produced.The goal of improved resource sustainability requiresreductions in all 3 areas.

A significant barrier to achieving this end is the currentlyfragmented approach to those policies influencing resourceefficiency and the use of non-primary materials. While it isacknowledged that government and industry have developeda number of sector specific strategies, each aimed at achievingdefined objectives, the scale of the problem requires actionwhich is coherent across all parts of the industry.

The absence of a body which is able to provide strategicdirection specifically for the construction industry byencouraging policy coherence and setting priorities foraddressing resource inputs, non-primary materials markets,wastes and emissions, is a fundamental obstacle to achievingsignificant progress.

Four primary recommendations are made that it is consideredwill improve resource productivity in the construction industry.These are:

� Implement comprehensive, consistent and permanentresource flow monitoring and reporting procedures.

� Implement resource management planning initiatives aimedat minimising resource use and maximising resourcerecovery.

� Implement practical measures to reduce the demand forresources.

� Implement measures to maximise the recovery of potentiallyrecoverable material resources.

Each recommendation has an associated list of actions,together with an indication of those parts of the industry whichshould take the lead in taking the actions.

It is acknowledged that some of these actions are likely to becontentious while others may not be practicable at this time.The aim of this report is to highlight a number of key issueswhich it is considered need to be addressed if resource useproductivity is to be improved and the industry is to becomemore sustainable.

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1 The Construction Industry MassBalance

1.1 Introduction

This document sets out the key findings, conclusions andrecommendations of the Biffaward Construction IndustryMass Balance project. It sets out for the first time thetotal material resource requirement of the constructionindustry and identifies the wastes and emissionsassociated with the industry.

Wherever practicable existing definitions andclassifications have been adopted to assist with theidentification and categorisation in order to maintaintransparency and to facilitate comparison with otheranalyses of the construction industry.

Recommendations are made as to how material resourcemanagement might be improved and the demand forresources reduced in the interests of improving thesustainability of the industry.

1.2 The construction industry

For the purposes of this mass balance study the‘construction industry’ has been broadly defined ascomprising those industries:

� which directly contribute to the creation andmaintenance of the ‘built environment’; and

� whose activities are directly related to the creationand maintenance of the ‘built environment’.

These industries encompass:

� Construction material producers.

� Construction product manufacturers.

� Clients.

� Designers and specifiers.

� Civil engineering and building contractors.

� Owners and operators.

� Maintenance and refurbishment contractors.

� Demolition contractors.

Full details of how the construction industry has beendefined by reference to existing statistical definitions aregiven in Chapter 3.

1.3 The mass balance

The underlying principle of a ‘mass balance’ is thephysical law that, within a closed system, the total massis constant. This states that while there may be amovement of mass or a transformation of mass to differentforms, it cannot be created or destroyed. The purpose ofa ‘mass balance’ is to ‘balance’ the masses of all inputsto an activity with the outputs from an activity.

Further details of the mass balance approach to resourceuse can be found in the Forum for the Future report‘Mapping UK Resource and Material Flows’ publishedby the Royal Society for Nature Conservation (Linsteadand Ekins, 2001).

1.4 The choice of indicators

The construction industry accounts for nearly 10% ofeconomic activity in the UK and employs around 1.4million people. Its material and resource uses extend intoa wide range of associated industries and the impacts ofthese industries are experienced across all sectors of theenvironment. In order to keep the mass balance processmanageable it has been necessary to identify keyindicators to represent the effects of the industry onresources and the environment.

The World Business Council for SustainableDevelopment (WBCSD) has identified a limited set of‘eco-efficiency’ indicators which it proposes allcompanies could use for measuring their environmentalperformance (Verfaille and Bidwell, 2000). Drawing onthese proposals the following indicators were adoptedfor this study. Some of these equate directly to theWBCSD indicators, others have been adopted as a ‘proxy’for the WBCSD indicators. Additional indicators havealso been adopted where it was considered significanteffects were experienced and could be identified. Theindicators selected are:

� Annual material and product consumption.

� Energy consumption.

� Water consumption.

� Greenhouse gas and ozone depleting substancesemissions (see below).

� Waste.

� Transport.

The impacts of the transport of construction materialsand products have been identified in terms of the energyuse and greenhouse gas emissions involved.

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The greenhouse gas and ozone depleting substanceemissions identified for this study are those selected forthe ‘basket of emissions’ against which reduction targetswere agreed at the Third Conference of the Parties of theUnited Nations Framework Convention on ClimateChange in Kyoto, Japan 1 December 1997 (UnitedNations, 1997). These are as follows:

� CO2 (carbon dioxide).

� CH4 (methane).

� N2O (nitrous oxide).

� HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons).

� PFCs (perfluorocarbons).

� SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride).

1.5 The structure of this report

This report is presented in ten chapters as follows:

Chapter 1: The Construction Industry Mass Balance.

Chapter 2: Key findings on resource use, wastes andemissions. Sets out key data relating to the use of materialresources in, wastes and emissions generated by, theconstruction industry

Chapter 3: Definition of the construction industry.Defines the construction industry as adopted for thepurpose of this study by reference to existingclassifications.

Chapter 4: Primary material resource use. Details theuse of material resources in the construction industryunder 11 groupings based on standard industrialclassifications as follows:

4.2 Quarry products.

4.3 Wood products.

4.4 Finishings, coatings and adhesives.

4.5 Plastic products.

4.6 Fabricated metal products.

4.7 Cabling, wiring and lighting.

4.8 Glass-based products.

4.9 Ceramic products.

4.10 Brick and other clay-based products.

4.11 Cement, concrete, plaster etc.

4.12 Stone and other non-metallic products.

Chapter 5: Secondary and recycled material resourceuse. Details the use of secondary and recycled materialresources in the construction industry.

Chapter 6: Energy use in the construction industry.Details the use of energy in the construction industryincluding the use of energy used in the transportation ofconstruction materials, products and wastes.

Chapter 7: Wastes generated by the construction industry.Details wastes produced by the construction industry

Chapter 8: Emissions to air from the constructionindustry. Details the emissions to atmosphere of a numberof key gases generated by the construction industryincluding the emissions produced in the transportationof construction materials, products and wastes.

Chapter 9: Trends and influences and their impacts onthe construction industry. Reviews the trends andinfluences likely to be exerted on the constructionindustry in the future and comments on the likely impactson the demand for material resources from, and the wastesand emissions generated by, the construction industry.

Chapter 10: Conclusions and Recommendations. Drawsa number of conclusions based on the research undertakenas part of this study and makes a number ofrecommendations as to how the demand for materialresources and the quantities of wastes and emissionsmight be reduced.

Further supporting information is given in the Appendicesto the report.

Appendix 1 Glossary.

Appendix 2 References.

Appendix 3 Definition of the construction industry.

Appendix 4 Precursor and successor material andproduct tables.

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2 Key findings on resource use,wastes and emissions

2.1 The ‘headline’ figures

The headline figures for material resources incorporatedin the built environment, and wastes and emissionsgenerated, by the construction industry in 1998 are asfollows:

Material resources incorporated 363.4 Mtin the built environment

Energy used 7.8 Mt of oilequivalent

Wastes generated 151.0 Mt

Emissions generated 28.0 Mt

It is calculated that 60.7Mt of waste materials wereproduced during the extraction and manufacture ofconstruction products giving a total material resourcesrequirement of 424.1Mt.

The net addition to the construction industry stock in 1998is calculated to be 273.1Mt.

It was not possible to quantify either water resources usedor aqueous wastes generated by the construction industry.

The resource flows in the construction industry arerepresented diagrammatically in Figure 2.1.1.

2.2 Total material resource use

The total material resources incorporated in the builtenvironment in 1998 are calculated to be 363.4 milliontonnes as follows:

� Primary materials and products 295.5 Mt

� Secondary materials and products 21.6 Mt

� Recycled materials and products 43.0 Mt

� Reclaimed materials and products 3.3 Mt

Total 363.4 Mt

To achieve this it is calculated that 60.7 million tonnes ofwastes were produced during extraction and manufacturegiving a total material resource requirement of 424.1million tonnes (Table 2.5.1 refers).

The materials and resource use under these four headingscan be broken down further as set out in Tables 2.2.1 -2.2.4.

Further details on how these quantities were obtained canbe found in Chapters 4 and 5.

Note: To avoid double counting the figures given in thisChapter relate to the consumption by the industry ofthese materials in their final form. For example, as thefigures for cement and concrete products includeaggregates used in concrete production, these aggregatesare not recorded under quarry products. The figuresgiven for quarry products include only those materialsused directly in their original form. Further details onthe adjustments made to avoid double counting are givenin the relevant chapters.

2.3 Total energy consumed

The total energy consumed by the construction industryin 1998 was 7.8Mt of oil equivalent. The breakdown ofthis figure is given in Table 2.3.1.

Further details on how these quantities were obtained canbe found in Chapter 6.

2.4 Total water consumption

It was not possible to identify the total quantity of waterused in the construction industry in 1998.

2.5 Total waste generated

The total waste generated by the construction industry in1998 was 151.0Mt. This figure comprises waste generatedfrom material and product manufacture and waste fromconstruction and demolition activity (C&DW). Thesewastes can be broken down as follows:

� Quarry wastes 58.7 Mt

� Waste from material and product 2.0 Mtmanufacture

� Construction and demolition waste 90.3 Mt

Quarry wastes have been identified separately from otherconstruction material and products as they are by far thelargest source of waste materials by an order ofmagnitude. A breakdown of the wastes generated ispresented in Tables 2.5.1 and 2.5.2.


It was not possible to identify the quantities of liquid andaqueous wastes discharged to sewer, groundwater andsurface waters.

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Figure 2.1.1 Resource flows in the construction industry

Production Transport Site Activities

Non Quarry Material Production and

Product Manufacture

Quarrying

0.2Mt Recycled non construction Glass

273.

1Mt A

dditi

on to

the

Bui

lt E

nviro

nmen

t

1.7Mtoe Energy (site activities + related

transport)

67.9Mt Secondary, Recycled and Reclaimed Products

125.9Mt Quarry Products

169.6Mt Primary Materials and Products (Non Quarry)

3.9Mt of Energy used in Material and Product Manufacture

0.01Mt of Energy used in Waste Transport

0.4 Mtoe Energy used in Transport

1.6Mtoe Energy used in Transport

21.6Mt Secondary Materials

4.9Mt Emissions from Site Activity and related

Transport

2Mt Waste

58.7Mt Waste

Initi

al B

uilt

Env

ironm

ent S

tock

2.5Mt Emissions from Transport


19.6Mt Emissions from Extraction and

Production

0.02Mt Emissions from Waste Transport

90.3Mt Construction and Demolition Wastes

0.1Mtoe Energy used in C&DW Transport


46.3Mt Recycled and Reclaimed Materials

Unknown mass of liquid and aqueous

wastes

Disposal

Treatment / Disposal

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Table 2.2.1 Total primary material resource use

Material / Product SIC categories Total Used (Kt)

Quarry products 1411, 1412, 1413, 1421, 1422, 1450 125,871

Wood products 2010, 2020, 2030 9,241

Finishes, coatings, adhesives etc. 2320, 2430, 2462, 2466 1,447

Plastic products 2521, 2523, 2524 1,402

Fabricated metal products 2811, 2812, 2822, 2863, 2874, 2875 3,938

Cabling, wiring and lighting 3130, 3150, 190

Glass-based products 2611, 2612, 2614, 2615 1,415

Ceramic products 2622, 2623, 2630 4,313

Bricks and other clay-based products 2640 5,979

Cement, plaster etc. 2651, 2652, 2653, 2661, 2662, 2663, 2664, 2665, 2666 97,992

Stone and other non-metallic mineral products 2670, 2682 43,631

Total primary material resource use 295,4501

1 Slight variations in total figures occur to those presented in Chapter 4 due to rounding.

Table 2.2.2 Total secondary material resource use

Material / Product Material uses Tonnage (Kt)

Furnace slags Aggregate 2,642

Mineral wastes Aggregate, sand and minestone 4,196

Coastal dredgings Bulk fill 4,064

MSW Inc ash 80

Power station ashes Aggregate and bulk fill 1,997

Spent railtrack ballast Aggregate 1,251

Road planings Aggregate 7,087

Other secondary materials 249

Total secondary material resource use 21,566

Table 2.2.4 Total reclaimed material resource use

Material / Product Tonnage (Kt)

Architectural / Ornamental antiques 140

Reclaimed materials 2,738

Salvaged materials 446

Total reclaimed material resource use 3,324

Table 2.2.3 Total recycled material resource use

Material / Product Material uses Tonnage (Kt)

Recycled aggregates Aggregate, fill and soils 27,270and soil

C&DW and soil used Site engineering, coveron landfills and restoration 10,151

Used tyres (baled, Various 41shredded or crumbed)

Glass Recycled back into glassproducts 212

Materials used on Bulk fill 5,350exempt sites

Total recycled material resource use 43,023

Table 2.3.1 Total energy consumed by theconstruction industry

Energy consumed by: Tonnage (Kt of oil equivalent)

Mineral extraction, product and material manufacture 3,927

Transport of products and materials 1,630

Transport of secondary and recycled products 433

Construction and demolition site activity 872

Transport relating to construction and demolition site activity 828

Transport of wastes from product and material manufacture 13

Transport of construction and demolition waste 140

Total energy consumed by the construction industry 7,843

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Table 2.6.2 Total CO2 equivalent emissions generated

by the construction industry

Emissions generated by: Tonnage (kt)




Construction and demolition site activity 3,764

Transport relating to construction and demolition site activity 1,291



Total CO2 equivalent emissions to the atmosphere 28,327

Table 2.5.1 Total waste generated from material and product manufacture

Material / Product SIC categories Tonnage (kt)

Quarry products 1411, 1412, 1413, 1421, 1422, 1450 58,712

Wood products 2010, 2020, 2030 237

Finishes, coatings, adhesives etc. 2320, 2430, 2462, 2466 89

Plastic products 2521, 2523, 2524 39

Basic metals and fabricated metal products 2811, 2812, 2822, 2863, 2874, 2875 165

Cabling, wiring and lighting 3130, 3150, 39

Glass-based products 2611, 2612, 2614, 2615 182

Ceramic products 2622, 2623, 2630 85

Bricks and other clay-based products 2640 495

Cement, plaster etc. 2651, 2652, 2653, 2661, 2662, 2663, 2664, 2665, 2666 632

Stone and other non-metallic mineral products 2670, 2682 20

Total waste from material and product manufacture (kt) 60,695

Table 2.6.1 Total emissions generated by theconstruction industry

Emissions generated by: Tonnage (kt)




Construction and demolition site activity 3,661

Transport relating to construction and demolition site activity 1,276



Total emissions to the atmosphere 27,990

2.6 Total emissions to the atmosphere

The total emissions to the atmosphere generated by theconstruction industry in 1998 was 28.0Mt. This figurecan be broken down by areas of activity (Table 2.6.1).

The emissions to the atmosphere can also be expressedin terms of their CO

2 equivalents. On this basis the total

CO2 equivalent emissions to the atmosphere generated by

the construction industry in 1998 was 28.3Mt. This figurecan be broken down by areas of activity (Table 2.6.2).


Table 2.5.2 Total construction and demolitionwaste (C&DW)

Waste type Tonnage (kt)

C&D waste 39,123

Soil 29,008

Mixed C&D waste and soil 15,460

Recycled construction materials 2,000

Architectural / Ornamental antiques 140

Reclaimed materials 2,738

Salvaged materials 446

C&DW in industrial and commercial wastes 1,083

C&DW in municipal solid waste 262

Total construction and demolition waste 90,260

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3 Definition of the ‘constructionindustry’

3.1 The approach taken

The mass balance data reported in this document aim toquantify the material resources and energy used in, andkey wastes and emissions generated by, the constructionindustry in the UK in 1998.

For the purposes of this mass balance study the‘construction industry’ has been broadly defined ascomprising those industries:

� which directly contribute to the creation andmaintenance of the ‘built environment’; and

� whose activities are directly related to the creationand maintenance of the ‘built environment’.

where the ‘built environment’ includes all the physicalinfrastructure put in place by the building andconstruction industries.

This includes those industries which reclaim constructionmaterials for re-use, the demolition industry, and thoseindustries that process secondary materials and wastesinto materials and products used in the constructionindustry.

The material resources quantified are all of those used orincorporated in the ‘built environment’ in the UK. Thetotal material resource requirement by the UKconstruction industry has been identified in terms of theuse of construction products and materials in 1998 byquantifying total UK production and net imports and thewastes generated in the production of constructionproducts.

With regard to energy use, only energy used in UKproduction and the transport of materials and productsin the UK has been quantified. This therefore representsthe impact of the UK construction industry on UK energyresources, both indigenous and imported. It does nothowever reflect the wider impact of the UK constructionindustry on global energy resources where energy is usedoutside the UK in the production of construction productsand materials used in the UK. The total impact of the UKconstruction industry on global energy resources istherefore understated.

Similarly, only energy used in the extraction, processing,manufacturing and transport of construction materials andproducts, and energy used in construction and demolitionactivities has been quantified. Energy used during theoccupation of the built environment is excluded from thisstudy.

A similar approach has been adopted with regard to wasteand emissions. The wastes reported are those associatedwith construction and demolition activities in the UK andthe UK production of construction products and materials.The figures quoted thus reflect the impact of the UKconstruction industry on the UK waste managementindustry but not its wider impact on the global wastemanagement industry.

Emissions are quantified on the basis of emissionsexperienced in the UK. The emissions reported thereforecover emissions generated by UK construction materialand product manufacture, UK construction anddemolition activities and the transport of constructionmaterials, products and wastes in the UK.

It must be recognised therefore that this study identifiesthe demands for material resources made by the UKconstruction industry and selected major impacts of theUK construction industry on the UK environment. It doesnot set out to quantify the global impacts of the UKconstruction industry and acknowledges that these areunderstated in this report.

In determining the bases on which data should becollected for this mass balance study consideration wasgiven to a number of alternative approaches. We havediscounted the option of creating a wholly new definition,as we believe this would detract from the study byfocusing attention on an area of potentially limitlessdebate. We have therefore sought to base our definitionon existing definitions which we consider are consistentwith the requirements of a mass balance study of theconstruction industry.

3.2 The issue of ‘stock’

The construction industry has been defined as thoseindustries that contribute to the creation and maintenanceof the ‘built environment’. There is an argument thereforethat the ‘stock’ of the construction industry is the sum ofthose elements that make up the ‘built environment’. Thusthe construction industry stock would be represented interms of the ‘mass’ of roads, railways, hospitals, schools,prisons etc. In order to undertake a true mass balance itis necessary to identify both the ‘initial stock’ and the‘final stock’. There is, however, no accepted mechanismfor expressing the ‘built environment’ in terms of mass.

There are data available on the ‘stock’ of many elementsof the ‘built environment’ but understandably these tendto be expressed in measures relevant to the particularindustry. The most common measures are either financialor quantitative by output. Investment in the road sector,for example, is expressed financially, with the outputbeing measured in lengths of road and number of bridgesconstructed. While it might be possible to derive adefinition of a ‘typical’ length of motorway and assign

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quantities to the ‘mass’ of different materials used in itsconstruction, this would require very broad assumptionsto be made which would be open to question.

In other sectors this approach would be even morequestionable. For example, what would constitute a‘typical’ hospital or prison and how would theirconstituent materials be quantified? In theory such amethodology could be developed whereby the constituentmaterials used in a number of hospitals could bequantified and divided by the number of beds or the floorarea of the hospital. This would allow averages to bederived which could then be used for ‘grossing up’ acrossthe sector. Such an approach would require a detailedknowledge of the health sector and access to detailedinformation on the quantities of materials used in theconstruction of a number of hospitals.

Initial investigations were undertaken in a number ofsectors to see whether it would be possible to developsimple ‘proxy’ measures by which additions to theconstruction industry stock could be represented in termsof mass. These investigations confirmed the difficultiesdescribed above. It was concluded that to develop such anapproach across all sectors of the built environment forthe purposes of identifying the ‘stock’ of the constructionindustry would be a monumental task well beyond theresources available for this mass balance study.

In the light of the above it was determined that projectresources would be better used in identifying the mass

data on the material resources used by the constructionindustry and the wastes and emissions generated by theindustry. Assuming that all the relevant resources, wastesand emissions are quantified, and it is assumed that thereare no losses from the system, the change in stock can becalculated from these data.

Notwithstanding this, time series data are available onthe financial investments made in the constructionindustry and on the work done which give an indicationof the activity in the various sectors of the constructionindustry. Figure 3.2.1 presents data available onconstruction work done in 1998 (DETR, 2000). The totalvalue of this work was £27,477m representingapproximately 3.5% of the Gross Domestic Product ofthe UK for that year.

3.3 Resource requirement

The quantification of the resource requirement has beenundertaken primarily on the basis of identifying:

� The sales of construction materials and products.

� The use of secondary, recycled and reclaimedmaterials in construction.

� The use of energy in the construction industry; and

� The wastes generated by the construction andconstruction products industries.

Figure 3.2.1 Types of construction work (% by value)

Public Sector Housing (3.4%)

Private Sector Housing (21.8%)

Water (3.5%)

Sewerage (2.7%)

Electricity (1.3%)

Gas, Communications and Air Transport (2.7%)

Railways (2.1%)

Harbours (Inc. Waterways) (1.0%)Roads (3.0%)

Factories (7.1%)Warehouses (3.8%)

Steel (0.0%)

Schools and Colleges (5.5%)

Universities (0.0%)

Health (5.2%)

Offices (13.7%)

Entertainment (9.7%)

Garages (1.2%)

Shops (8.0%)

Agriculture (0.6%)

Miscellaneous (3.3%)

Oil (0.3%)Coal (0.0%)

9

It was not possible to identify water resources used inconstruction or liquid and aqueous wastes discharged tosewer, ground or surface waters.

Construction materials and products are drawn from arange of industries that are influenced to different degreesby changes in construction activity depending on theextent to which they rely on the construction industryfor their sales.

These essentially fall into three main categories:

� Industries which are virtually totally dependent on theconstruction industry for their sales (e.g. brick androof tile manufacture, concrete manufacture etc.).

� Industries which are major suppliers to theconstruction product industries and which aresignificantly influenced by the construction industrybut which are not wholly dependant on it (e.g. steeland timber product manufacture); and

� Industries which make a contribution to theconstruction industry but are only slightly affectedby variations in the level of construction activity(e.g. the plastics industry).

Within these categories there are further distinctions thatcould be made and ‘grey’ areas that need to be addressed.There are other industries, which it could be argued areentirely dependent on construction activity in its broadestsense, but which are not normally considered to be partof the construction industry. An example of this wouldbe the wallpaper manufacturing industry. While this isessentially meeting a construction or buildingmaintenance demand, it would normally be consideredpart of the paper industry.

Similarly this study does not seek to identify the quantityof packaging associated with constructions products andmaterials. While these packaging materials are clearlyonly produced in response to the need of the constructionindustry, packaging is a major industry in its own rightand is the subject of a separate mass balance study. Itshould be noted however that the quantities of wastesidentified do include packaging where this arises as partof a mixed waste stream. Accordingly, with regard topackaging, the resources used are understated incomparison to the wastes arising.

It can be seen that it is not a simple matter to derive aclear and unambiguous definition of the constructionmaterials and products industry.

As stated above, the intention was to use existingdefinitions wherever possible. For construction materialsand products reference was therefore made to the report

on the study of the UK building materials sectorundertaken by Davis Langdon and Everest (DLE) andthe Construction Products Association (CPA) for theformer Department of the Environment, Transport andthe Regions (DETR) (Davis, Langdon and Everest, 2000).

For this study we have identified those Standard IndustrialClassifications (SIC) which we considered broadly definethe construction materials and products sector. This listincluded activities drawn from the classifications listedin Table 3.3.1. The full list is reproduced in Table A3.1in Appendix 3.

Table 3.3.1 SIC relating to construction materialsand products

SIC Description

14 Other mining and quarrying.

20 Manufacture of wood and products of wood and cork,except furniture; manufacture of articles of straw andplaiting materials.

23 Manufacture of coke, refined petroleum products andnuclear fuel.

24 Manufacture of chemicals and chemical products.

25 Manufacture of rubber and plastic products.

26 Manufacture of other non-metallic mineral products.

28 Manufacture of fabricated metal products, exceptmachinery and equipment.

31 Manufacture of electrical machinery and apparatus notelsewhere classified.

The DLE/CPA report acknowledges that the listreproduced in Appendix 3 includes some products whichare not used in construction and other products whichare not used exclusively in construction.

SIC categories correspond directly to some of the higherlevel classifications given in the PRODCOM(PRODuction COMmunautaire) List, the common basisby which industrial production statistics are collectedthroughout the European Union, both classificationsbeing based on the NACE Rev.1 classifications (StatisticalClassification of Economic Activities in the EuropeanCommunity). This study has adopted the PRODCOM listas this is the basis on which the majority of data requiredwere available.

The 2001 PRODCOM List, which was completed inSeptember 2000, is based on the more extensive EuropeanUnion external trade nomenclature, the 2001 CombinedNomenclature (CN) which came into force in January2001. The PRODCOM List identifies uniqueclassifications for products together with a descriptionof the product and, where appropriate, a listing of the

10

corresponding CN classifications where these have beenaggregated into the PRODCOM classification.

It is the Combined Nomenclature which has beenproposed by Forum for the Future as the common basisfor the presentation of quantitative data collected underthe Biffaward mass balance programme of studies.

A detailed review of the PRODCOM list (which runs tojust over 500 pages) identified a further 52 sub-classifications of the SIC which included other materialswhich are used either primarily, or in significant quantitiesin comparison with that particular material or productstotal production, in construction. These materials andproducts are listed in Table A3.2 in Appendix 3.

Finally, a detailed review of the sub categories includedwithin the main categories on the DLE/CPA SIC listshowed that this list also included some 24 PRODCOMclassifications which were not relevant to the constructionindustry. These are listed in Table A3.3 in Appendix 3.

In addition to the foregoing primary materials andproducts a number of secondary and recycled materialsare also used in the construction industry, primarily asaggregate materials, and need to be considered as part ofthe construction mass balance as they substitute for theuse of primary aggregate materials. The key materialsare listed in Table 3.3.2.

In addition to identifying the use of material resourcesand construction products, consideration was also givento identifying the use of energy and water in theconstruction industry.

Energy is used throughout the various stages ofconstruction, from initial material extraction throughmanufacture and site construction, to demolition. Energyis also used in the transportation of materials to site andin the transportation of wastes from site. The activitiesfor which energy use has been quantified are given asfollows:

� Mineral extraction, product and material manufacture.

� Transport of products and materials.

� Transport of secondary and recycled products.

� Construction and demolition site activity.

� Transport relating to construction site activity.

� Transport of wastes from product and materialmanufacture.

� Transport of construction and demolition waste.

The final resource use considered was water. Watersupplies can be drawn directly from natural ground andsurface water sources under the terms of abstractionlicences granted by the Environment Agency or suppliedfrom the mains by water utility companies.

Responsibility for monitoring and recording waterconsumption from these sources rests with theEnvironment Agency with regard to ground and surfacewater sources and with the various private watercompanies with regard to public water supplies.

Table 3.3.2 Secondary and recycled materials used or potentially useable as aggregates

Secondary and UK draft waste Use as constructionrecycled materials classification reference material

Basic oxygen furnace steel slag 27.01.02 Aggregate

Blast furnace slag 27.01.01 Aggregate

China clay waste 21.01.01 Aggregate and Sand

Coal mining waste 27.06.00 Minestone

Coastal dredgings 21.01.03 Bulk fill

Electric Arc furnace steel slag 27.01.03 Aggregate

Fired ceramic waste 21.02.02 Bulk fill

Municipal solid waste incinerator ash 27.04.03 Granular fill

Power station fly ash (PFA) 27.05.01 Bulk fill

Power station furnace bottom ash (FBA) 27.04.01 Aggregate

Recycled aggregates derived from C&DW Various Aggregate

Slate waste 21.01.01 Bulk fill

Soil derived from C&DW and waste soils Various Soil

Spent foundry sand 24.02.01 Sand

Spent railway track ballast 24.01.06 Aggregate

Used tyres 22.04.04 Various applications

Waste glass 21.02.01 Aggregate substitute

11

The Environment Agency has advised that they are unableto provide a breakdown of water use to a level whichwould permit the use by the construction industry to beidentified. Similarly, while some water companies recordwater use by SIC, this approach is not universal.Accordingly it has not been possible to identify wateruse by the construction industry within the resourcesavailable to this study.

3.4 Total resource requirement

Following on from the foregoing the total resourcerequirement of the construction industry identified by thisstudy can be represented by the formula in Box 3.4.1.

The resulting list, which comprises some 300 separateclassifications, forms the basis of the database for whichConstruction Industry Mass Balance data have beencollected.

It is acknowledged that some of the classificationsidentified as part of the construction industry includematerials and products for which only part of the totalproduct sales are used for constructional purposes. Anexample of a category where the material or product maybe used for both constructional and non-constructionalpurposes is category 20.2. which includes plywood,chipboard etc. some of which is used for constructionand some of which is used in furniture manufacture.Adjustments have been made to published data wherenecessary such that the quantities of materials andproducts identified under this mass balance study relatesolely to materials used in the construction industry.

3.5 Avoiding double counting

It is also acknowledged that some of the categoriesidentified above relate variously to precursor andsuccessor activities, products and materials, for example,quarrying activities provide aggregate materials for readymixed concrete, both of which appear in the definition.

In quantifying the various components of the massbalance care has been taken to avoid double counting ofresource use by identifying the flow of primary rawmaterials from extraction to their incorporation inconstruction products or construction works. This allowedmaterials which appear in a number of datasets to beidentified and included in the mass balance as a singleitem thus avoiding double counting.

Examples of this would be prefabricated concrete productsand ready mixed concrete both of which include a numberof primary raw materials such as sands and gravels. Forthe purposes of quantifying the resource use the sands andgravels incorporated in other products are recorded as partof the mass of that product and not as sands and gravels.Thus the quantities recorded as sands and gravels relatesolely to those materials used in their original form. Thisapproach also allows the use of material resources to bedirectly identified with their end use.

Further details of how the issue of double counting wasaddressed are given in Chapter 4.

3.6 Data gaps

Finally, there were a number of instances where data onactivities, products or materials were not available. Inthese instances and where reasonable estimates could bemade, the databases were populated with estimates. Theseestimates have been made on a variety of bases includingpopulation, levels of employment and economic activitydepending on which is considered the most appropriate.Further details of these estimates are given in the relevantsections. Where it was not possible to make robustestimates the absence of data is noted.

3.7 Wastes

Whereas double counting has been avoided in quantifyingmaterial resource use, a different approach is required inrespect of waste generation. In quantifying waste

Box 3.4.1 Basis of the resource requirement calculation

Construction materials and products (identified by DLE/CPA) (Table A3.1, Appendix 3)+

Additional materials and products (identified by this study) (Table A3.2, Appendix 3)+

Secondary and recycled materials used in construction (Table 3.3.2)+

Energy used in the construction industry (Chapter 8)–

Materials and products not relating to construction (identified by this study) (Table A3.3, Appendix 3)

12

generation, wastes generated at all stages of theproduction of a construction product have been includedas these all represent resources required for the productionof a construction material or product.

For the purposes of this mass balance study wastesassociated with the extraction and manufacture ofconstruction products and materials have been identifiedtogether with construction and demolition wastes arisingfrom construction and demolition site activities.

3.8 Emissions to the atmosphere

The greenhouse gas and ozone depleting substanceemissions identified for this study are those selected forthe ‘basket of emissions’ against which reduction targetswere agreed at the Third Conference of the Parties of theUnited Nations Framework Convention on ClimateChange in Kyoto, Japan 1 December 1997 (UnitedNations, 1977). These are as follows:

� CO2 (carbon dioxide).

� CH4 (methane).

� N2O (nitrous oxide).

� HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons).

� PFCs (perfluorocarbons).

� SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride).

Emissions associated with the following activities havebeen identified as constituting the emissions generatedby the construction industry:

� Mineral extraction, product and materialmanufacture.

� Transport of products and materials.

� Transport of secondary and recycled products.

� Construction and demolition site activity.

� Transport relating to construction site activity.

� Transport of wastes from product and materialmanufacture.

� Transport of construction and demolition waste.

13

4 Primary material resource use

4.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the use of primary materialresources in the construction industry under 11 broadheadings based on the Standard Industrial Classificationsas set out in Table 4.1.1. There is a direct correlationbetween the SIC and the PRODCOM list which has beenused as the basis for data collected under this study.

Each section of this chapter describes the main uses ofthe material / product in question in construction, detailsthe total consumption of the materials / products in 1998(unless stated otherwise), and briefly describes the maintrends and influences considered likely to affect thedemand for these resources in the future.

To arrive at the total quantities of material used in theconstruction industry in 1998 the total sales of eachproduct identified in the definition of the constructionindustry have been quantified. However summing thesales of all products would overstate the mass of primarymaterial consumed as some products incorporate othermaterials falling within the definition. Examples of thisinclude sands, gravels and cements included in readymixed concrete and precast concrete products.

To avoid this double counting it has been necessary ineach section of this chapter to consider what adjustmentsare required to account for materials and productsincorporated in other construction products. In somesections two separate adjustments are required, one toaccount for materials being incorporated into the productin question (precursor products) and the other where theproduct in question is being incorporated into otherproducts (successor products).

Tables presenting the full listings of precursor andsuccessor materials and products are presented in

Appendix 4. The total mass of primary material resourceincorporated in the built environment by the constructionindustry in the UK in 1998 is estimated to be 295Mt. Anadjustment has also been made for non-constructionapplications of some of the material sales identified.

The breakdown of this total by the materials categoriesgiven in Table 4.1.1 is presented in Table 4.1.2 andillustrated in Figure 4.1.1.

In Table 4.1.2 column A refers to the section of thisreport in which the data can be found; column B is thetotal mass of all product sales in the relevant category(which includes some double counting), column C isthe mass of those product incorporated in otherproducts, column D is other materials incorporated inthose products, column E is materials in that categorynot used for construction applications and column F isthe mass of products in that category used in the form inwhich they are categorised (i.e. sand used as sand ratherthan in concrete) (column B-C).

Identifying these precursor and successor products enablesdouble counting to be addressed. Because they are allconstruction materials and products that do not leave thesystem defined for this study, the total of the precursormaterials equals the total of the successor materials. Anexample to highlight this is given in Box 4.1.1. Anyexceptions to this are highlighted by column E. Somemethodological issues are set out in Box 4.1.2.

The total of column F is thus the total mass of primarymaterials used in construction after double counting hasbeen removed from total product sales.

4.2 Quarry products

This section summarises the demand for, and the usesof, quarry products in the UK construction industry in1998 under the headings given in the PRODCOM list.

Table 4.1.1 Primary material resources used in construction

Section Material / Product SIC categories

4.2 Quarry products 1411, 1412, 1413, 1421, 1422, 1450

4.3 Wood products 2010, 2020, 2030

4.4 Finishes, coatings, adhesives etc. 2320, 2430, 2462, 2466

4.5 Plastic products 2521, 2523, 2524

4.6 Fabricated metal products 2811, 2812, 2822, 2863, 2874, 2875

4.7 Cabling, wiring and lighting 3130, 3150

4.8 Glass-based products 2611, 2612, 2614, 2615

4.9 Ceramic products 2622, 2623, 2630

4.10 Bricks and other clay-based products 2640

4.11 Cement, concrete and plaster products etc. 2651, 2652, 2653, 2661, 2662, 2663, 2664, 2665, 2666

4.12 Stone and other non-metallic mineral products 2670, 2682

14

Table 4.1.2 Primary materials used in construction in the UK in 1998

A B C D E F

Section Product Successor Precursor Non construction Materialsreference sales products products applications used

4.2 290,171,309 164,299,928 22,906,396 – 125,871,381

4.3 9,240,600 – – – 9,240,600

4.4 3,426,958 1,949,745 – – 1,477,213

4.5 1,402,382 – – – 1,402,382

4.6 3,937,593 – – – 3,937,593

4.7 189,619 – – – 189,619

4.8 1,415,436 – 1,273,8921 – 1,415,436

4.9 4,313,253 – – – 4,313,253

4.10 5,979,410 – 5,919,760 – 5,979,410

4.11 124,882,442 25,251,521 132,436,066 1,639,000 97,991,921

4.12 43,630,764 – 29,177,395 – 43,630,764

Totals 488,589,766 191,501,195 191,713,510 1,639,000 295,449,571

1 Includes 212,315 tonnes of recycled glass used in the manufacture of glass

Figure 4.1.1 Distribution of primary material resources used in construction

Quarry products (59.39%)

Wood products (1.89%)

Finishes, coatings,adhesives, etc. (0.70%)

Plastic products (0.29%)

Basic metals andfabricated metal products (0.81%)

Cabling, wiring and lighting (0.04%0

Glass-based products (0.29%)

Ceramic products (0.88%)

Bricks and otherclay-based products (1.22%)

Cement, concreteand plaster products etc. (25.56%)

Stone and othernon-metallic mineral products (8.93%)

15

In presenting the data relating to quarry products it hasbeen necessary to consider both the structure of theindustry, in particular the relationship between materialextraction and product manufacture, and the uses to whichthe materials are put.

Some quarry products are incorporated directly into otherconstruction products at the point of extraction andtherefore do not appear in the sales figures for quarryproducts. For these products the raw materialrequirements have been calculated from the sales of theconstruction products into which they are incorporated.

Where quarry products are sold on for incorporation intoother manufactured construction materials and products,the mass of these products appears in both the quarryproduct sales figures and in the recorded sales of theconstruction products. Examples include sands andgravels used in ready mixed concrete and in prefabricatedconcrete products. To avoid double counting it isnecessary to deduct the mass of these raw materials from

the overall mass of quarry products extracted to arrive atthe true mass of materials used.

Accordingly two datasets are presented below. The firstquantifies the total mass of quarry products extracted foruse in some form or other in the construction industry in1998 (Table 4.2.2 refers). This illustrates the scale andimpact of the quarry products industry. The second datasetquantifies the materials subsequently incorporated inother construction products (Table 4.2.3 refers).

A number of charts are presented in this sectionillustrating the flow of some of these quarry productsthrough a number of processes and products.

4.2.1 Materials and uses

Quarry products and their main uses in construction aresummarised in Table 4.2.1 (using the PRODCOMgroupings).

4.2.2 Quantities of quarry products used inconstruction in the UK in 1998

The total mass of quarry products used in constructionin 1998 represented a material resource use of 290.17Mt.Details are given in Table 4.2.2.

Of this total 164.30Mt were incorporated intoconstruction products. Details of these uses aresummarised in Table 4.2.3 and are expanded further inthe following sections of this chapter.

For the purposes of deriving the overall mass of materialresources used in the construction industry it has beenassumed that no significant additions or reductions inquarry product stocks were experienced in 1998 and thattherefore sales are broadly equivalent to consumption.The issues of construction industry stock and changes instock are discussed in Chapter 3.

The distribution of quarry products used in constructionin 1998 is illustrated in Figure 4.2.1.

Box 4.1.1 Example illustrating that precursor and successor materials equate within the definition ofthe construction industry

Precursor material = Successor material

Section 4.10 Bricks and clay products = Section 4.2 Quarry products

Common clay used to produce Common clay incorporated in thebrick and clay products = manufacture of clay and brick products

5,919,760 tonnes 5,919,760 tonnes

Box 4.1.2 Methodological Issues

In order to quantify the precursor and successorelements of the various products calculations havebeen made on the basis of average compositions. Itis recognised that this is a simplification. While theproportions of the raw materials being incorporatedinto products will not be wholly accurate in all casesthe main issue is to ensure that the total mass beingdouble counted is allowed for. In identifying doublecounting effort has concentrated on those materialsand products having the biggest impact on theoverall mass balance. Thus it is recognised that notall double counting will have been addressed. Forinstance it has not been possible to account for theamount of lime that is incorporated into paints usedin the construction industry.

16

Table 4.2.2 Total mass of quarry products used in construction in the UK in 1998 (tonnes)

Material PRODCOM reference UK production Net imports Total UK consumption

Marble and other building stones 14.11.11 305,095 -380 304,715

Granite, sandstone, porphyry and basalt 14.11.12 2,532,084 871,947 3,404,031

Gypsum 14.12.10.30 # # 4,294,4791

Limestone etc. 14.12.10 17,996,079 108,483 18,104,562

Chalk and dolomite 14.12.20 25,566,000 88,1142 25,654,114

Slate 14.13.10.00 391,898 13,598 405,496

Silica and construction sands 14.21.11.50/90 50,389,153 -175,735 50,213,418

Gravels 14.21.12.10 44,667,937 -7,610,109 37,057,828

Crushed stone for construction 14.21.12.30 116,972,568 -2,708,904 114,263,664

Granules of stone 14.21.12.50/90 1,089,7323 178,455 1,268,187

Pre-coated aggregates 14.21.13.50 22,906,396 #4 22,906,396

Bentonite etc. 14.22.12.10 # # 11,5005

Common clays 14.22.12.50 12,230,296 50,828 12,281,124

Natural bitumen and asphaltic rocks 14.50.10.00 34,684 -35,628 #6

Asbestos 14.50.23.40 0 1,795 1,795

Total : All quarry products 14 290,171,309

1 No PRODCOM data, consumption based on consumption of products containing gypsum.2 Export of 14.12.20.50 (calcined and sintered dolomite) not available.3 Production of 14.21.12.50 (granules; chippings and powder of marble) not available.4 Import/export of 14.21.13.50 (pre-coated aggregates)not available.5 No PRODCOM data available. Figure given is an industry estimate of consumption by construction applications only.6 Exports were greater than production, since no account is being made of stock the consumption of this product is being counted as zero.

Sources:PRA88 Product Sales and Trade: Quarrying & Related Activities (ONS 2000), PRA89 Product Sales and Trade: Mining (Non-Ore)(ONS, 2000), David York at Sitebatch (pers. comm. 2002).

Table 4.2.1 Uses of quarry products in construction in the UK

Material Uses

Marble and other building stones. Trimmed or cut into blocks for use in walling, flooring or paving.

Granite, sandstone, porphyry and basalt. Trimmed or cut into blocks for use in walling or flooring.

Gypsum and limestone etc. Gypsum used for the manufacture of gypsum blocks and tiles, self levelling screeds, plasters andplasterboard and as an additive in cement. Limestone used in lime manufacture, cement, roadstone,railway ballast, concrete aggregate.

Chalk and dolomite. Chalk used as an aggregate. Dolomite - trimmed or cut into blocks for use in walling or flooring.

Construction sands. Used in the manufacture of mortar, as a concrete aggregate and as bedding or fill material.

Gravels. Used as a concrete aggregate, for road metaling, and as fill.

Crushed stone for construction. Used as a concrete aggregate or roadstone, for railway ballast and as fill.

Pre-coated aggregates. Used in road construction.

Kaolinitic clays. Used in the manufacture of ceramic products.

Bentonite etc. Used for slurry wall construction, construction of liners and caps for landfills, cut off walls, and forwater retention facilities.

Common clays. Used in the manufacture of bricks, tiles, pipes and cement.

Natural bitumen and asphaltic rocks. Rock asphalt is used principally for surfacing streets and highways. Other uses are roofing,waterproofing and flooring.

Asbestos. Used for thermal and acoustic insulation and in fibre-reinforced composites.

17

Table 4.2.3 Quarry products incorporated in otherconstruction products in the UK in1998 (tonnes)

Material PRODCOM reference Totals

Items of worked stone 14 (various) 332,946

Limestone 14.12.10 20,784,640

Gypsum 14.12.10 4,321,196

Slate 14.13.10.00 118,532

Silica and construction sands 14.21.11.50/90 24,221,340

Gravel, shingle and flint 14.21.12.10 27,758,473

Crushed stone for construction 14.21.12.30 77,441,041

Common clays for construction 14.22.12.50 9,321,760

Total of quarry products incorporated 164,299,928in other construction products

Figure 4.2.1 Distribution of quarry products used in construction

Construction stones (1.28%)

Limestone, gypsum and chalk (16.56%)

Slate (0.14%)

Sands (17.30%)

Gravel and stones (52.59%)

Precoated aggregates (7.89%)

Clays (4.24%)

Asbestos (0.00%)

18

In addition to the quarry products incorporated in otherconstruction products there are also other materials whichare incorporated in the quarry products. These are setout in Table 4.2.4. These quantities have been deductedfrom the sum of total sales of construction materials andproducts to arrive at the true mass balance of theconstruction industry.

Table 4.2.4 Precursor materials used in quarryproducts in the UK in 1998 (tonnes)



Petroleum bitumen1 23.20.32.50 229,064

Total of precursor materials use 22,906,396in quarry products

1 See Section 4.4

Figures 4.2.2 - 4.2.7 are flow charts illustrating thematerial flows and uses of a number of quarry productsin the construction industry. These illustrate therelationships between some of the materials above andother construction products.

White Portland

Cement: 68kt

FACTORY MADE MORTARS:1,959kt OF WHICH 273kt

CEMENT

FIBRE CEMENT PRODUCTS:105kt OF WHICH 53kt

CEMENT

READY MIXED CONCRETE:53,089kt OF WHICH 5,840kt

CEMENT

MANUFACTURE OFCONCRETE PRODUCTS

FOR CONSTRUCTION:33,655kt OF WHICH 3,707kt

CEMENT

CEMENT

Total: 15,914kt

Grey Portland

Cement: 13,171kt

Alumina Cement:

1,162kt

Other Hydraulic

Cements: 1,513kt

TILES, FLAGSTONES

ETC: 9,353kt

BUILDING BLOCKS AND

BRICKS: 15,808kt

PREFABRICATED

BUILDINGS ANDCOMPONENTS OF

BUILDINGS: 7,307kt

PIPES: 1,187kt

OTHER USES OF CEMENT:6,041kt

LIMESTONE

19,275kt

CLAY, SHALE,

SAND 3,402kt

CEMENT CLINKER:

15,118kt

GYPSUM (VIRGIN,SECONDARY):

796kt

Sources: PRA30 Product Sales and Trade: Concrete, Plaster & Cement Construction Products (ONS, 2000), PRA88 Product Salesand Trade: Quarrying & Related Activities (ONS, 2000), PRA89 Product Sales and Trade: Mining (Non-Ore) (ONS, 2000), ReinforcedConcrete Designer’s Handbook (Spon 1988), Mortar Industry Association Datasheets (www.mortar.org.uk), British CementAssociation (www.bca.org.uk), Irish Cement (www.irishcement.ie). Minerit (www.minerit.fit (fibre cement product manufacture)),Minerals Planning Guidance: Provision of raw material for the cement industry MPG 10 (1991) (ODPM, 2002)

Figure 4.2.2 Material flows and uses of cement in construction

19

SAND

50,213kt

Silica Sands

4,868kt

Construction

Sands

45,345kt

GLASS PAVING BLOCKS:

12kt

CONSTRUCTION

GLASSGLASS FIBRES: 172kt

FLAT GLASS: 1,223kt

OTHER PROCESSED

GLASS FOR

CONSTRUCTIONAPPLICATION: 8kt

CEMENT CLINKER : 15,133kt OF

WHICH APPROX 2,284kt SAND

CONCRETE PRODUCTS:

29,149kt OF WHICH 7,287kt

SAND


SAND

OTHER USES OF SAND IN

CONSTRUCTION: 20,887kt

FIBRE CEMENT : 105kt of WHICH

48kt SAND

NON-

CONSTRUCTION

GLASS

FACTORY MADE MORTARS :

1,959kt OF WHICH 1,567kt SAND

OTHER RAW

MATERIALS

FOUNDRY

PURPOSES: 1,173kt

SAND

OTHER INDUSTRIAL

USES: 1,608kt SAND

GLASS:2,087kt

SAND

Sources: PRA25 Product Sales and Trade: Flat Glass (ONS, 2000), PRA26 Product Sales and Trade: Glass Products (excluding FlatGlass) (ONS, 2000), PRA30 Product Sales and Trade: Concrete, Plaster & Cement Construction Products (ONS, 2000), PRA88Product Sales and Trade: Quarrying & Related Activities (ONS, 2000), PRA89 Product Sales and Trade: Mining (Non-Ore) (ONS,2000), Reinforced Concrete Designer’s Handbook (Spon 1988), Mortar Industry Association Datasheets (www.mortar.org.uk), BritishCement Association (www.bca.org.uk), Irish Cement (www.irishcement.ie). Minerit (www.minerit.fit (fibre cement product manufacture))

Figure 4.2.3 Material flows and uses of sand in construction

PRE-COATED AGGREGATE

(TARRED MACADAM): 22,906kt

ROOFING OR WATER-PROOFING FELTS BASED ON

BITUMEN: 12,633kt

OTHER PRODUCTS BASED ONBITUMEN: 2,253kt

ASPHALT: 28,130kt OF WHICHAPPROX 27,005kt AGGREGATE

AND 1,125kt PETROLEUM

BITUMEN

OTHER CONSTRUCTIONAPPLICATIONS INC. ROAD

CONSTRUCTION

PETROLEUM

BITUMEN:

1,967kt

AGGREGATE (CRUSHED STONE,

GRAVEL, SHINGLE, FLINT)

OTHER AGGREGATE

RECYCLEDAGGREGATE

OTHER E.G

RECYCLED

GLASS

SAND, FILLERS AND ADDITIVES

OTHER MATERIALS E.G. FELT

Sources: PRA31 Product Sales and Trade: Abrasive & Other Non-Metallic Mineral Products (ONS, 2000), PRA88 Product Salesand Trade: Quarrying & Related Activities (ONS, 2000), PRA89 Product Sales and Trade: Mining (Non-Ore) (ONS, 2000), Asphaltin Figures 2001 (European Asphalt Pavement Association, 2002), Mike Nunn TRL Limited (Pers. Comm. 2002), British Institute ofPetroleum (Pers. Comm 2002)

Figure 4.2.4 Material flows and uses of petroleum bitumen in construction

20

Sources: PRA88 Product Sales and Trade: Quarrying & Related Activities (ONS, 2000), PRA89 Product Sales and Trade: Mining(Non-Ore) (ONS, 2000), United Kingdom Minerals Yearbook 2001 (Natural Environment Research Council, 2002)

Figure 4.2.5 Material flows and uses of stone and gravel in construction

LIMESTONE/

CHALK:

92,439KT

CEMENT CLINKER:15,133KT REQUIRNG15,929kt LIMESTONE

/CHALK

CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS (INC

GLASS AND PAINT):256kt

QUICKLIME

455kt

OTHER

CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS:

SLAKED LIME

312kt

LIME

1,510kt

NON-CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS:

1,254kt

FACTORY PRODUCED

MORTAR: 118kt (1,959kt

TOTAL)

OTHER CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS: 138kt

NON-CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS: <10%

HYDRAULIC

LIME

743kt

Sources: PRA88 Product Sales and Trade: Quarrying & Related Activities (ONS, 2000), PRA89 Product Sales and Trade: Mining(Non-Ore) (ONS, 2000), United Kingdom Minerals Yearbook 2001 (Natural Environment Research Council, 2002), Quarry ProductsAssociation (Pers. Comm. 2002), British Lime Association (Pers. Comm. 2002)

Figure 4.2.6 Material flows and uses of limestone and chalk in construction

CONCRETE AGGREGATE:

APPROX 16,500KT GRAVEL

AND CRUSHED STONE

ROADSTONE: COATED AND

UNCOATED: APPROX

35,400kt CRUSHED STONE

RAILWAY BALLAST:

APPROX 2,500KT CRUSHED

AGGREGATE

GENERAL FILL: APPROX


QUARRIED STONE

FOR OTHER

CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS

OTHER STONE

ECAUSSINE:

305kt

SANDSTONE:

286kt

GRANITE: 933kt

CRUDE OR

ROUGHLY TRIMMED

BLOCKS AND

SLABS

GRANULES

MARBLE: 3kt

DOLOMITE:

1,230kt

LIMESTONE/

CHALK: 92,439kt

SLATE: 405kt

WORKED STONE AND

ARTICLES OF STONE:451kt

CRUSHED STONE

137,170kt

OTHER

APPLICATIONS

(SEE

FIGURE 4.2.6)

GRAVEL,

SHINGLE AND

FLINT

37,058kt

OTHER CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS

ASPHALT: 28,130kt OF

WHICH APPROX 27,005kt

GRAVEL AND CRUSHED

STONE

READY MIXED CONCRETE


GRAVEL AND CRUSHED

STONE

OTHER: 9,847kt

21

4.2.3 Industry influences and trends

The most significant influences on the quarry productsindustries are the Aggregates Levy, the cost oftransporting materials, and public opposition to theextension of existing quarries or the granting of planningconsents for new quarries. In addition the Office of theDeputy Prime Minister (formerly the Department of theEnvironment) sets targets for the substitution of primaryaggregates by secondary and recycled aggregates.

The Aggregates Levy, which came into effect in April2002 imposes a flat rate charge of £1.60/tonne on themajority of materials quarried for construction purposes.In Northern Ireland the levy is being phased in foraggregates used in processed products. The stated aim ofthe levy is to improve efficiency in aggregates productionand encourage the substitution of secondary and recycledmaterials for primary materials. The revenue from thelevy is used to reduce employers’ national insurance

COMMON CLAYS AND

SHALES FOR

CONSTRUCTION USE

12,281kt

BRICKS: 5,691kt

TILES: 163ktCEMENT: 4,567kt

APPROX

BENTONITE: APPROX 12kt

FOR CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS

KAOLINITIC CLAYS (BALL AND

PLASTIC CLAYS)

CERAMIC PIPES,

CONDUITS, GUTTERING,

PIPE FITTINGS: 59kt

CERAMIC TILES AND

FLAGS: 4,244KT

CERAMIC ELECTRICAL

INSULATORS FOR

CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS: 11kt

CERAMIC SANITARY

FIXTURES: 57kt

CLAY PRODUCTS:

5,920kt

CERAMIC PRODUCTS

SEALANT IN CIVIL

ENGINEERING

APPLICATIONS

NON-CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS

BLOCKS: 32kt

CONSTRUCTIONAL

PRODUCTS (E.G. CHIMNEY

POTS): 34kt

CONSTRUCTION USE

FIRECLAY

LIGHTWEIGHT

AGGREGATE

Sources: PRA28 Product Sales and Trade: Refractory & Other Technical Ceramics (ONS, 2000), PRA29 Product Sales and Trade:Ceramics, Tiles & Clay Baked Building Products (ONS, 2000), PRA89 Product Sales and Trade: Mining (Non-Ore) (ONS, 2000),United Kingdom Minerals Yearbook 2001 (Natural Environment Research Council, 2002), David York at Sitebatch (pers. comm. 2002)

Figure 4.2.7 Material flows and uses of clay and shale in construction

contributions and to finance the Aggregates LevySustainability Fund. The fund supports projects tominimise the demand for primary aggregates, promoteenvironmentally friendly extraction and transport and toreduce the local effects of aggregates extraction.

Some sections of the aggregates industry believe that oneunintended result of the implementation of the levy willbe the loss of sales of low quality materials where themarginal cost of the levy is significant in relation to thematerial value.

Quarry products are by their nature both bulky and denseand the cost of transporting them is high in comparisonto their value. As a result, with limited exceptions, quarryproducts tend to be used in reasonably close proximityto their origin. Exceptions to this are where specialistproducts have a high value or where transportation byrail or sea is practicable.

22

The operation of quarries involves the mechanisedextraction of materials from the ground involving impactsfrom both noise and dust. The sale of quarried materialsinvariably involves significant heavy vehicle road trafficmovements leading to some degree of noise, vibrationand air pollution. While many quarries have implementedmeasures to mitigate environmental impacts, quarries arestill perceived as an unwelcome neighbour. As a resultof public opposition it is becoming increasingly difficultand expensive to secure permission for new quarries orextensions to existing quarries. Furthermore, whereconsent is obtained, the increasing degree ofenvironmental protection required by both planners andenvironmental regulators is increasing the costs ofoperating quarries.

Minerals Planning Guidance Note 6 (MPG6),(Department of the Environment, 1994), proposed targetsfor the substitution of primary aggregates by secondaryand recycled aggregates of 40mtpa by 2001 and 55mtpaby 2006. The recently published Consultation Paper -Draft National and Regional Guidelines for AggregatesProvision in England, 2001 - 2016 (ODPM, 2002),proposes replacing these targets with a new target of60mtpa by 2011.

More specific trends and influences relating to certainquarry products are presented below.

Gypsum

The demand for gypsum is expected to rise more slowlyin the future as naturally occurring gypsum is replacedflue gas desulphurisation gypsum from coal fired powerstations.

Asbestos and man-made mineral fibres (MMMF)

Asbestos and man-made mineral fibres (MMMF) are widelyused in a variety of building, insulation and householdproducts in the UK. Asbestos fibres have excellent resilienceand insulating properties, however, when the risks to healthof asbestos exposure became known, controls were graduallyintroduced and many uses of asbestos are now banned inthe United Kingdom. Nevertheless, many asbestos-containing materials remain in place in commercial, publicand domestic buildings, and some uses are still permitted.Man-made mineral fibres also exhibit excellent insulatingproperties and are becoming increasingly widespread. Theyare mainly used for thermal and acoustic insulation and infibre-reinforced composites.

Bentonite

Demand for bentonite is very variable, ranging from 11 -18,000 tonnes / year. Currently demand is high due tothe construction of the Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL).

The other main use for bentonite is for landfill lining, theamount used in this application can also vary greatly yearon year. It is estimated that approximately 5,000 tonnes /year is being used on the CTRL, 7 - 8,000 tonnes / yearon landfill lining, with some 3 - 5,000 tonnes / year forother uses. (David York, Sitebatch, Pers. Comm. 2002).

4.3 Wood products

This section summarises the uses of, and the demand for,wood products in the UK construction industry in 1998 underthe headings given in the PRODCOM list. The figures givenrelate to the total quantities used of each material.

4.3.1 Material uses

Wood products and their main uses are summarised inTable 4.3.1 (using the PRODCOM groupings).

4.3.2 Quantities of wood product used in constructionin the UK in 1998

The total sales of wood products used in construction in1998 represented a material resource use of 9.24Mt. Forthe purposes of deriving the overall mass balance of theconstruction industry it has been assumed that nosignificant additions or reductions in wood product stockswere experienced in 1998 and that therefore sales arebroadly equivalent to consumption. The issues ofconstruction industry stock and changes in stock arediscussed further in Section 3.

The distribution of the various sales of wood products in1998 is given in Table 4.3.2 and illustrated in Figure 4.3.1.


The UK has one of the lowest tree covers (10%) incomparison to the other European countries resulting inapproximately 85% of the UK need for timber being metby imports. It is estimated that it is unlikely that the UKwill reach more than 25% sufficiency. There are currentlyseveral initiatives to increase the amount of UK producedtimber and it could be with the review of the countrysidethat more land will be put aside for this purpose. It isestimated that approximately 5 - 6% of the cost of thecompleted building (less land value) is timber in someform or other.

Unlike other materials used in construction, timber is usedfor other applications, notably the paper making industry,which consumes more timber than construction, and inturn largely drives the timber market. Thus trends intimber supply for construction cannot be looked at inisolation as other market forces may affect them. Havingidentified this fact the rest of this section looks at just theconstruction industry.

23

Table 4.3.1 Uses of wood products in construction in the UK

Material Uses

Railway sleepers Reclaimed railway sleepers are used mainly in landscaping.

Softwood or hardwood White softwood: structural timber - floor joists, ceiling joists, rafters, trusses, purlins, ridge boards, lintels, wallsawn, sliced or chipped plates, timber frame, stud partition frames, roof and wall battens to support tiles. Support for flashing, groundslengthwise, planed or in for partitions and plaster, fencing posts, rails and fencing panels, formwork support, scaffolding support. Redblocks, strips or frieze or softwood: laminated structural timbers, roof trim, roof gutters, window and door frames, frames for kitchencontinuously shaped furniture, skirtings, architraves, dado and picture rails, doors, cills, boarding - roof decking internal floors and

walls, some of which in tongue and grove, external boards, external paving and other garden uses. Hardwood:laminated structural timbers, civil engineering applications (notably when in contact with water) - jetties, piers,lock gates, breakwaters. Structural components, piling, cills and thresholds, lintels and arches, skirtings andarchitraves, window and doorframes, doors, internal floor and wall boards, external boards, block flooring.

Plywood Formwork facings, flooring, soffit boards, hoarding, roof decking, doors, ceilings, wall lining, window boards.

Parquet, shuttering and Parguet: floor covering.shingles of wood Shuttering: concrete formwork.

Shingles: roofing

Particle board, oriented Chipboard: Six grades available according to application, Walls, ceiling liners, flooring, decking for flat roofs,strand board, wood wool joinery components, stair treads. Cement bonded: Flooring, sheathing, cable trunking, firestops, soffits, liningcement slabs boards for fire resistance. Orientated strand board: Sarking pitched roofs, cladding agricultural buildings, flat

roof decking, flooring, site hoardings. Wood wool cement slabs: Flat and pitched roofs, wall floors and ceilingsand acoustic control applications.

Fibreboard Medium Density Fibreboard (MDF): mouldings, furniture. MDF moisture resistant: skirting, window boards,architrave, cornice mouldings, joinery components and stair treads. Soft board: notice boards, expansion joints,wall and ceiling liners, core for partitions. Hardboard: wall finishes, cabinet sides, floor coverings, underlay,structural wall panels.

Veneer sheets and Veneer sheets: decorative finishes to doors, furniture, and ply layers.densified wood

Table 4.3.2 Total sales of wood products in the UK in 1998 (tonnes)


Railway or tramway sleepers 20.10.10.10 38,000 9,000 47,000

Coniferous wood sawn or chopped lengthwise 20.10.10.32/34 419,000 60,000 479,000

Spruce wood 20.10.10.35 370,000 1,560,000 1,930,000

Pine wood 20.10.10.37 130,000 1,000,000 1,130,000

Softwood sawn or chopped lengthwise 20.10.10.39 100,000 760,000 860,000

Wood sawn or chopped lengthwise exc. 20.10.10.50 55,000 #1 55,000Coniferous/tropical and oak blocks, strips and freezes

Tropical wood sawn or chopped lengthwise 20.10.10.71 11,000 #2 11,000

Oak blocks 20.10.10.77 2,000 47,000 49,000

Wood continuously shaped, blocks, strips or freezes 20.10.21 504,000 160,000 664,000

Rough softwood poles impregnated with preservatives 20.10.31.16 100,000 54,000 154,000

Railway or tramway sleepers impregnated with preservatives 20.10.32.00 6,000 8,000 14,000

Plywood 20.20.11/12 192,500 686,000 878,500

Particle board 20.20.13 2,325,000 47,000 2,372,000

Fibreboard 20.20.14 160,0003 367,000 527,000

Veneer sheets 20.20.21 4,000 26,400 30,400

Densified wood 20.20.22 #4 9,700 9,700

Parquet and shuttering of wood 20.30.12 0 30,000 30,000

Total: All wood products 20 9,240,600

1 No import/export data available.2 No import/export data available.3 No production data available for 20.20.14.13.4 No production data available.

Source: PRA17 Product Sales and Trade: Sawmilling, Panel Boards & Joinery Products (ONS, 2000)

24

As a consequence of the concerns of the use of tropicalhardwoods, there is a limited but increasing quantity ofwood available from sustainable tropical sources. Thegeographical locations of many of the sources of tropicaltimber are distant from the UK relative to other timbertypes giving rise to a further environmental impact fromtransportation. Practice in temperate forests is usuallybetter, with many, but not all being managed through theuse of good husbandry and replanting schemes. Howeverin some managed softwood forests, it is commonplaceto find monoculture practices that are unlike naturalhabitats and so have relatively low ecological value; thusthey can contribute to the loss of bio-diversity. Muchsoftwood is currently extracted from the Baltic States,which were previously managed, but economic pressuressince independence from the Soviet Union, have led toquestions being asked as to how sustainable currentpractices are.

There are currently a number of international agreementsand certification schemes that can assist the constructionindustry select timber according to sustainable forestrypractice, However the Forestry Stewardship Council(FSC) is the only universally accepted accreditationscheme at the moment.

Timber preservatives are being increasingly used notablyin window and exterior doorframes and local authoritiesnow often ask that structural roof timbers and roof trimfor their buildings be preserved also. This has implicationsin the recycling process. Many of the preservativematerials used do not discolour the timber and themajority will have been coated with paint or otherfinishes. Recycled timber goes into the manufacture ofchipboard, to specialist recyclers and used as firewood.If timber waste is mixed it is rarely segregated and finishes

up going to landfill or is incinerated. Whilst there hasbeen a trend to use less toxic materials for preservatives,they remain by their very nature and purpose, poisons.

Technologies on joinery manufacturing have improved.This has meant that timber previously wasted can nowbe utilised either by splicing shorter lengths together orin the production of laminated sections.

Timber frame construction dropped from a peak of 25%of the English housing market to its current 10%. Whetherthis will increase again with the changes in Section L ofthe Building Regulations is still to be seen.

It is anticipated that more careful consideration will begiven to the design of fixings when using timber to permiteasier dismantling and potential for re-use.

Softwood

There is an over supply of softwood currently, which bothlowers the price and discourages recycling in constructionand the wood pulp industry. It is expected that the demandfor softwoods will steadily increase due to economicgrowth.

Prefabricated timber roof trusses have all but replacedtraditional roof construction, but generally do not permitutilisation of the roof space. With the cost of propertyincreasing and availability of land decreasing, pressuresto capitalise on the roof space may increase for thoseroofs with sufficient pitch.

More timber use could occur as a result of new trussdesign with sufficient pitch that will accommodate roofspace development and replacement roofs.

Figure 4.3.1 Distribution of wood products used in construction

Railway or tramway sleepers (0.66%)

Softwood and hardwood (57.70%)

Plywood (9.51%)

Particle board (25.6%)

Fibreboard (5.70%)

Veneer sheets (0.33%)

Densified wood (0.10%)

Parquet and shuttering of wood (0.32%)

25

If environmental practices in northern European countriesare reflected in the UK, there will be an increase in theuse of treated softwood in window and exteriordoorframes.

Hardwoods

Since there are substantial amounts of temperatehardwood available and only a small amount of tropicalwood from managed sources, it seems likely thattemperate hardwood will continue to be used as areplacement for tropical hardwood. This view issupported by the environmental arguments and the trendtowards sustainable practices.

If environmental practices in northern European countriesare reflected in the UK, there will be an increase in theuse of hardwood in window and exterior doorframes

With the concern over the increases in asthma, in evermore sealed buildings, it is anticipated that there couldbe a trend to providing more timber-finished timberflooring in lieu of carpeting.

Plywood and block board

The environmental concern is the impact fromformaldehyde adhesives especially on disposal – moreso if incinerated - as reuse is often difficult as the materialis often contaminated during its use in construction.

Particle boards

The environmental concerns for chipboard are as withplywood. Cement bonded boards are generally inert ondisposal. The market for chipboards is likely to increaseas imaginative markets are developed for its use resultingfrom more recycling of timber for its manufacture, aswell as the improved quality and range of the products.

Fibre boards

The use of medium density fibreboard has increaseddramatically over the past few years and is likely tocontinue to increase in the short term. Fears have beenexpressed in some quarters as it uses approximately twicethe amount of formaldehyde adhesives as that, forexample, used in the manufacture of chipboard.

Veneer sheets

It is not practical to recycle veneer sheets either as a plylayer in plywood or as a veneer in internal joinery. It hasbeen used as a cheaper replacement for temperate, andto a certain extent tropical, hardwood timber and this trendwill continue. The only uncertainty is which particularspecies will be utilised, as this is a function of fashion.

Railway sleepers

Still a surprising number still in use, but they are beingsteadily replaced by pre-stressed reinforced concrete.They are considered to be a reducing resource in the UKas it is unlikely that they will be specified on the railnetwork in the future.

4.4 Finishes, coatings, adhesives etc.

This section summarises the uses of, and the demand for,finishes, coatings and adhesives in the UK constructionindustry in 1998 under the headings given in thePRODCOM list. The figures given relate to the totalquantities used of each material. Where these materialsare subsequently incorporated in other constructionproducts the quantities in question are discussed furtherin the relevant section. Account of this has been taken inthe overall mass balance for the construction industrypresented in Section 2 the totals for which have beenadjusted as necessary to avoid double counting.

4.4.1 Material uses

Finishes, coatings and adhesive products and their mainuses are summarised in Table 4.4.1 (using the PRODCOMgroupings)

4.4.2 Quantities of finishes, coatings and adhesivesused in the UK in 1998

The total sales of finishes, coatings and adhesives usedin construction in 1998 represented a material resourceuse of 3.43Mt. Details of these are given in Table 4.4.2.

Of this total 1.95Mt of petroleum bitumen wasincorporated into other construction products. Details ofthese uses are summarised in Table 4.4.3.

For the purposes of deriving the overall mass balance ofthe construction industry it has been assumed that nosignificant additions or reductions in finishes, coatingsand adhesives stocks were experienced in 1998 and thattherefore sales are broadly equivalent to consumption.The issues of construction industry stock and changes instock are discussed further in Section 3.

The distribution of the various sales of finishes, coatingsand adhesives in 1998 is illustrated in Figure 4.4.1.

In order to avoid double counting this mass of petroleumbitumen has been deducted from the overall use ofmaterial resources used in the construction industry toarrive at the true mass balance presented in Chapter 2.

Figure 4.4.2 is a flow charts illustrating the relationshipbetween petroleum bitumen and other constructionmaterials.

26

Table 4.4.2 Total sales of finishes, coatings and adhesive products in the UK in 1998 (tonnes)


Petroleum bitumen 23.10.30.00 # # 1,967,053

Paints and varnishes dissolved / dispersed 24.30.11 626,700 -29,811 596,889in aqueous medium

Other paints and varnishes 24.30.12 446,306 -89,163 357,143

Glaziers putty, grafting putty, resin cements 24.30.22.53 54,566 17,317 71,883and other mastics

Painters’ fillings 24.30.22.55 29,004 -352 28,652

Non refractory surfacing preparations 24.30.22.60 34,619 -2,676 31,943

Organic composite solvents 24.30.22.73/79 2,153 -496 1,657

Glues 24.62.10 264,045 10,693 274,738

Fire-proofing and water proofing 24.66.48.67 9,696 87,304 97,000

Total: All finishes, coatings and adhesive products 24 3,426,958

Sources: British Institute of Petroleum (Pers. Comm. 2002), PRODCOM reference 24300, ONS document PRQ21.

PRODCOM reference 24620, ONS document PRQ27, PRODCOM reference 24660, ONS document PRQ29.

Table 4.4.3 Petroleum bitumen incorporated in other construction products in the UK in 1998 (tonnes)


Pre-coated aggregates. 14.21.13.50 229,064

Roofing or waterproofing felts based on bitumen. 26.82.12.53 505,329

Other products based on bitumen in rolls. 26.82.12.59 89,415

Products based on bitumen (exc. rolls). 26.82.12.90 720

Bituminous mixtures based on natural and artificial aggregate 26.82.13.00 1,125,218and bitumen or natural asphalt as a binder (ASPHALT).

Total finishes, coatings and adhesive products incorporated in other construction products. 1,949,746

Table 4.4.1 Finishes, coatings and adhesive uses

Material Uses

Petroleum bitumen. Binding for road surfaces, basement tanking and damp proof membranes, roof coverings, in sarkingfelts and breathing papers.Mastic sealants and paints.

Paints and varnishes dissolved / dispersed Protective and decorative finishings.in aqueous medium.

Other paints and varnishes. Protective and decorative finishings.

Glaziers putty, grafting putty, resin Sealants.cements and other mastics.

Painters’ fillings. Surfacing preparation.

Non refractory surfacing preparations. Surfacing preparation.

Organic composite solvents. Cleaning / paint and varnish removing agents.

Glues. Used in joinery, wall and floor tiling and as a binder in chip, strand and MDF boards and plywood.

Fire-proofing and water proofing. Used on structures to increase fire resistance. Used in ventilation ducts. fire doors and frames,around pipes & openings. Used in concrete as a water repellent.

27

Figure 4.4.1 Distribution of finishes, coatings and adhesive products used in construction




BITUMEN: 12,633kt




BITUMEN


CONSTRUCTION

PETROLEUM

BITUMEN:

1,967kt



OTHER AGGREGATE

RECYCLEDAGGREGATE

OTHER E.G

RECYCLED

GLASS



Source: PRA31 Product Sales and Trade: Abrasive & Other Non-Metallic Mineral Products (ONS, 2000), PRA88 Product Salesand Trade: Quarrying & Related Activities (ONS, 2000), PRA89 Product Sales and Trade: Mining (Non-Ore) (ONS, 2000), Asphaltin Figures 2001 (European Asphalt Pavement Association, 2002), Mike Nunn at TRL Limited (Pers. Comm. 2002), British Instituteof Petroleum (Pers. Comm 2002)


Petroleum bitumen (57.40%)

Paints and varnishes disolved /dispersed in aqueous medium (17.42%)

Other paints and varnishes (10.42%)

Putty, resin cementsand other mastics (2.10%)

Surfacing preparations (1.77%)

Organic composite solvents (0.05%)Glues (8.02%)

Fire-proofing andwater proofing (2.83%)

28


The main criteria for selection of any of these materialsin each category, with the exception of petroleumbitumen, is whether or not they are fit for purpose. Manyare not interchangeable having been developed forspecific applications. These may relate to whether theyare for external or internal use, or to the materials to whichthey are to be applied. The most important considerationsare usually cost and durability.

Petroleum bitumen

Whether or not it comes from natural lakes or as a wasteproduct from the distillation of crude oil, it is a non-renewable resource.

Its major use is for the construction of roads in asphalt andas such can be planed off road surfaces, re-melted and re-used on site. Pressures resulting from the Aggregates Levyand Landfill Tax may encourage greater re-use.

The other important use is in asphalt used for tankingand roof coverings.

Fireproofing

Sheet boarding is made either from autoclaved calciumsilicate boards or fibre reinforced cement developed toreplace boards containing asbestos.

Sprayed protective materials are a mixture of cementitousmaterial such as Portland cement and filler such asvermiculite.

Intumescent paints, usually latex based are applied asliquid coating onto the surface and when heated ‘puffup’ filling the void, preventing the spread of fire.

The significance of all these applications is that in theevent of fire, they protect the building in some way fromlikelihood of lasting damage. This in turn means thatmaterials that might otherwise be damaged by fire donot have to be replaced.

Waterproofing

Small quantities are used as an admixture to giveincreased waterproof properties of concrete.

Paints

There has been a trend away from the use of solvent-based to water based paints especially for internally usedpaints. There is still some reservation about the durabilityof water-based paints used for exterior applications. Thewater-based paints reduce volatile organic compound(VOCs) emissions considerably. There are agreed

maximum levels set by the industry for VOCs and a stagedreduction is in progress. Regular decoration can improvethe durability and hence life of other building elements.

Paints have a comparatively short life and a high-embodied energy, but this should be viewed against thetotal of all the materials used in the completed building.There currently is a trend in the domestic market to moveto uPVC windows, doors and roof trim and this will havean impact on the amount of paint used for theseapplications in the future. This will not affect the internalusage other than on the external window and doorframes.

Varnishes, wood dyes, wood stains, and multi colourcoatings

As with paint there are both water-based and solvent-based materials in each of these categories and a reductionin VOCs is planned.

A substantial quantity of these materials are used in theDIY market. There is the possibility that with the everincreasing awareness of the problems associated withhouse mite and asthma that there will be an increase inthe amount of exposed and varnished timber floor in lieuof carpet.

Adhesives and wallpaper pastes

Adhesives are generally formulated for a particularpurpose and are therefore not directly comparable as theyare designed to stick specific materials or combinationsof materials together or/and allow rapid or adequateworking time for minor adjustments.

Iscocyanate resins are preferred to formaldehyde resinsfor internal use if there is any danger of release asformaldehyde is a suspected carcinogen.

There is also a risk to the health of the operatives usingthese products during installation from the resins andsolvents, but once set they are generally stable.

There has been a trend to use adhesives in lieu ofmechanical fixings in composite construction productsand for fixing skirtings, dado rails and architraves forproductivity reasons. This makes salvaging and recyclingmore difficult.

Sealants

Sealants tend to be selected on durability criteria andwhether or not they are for internal or external use. Theacrylic based materials use solvent and therefore emitVOCs. The polysulphide, polyurethane and silicone basedsealants are chemically cured and do not normally containsolvents. The oil-based products are based upon vegetable

29

oils sometimes modified by mineral or hydrocarbon oils.Both oil based and acrylic contain fibres and/or fillers.

Sealants are high in embodied energy. Durability isimportant in terms of environmental impact as somematerials may require replacement up to six times duringthe equivalent life of the best performing alternatives.Otherwise in terms of initial application the volume ofmaterial in any individual building is small relative tothe total composition of the building.

Putties

Normally used for domestic applications, many arebeing replaced by double glazed systems using rubberseals in lieu.

4.5 Plastic products

This section summarises the uses of and the demand forplastic products in the UK construction industry in 1998under the headings given in the PRODCOM list. The figuresgiven relate to the total quantities used of each material.


Plastic products and their main uses are summarised inTable 4.5.1 (using the PRODCOM groupings).

4.5.2 Quantities of plastic products used in the UKin 1998

The total sales of plastic products used in construction in1998 represented a material resource use of 1.40Mt. Forthe purposes of deriving the overall mass balance of theconstruction industry it has been assumed that nosignificant additions or reductions in plastic productsstocks were experienced in 1998 and that therefore salesare broadly equivalent to consumption. The issues ofconstruction industry stock and changes in stock arediscussed further in Section 3.

The distribution of the various plastic products sales in 1998is presented in Table 4.5.2 and illustrated in Figure 4.5.1.


Use of plastics has increased dramatically since 1950.Probably the biggest influence on plastic consumptionin the construction industry is housing. In 1998 thenumber of housing starts was relatively static, however,housing completions declined. Despite this, however, theuse of plastics in the construction industry has increasedand this trend is expected to continue. Plastics’ versatilitycombined with their durability, strength, corrosionresistance, low maintenance and cost-effectiveness meansthat there is an increasing number of building applications

Table 4.5.1 Plastic products used in construction in the UK

Material Uses

Plastic tubes, pipes and hoses. Used gas, sewage, water pipes, drainage and conduit.

Plastic floor, wall and ceiling coverings. Used in flooring, walling and ceilings.

Plastic sanitary fixtures. Used in the construction of kitchen and bathroom interiors in residential and commercial buildings.

Plastic reservoirs, tanks and vats. Used in water heating systems.

Plastic windows, doors, blinds and shutters. Used in construction and maintainance of interiors and exteriors.

Builders fittings and mountings of plastic. Used for permanent installations of plastics.

Plastic parts for lamps.

Table 4.5.2 Total sales of plastic products in the UK in 1998 (tonnes)


Plastic tubes, pipes and hoses 25.21.2 401,050 -20,262 380,788

Plastic floor, wall and ceiling coverings 25.23.11 230,233 14,390 244,623

Plastic sanitary fixtures 25.23.12 25,064 -21,667 3,397

Plastic reservoirs, tanks and vats 25.23.13 34,690 -24,779 9,911

Plastic windows, doors, blinds and shutters 25.23.14 667,808 5,554 673,362

Builders fittings and mountings of plastic 25.23.15 81,711 -2,351 79,360

Plastic parts for lamps 25.24.24.00 10,000 941 10,941

Total: All plastic products 2521-2524 1,402,382

Source: PRA23 Product Sales and Trade: Plastic Plates, Sheets, Tubes & Profiles (ONS, 2000), PRA24 Product Sales and Trade: Builders’Ware & Miscellaneous Plastic Products (ONS, 2000), Laybond Flooring Manufacturers (www.laybond.co.uk), British Plastics Federation(pers. Comm. 2001), Plastics in the Environment (Environment Agency, 1998), Plastic Window Federation (pers. Comm. 2001)

30

for which plastics and advanced resins are suitable. PVCis the main plastic used in building and construction andit accounted for over half of the plastic used for thisapplication in 1995 in western Europe.

Plastic tubes, pipes and hoses

The market for PVC pipes is growing, especially theconduit sector, which is fuelled by the telecommunicationsrevolution. Some growth has also occurred in the gravitypipe and pressure pipes market due to commercial andpublic non-residential building sectors.

Polypropylene pipe is a mature product with the majorinfluence on growth being the construction market itself.This has been fairly static but is expected to grow overthe coming years.

The market for HDPE pipe grew in 1999 despite a declinein the housing market and infrastructure investment beingflat. This was particularly due to impetus provided bythe water and sewage market. Although little investmentin infrastructure occurred, HDPE is used extensively inthe reconditioning and relining of existing pipe networksand replacement of old ductile iron pipes. In the sewagemarket the success of HDPE has been at the expense ofPVC in the small diameter pipe section as it offersexcellent burst and impact performance allowing areduction in pipe wall thickness in comparison to othermaterial options.

The future market for polyolefins in pipe is expected toincrease further as traditional materials will increasingly

be substituted with superior plastic solutions. Renovationof existing pipe infrastructures using advanced plasticswill also contribute to growth in consumption.

Plastic floor wall and ceiling coverings

Approximately 6 million windows are installed each yearin the UK. Plastic windows and doors are affected by thereplacement market as well as housing completions.Plastic and in particular PVC is extremely popular in thereplacement window market, competing with wood andto a lesser extent aluminium. In the new build windowsector, wood still dominates, however, PVC is becomingincreasingly significant offering ease of installation andan expected service life of 40 years. It is expected thatinfiltration into this market will be maintained despitethe decline in housing completions.

PVC and Unsaturated Polyester (UP) resins are used in adiverse range of cladding, roofing and canopy sheetapplications. This is proving to be a growth application,with PVC competing with traditional materials such aswood and aluminium. However, the market for UP resinfor cladding has tended to decline, losing share to coatedmetal.

The plastic flooring market is declining due to sterlingrates not favouring export. Eastern Europe has been akey market for UK manufacturers, but difficulties inRussia have also removed much export potential. Thewallcovering market is also declining due to the growthof paint.

Figure 4.5.1 Distribution of plastic products used in construction

Plastic tubes, pipes and hoses (27.15%)

Plastic floor, wall and ceiling coverings (17.44%)

Plastic sanitary fixtures (0.24%)

Plastic reservoirs, tanks and vats (0.71%)

Plastic windows, doors,blinds and shutters (48.02%)

Builders fittings and mountings of plastic (5.66%)

Plastic parts for lamps (0.78%)

31

The Ministry of Defence may provide some growth tothe sheet market in the future. Increased UK army activityrequires the construction of pre-fabricated buildings, forwhich UP resins are ideal for i.e. where lightweight anddurability are essential. Cellular PVC is also providinggrowth impetus, particularly in the manufacture ofwindow sills and roofing.

Plastic bathroom fixtures

Polystyrene and unsaturated polyester dominate theplastic bathroom fixtures market. In the case of bathsand shower trays, steel and ceramics now provide littlecompetition. The shower cubicle market has grown wellin recent years with the popularity of showers in the UKincreasing. Some maturity is now, however, evidentalthough a surge could be provided by recent housingactivity driving growth in the renovation market.

Plastic tanks and reservoirs

Plastic containment systems and water tanks made ofMDPE are an area of growth utilising the process ofrotamoulding. The UK is a hub of European rotamouldingwith close to 50% of all rotamoulded productsmanufactured within the UK providing economic plasticsolutions at lower volume outputs. The UP tank sector,however, has been adversely affected by limitedinvestment in the chemical industry (one of the largesttank markets). In the chemical industry margins have beentight, UP resin based products have, as a consequence,exhibited limited growth.

4.6 Fabricated metal products

This section summarises the uses of and the demand forfabricated metal products in the UK construction industryin 1998. The uses are grouped broadly by metal typewhile the quantities used are presented under the headingsgiven in the PRODCOM list. The figures given relate tothe total quantities used of each material.

4.6.1 Material uses

Fabricated metal products and their main uses aresummarised in Table 4.6.1.

4.6.2 Quantities of fabricated metal products usedin construction in the UK in 1998

The total sales of metal products used in construction in1998 represented a material resource use of 3.94Mt. Forthe purposes of deriving the overall mass balance of theconstruction industry it has been assumed that nosignificant additions or reductions in fabricated metalproduct stocks were experienced in 1998 and thattherefore sales are broadly equivalent to consumption.

The issues of construction industry stock and changes instock are discussed further in Section 3.

The distribution of the various sales of fabricated metalproducts in 1998 is presented in Table 4.6.2 and illustratedin Figure 4.6.1.


Metals are generally energy intensive to manufacturefrom mineral ores, resulting in high fuel consumptionrates and consequent emission of CO

2 and other pollutants

causing water and air contamination and large quantitiesof waste materials - some more than others. For examplein terms of energy, the primary production of steelrequires approximately a quarter of the energy requiredto make the same quantity of copper and a sixth of thatof aluminium. Since the UK imports a high proportionof ore from overseas, there is the added environmentalburden of transport. However it should also be noted thatby importing the raw material or part processed materialan environmental legacy is left in the providing countries.This impact includes the energy required for extractionor processing, waste disposal, damage to habitat as wellas noise and dust.

Although significant amounts of ore are extracted fromthe developed countries a substantial amount also comesfrom third world or developing countries. There will bean increasing obligation for the wealthier end use nationsto assist, either with technical solutions or finance, indisposal of this waste in terms of use for another purposeand to repossess the waste covered areas caused byprevious extraction and processing.

The recycling of metals is well developed, but it is notenvisaged that sufficient recycling will take place in theimmediate future to meet demand and therefore primaryproduction will continue.

Metals that find their way into landfill are potential pollutersas they may corrode depending upon the nature of the restof the fill, leaving voids in the fill and the possibility ofleaching metals into the groundwater. The latter isbecoming less likely with current landfill legislation.

There is likely to be increasingly stringent environmentallegislation affecting the manufacture of metals. This willaffect costs, but whether this will lead to substitution byother materials in certain applications is difficult to predict.

Steel

Steel is an essential building material and it would bedifficult to imagine a building without its use in someform especially for major building and civil engineeringstructures.

32

Table 4.6.1 Primary uses of fabricated metal products in construction in the UK

Material Product Uses

Steel Structural sections. Structural frames, lintels, staircases, lift supports and runners.

Plate. Gussets, structural frames.

Structural hollow sections. Structural frames.

Sheet piling. Coffer dams, trenching, formwork.Thin sheet. Roof and external wall cladding, eaves, verge and ridge details,

lintels, formwork, stair treads and risers, radiators.

Reinforcement bars - mild steel, high tensile. Reinforced concrete.

Reinforcement mesh. Reinforcement slabs and walls.

Light sections. Suspended ceiling support, partition frames, lintels, conduit ducts,handrails and banisters, fence posts.

Steel bars - general. Post and pre-tensioning bars.

Steel tubes. Structural sections.

Prefabricated structural sections. Large structures - football stadiums, bridges etc, pylons, latticemasts, steel towers, scaffolding towers.

Manufactured and formed sheet. Hangers, connectors, lintels, urinals, baths, WCs, wall and roofcladding, eaves, verge and ridge details, permanent formwork,conduit trays, ducting, doors.

Small sections. Window and door frames.

Specialist components. Boilers, calorifiers, fans, pumps, air-conditioning units, controlpanels, compressors.

Small components. Ironmongery, locks, hinges, nails, screws, bolts, nuts, wall ties.

Miscellaneous. Wire, fencing mesh, chain, cable, light fittings.

Stainless steel Structural sections. Staircases.

Thin sheet. Roof and wall cladding, eaves, verge and ridge details, valley lintels.

Miscellaneous. Wall ties.

Steel tubes. Services.

Iron Pipes. Rainwater down pipes, underground drainage.

Formed. Gutters, manhole covers.

Specialist products. Bollards, litter bins etc.

Aluminium Structural sections. Structural columns and beams.

Thin sheet. Wall and roof coverings, eaves, verge and ridge details, radiators,stair treads and risers.

Light sections. Window and door frames, partitioning frames, suspended ceilingsupport.

Sheet. Wall and roof claddings, eaves, verge and ridge details.

Small sections. Window and door frames.

Specialist components. Fans, pumps, mechanical parts, equipment casings.

Miscellaneous. Ironmongery, lighting, foil (vapour barriers etc), trim.

Copper and brass Thin sheet. Roof and wall coverings, flashings.Steel tubes. Pipes for services.

Small components. Ironmongery, locks, hinges. nails, screws, bolts, nuts, wall ties.

Manufactured and formed. Valves and fittings.

Specialist components. Wiring in motors, transformers etc.Miscellaneous. Ironmongery, hinges, locks, electrical fittings, leaded lights.

Lead Thin sheet. Flashings.

Miscellaneous. Leaded lights.

Zinc Galvanising. Various.

Sheet. Flashings.

Miscellaneous. Component of some paints, solder, leaded lights.

Chrome Miscellaneous. Component of some paints.

Titanium Miscellaneous. Component of some paints.

Tin Miscellaneous. Solder.

Beryllium Miscellaneous. Springs.

33

Table 4.6.2 Total sales of fabricated metal products in the UK in 1998 (tonnes)


Prefabricated buildings of iron and steel. 28.11.10 500,545 # 463,4541

Iron and steel bridges and bridge sections. 28.11.21 79,836 -29,004 50,832

Iron and steel towers and lattice masts. 28.11.22 15,377 -7,202 8,175

Iron and steel equipment for scaffolding. 28.11.23.10 81,826 49,361 131,187

Other structures of iron and steel. 28.11.23.30 - 60 2,286,330 -72,952 2,213,378

Aluminium structures and parts of structures 28.11.23.70 45,860 9,894 55,754

Doors and windows 28.12.10.30/50 224,000 10,952 234,952

Radiators and boilers 28.22 142,494 92,104 234,598

Locks and hinges 28.63 94,908 41,932 136,840

Fasteners, screw machine products, chain and springs 28.74 179,753 181,392 361,145

Manufacture of other fabricated metal products 28.75 47,799 -521 47,278

Total: All fabricated metal products 28 3,937,593

1 No production or import data available for 28.11.10.50.

Source: PRA 36 Product Sales and Trade: Metal Structures & Builders’ Joinery (ONS, 2000), PRA 37 Product Sales and Trade: Tanks, Boilers& Other Metal Container Products (ONS, 2000), PRA 43 Product Sales and Trade: Locks & Hinges (ONS, 2000), PRA 45 Product Sales andTrade: Fastners, General Machine Chains & Springs (ONS, 2000), PRA46 Product Sales and Trade: Miscellaneous Fabricated Metal Products(ONS, 2000)

Figure 4.6.1 Distribution of fabricated metal products used in construction

Prefabricated buildings of iron and steel (11.77%)

Iron and steel bridges, bridge sections,towers and lattice masts (1.50%)

Iron and steel equipment for scaffolding (3.33%)

Other structures of iron and steel (56.21%)

Aluminium structure andparts of structures (1.42%)

Doors and windows (5.97%)

Radiators and boilers (5.96)

Locks, hinges, fasteners,screw machine products,chains, springs (12.65%)

Manufacture of other fabricated metal products (1.20%)

34

The ore required for the manufacture of steel is becomingincreasingly scarce (up to 200 years at current levels ofproduction) and hence the need to recycle as much aspossible of the finished product will become a greaterissue. Recycled steel only uses approximately 30% ofthe energy compared with producing the primary product.

The finished product of steel, if not encased, is readilyrecycled on demolition, although if exposed to moist orwet conditions will deteriorate, the rate depending uponthe levels of exposure, finish and treatment. Steel usedfor reinforcement is currently more difficult andexpensive to reclaim, however this is becoming morelikely with the increasing recycling of concrete materialsand the pressures created by landfill taxation.

In recent years there has been a trend to provide largestructures with significant clear covered areas such asstadiums, airports, shopping precincts, factory premisesand atriums. Steel is the most appropriate choice forthese applications either in the form of beams,prefabricated trusses or geo-technic structures. Whilstthe emphasis of use may change, the trend to large spanswill remain. It is also predicted there will be an increasein infrastructure development, much of which willinvolve more reinforcement steel, and structural steelin various guises.

There are increasing pressures, especially post the Eganreport: Rethinking Construction, Department of theEnvironment (1998), to reduce building costs. This willmove design towards more buildable and valueengineered solutions. Less complicated structures leadto more standardisation, which in turn favours the use ofstructural steel rather than reinforced concrete.

Steel manufacturers have over the years been exploringpotential new markets for their products by substitutingsteel for other materials. A typical example has been thestructure for plasterboard partitions. This application hashad positive buildability outputs, but negativeenvironmental impacts. The increased costs incurred withnew legislation could affect these trends.

Stainless steel

Stainless steel is relatively expensive and comprehensivelyrecycled with little room for improvement. Otherenvironmental regulatory considerations are as with steel.

Whilst traditionally seen as a material used either fordecoration or to maintain hygiene standards, it has beenincreasingly used as a substitute material for ‘ordinary’steel in applications where moist or wet conditions havecaused failure such as with wall ties and lintels. Howeverthe plastics industry has also seen this as a potentialmarket, which may limit stainless steel’s future expansionin this area.

There has been an increasing trend to use it as a claddingmaterial, but whether this will last or is just a fashion isdifficult to predict.

Iron

This is a very small market and unlikely to changesignificantly.

Aluminium

The highest embodied energy of all the main metals usedin construction. The construction industry usesapproximately one tonne of aluminium to every 1000tonnes of steel (CIRIA 1995. Environmental impact ofBuildings and Construction Materials, Volume C). Themain by-product of manufacture is red mud usuallydeposited in lagoons, which can be planted with tolerantspecies and reclaimed. No significant other use of themud has been found.

Aluminium was used extensively for window frames, butwith the advent of cheaper uPVC in the domestic housingmarket as an alternative, and the appearance resultingfrom tarnishing when exposed to the atmosphere, itbecame less popular. However in recent years it has beenmaking a recovery in the commercial sector.

Its normal application in construction makes thisrelatively expensive material readily recycled.

Copper

Copper contains a significant amount of embodied energy.It has become an essential material for constructiontypically in electrical wiring and plumbing. It is also usedfor roof and cladding because of its ductile nature and itsvalued green appearance after weathering. Several tonnesof waste are deposited from the production of one tonneof copper, but can be landscaped and replanted.

Copper is comprehensively recycled in the UK eventhough the embodied energy in the recycled material ishigh relative to most other metals

The plastics industry has been slowly penetrating theplumbing market at the expense of copper, mainly due tothe ease of fixing. There is still reluctance by many to followthis trend especially in hot water systems, but if after timeit is clearly seen that there are no inherent problems withthe plastic substitutes, this trend seems inevitable.

Lead

Extracted from the same ores as zinc it has slightly moreembodied energy than copper. The solid and water wastesfrom the production of lead can produce toxic waste whichif untreated can contaminate the soil and ground water.

35

Trends in the use of lead have been steadily downwards,in part as a result of the environmental campaigns in theeighties. Besides being removed from petrol it was alsoremoved from paints (due to the fear of pica in children)and the solders in copper fittings. Lead water pipes werealso replaced. However it is still used extensively forflashings and remedial work on existing roofs, becauseof its ductile nature and ease and flexibility for mouldingover shapes. This use is unlikely to change in theimmediate future as substitutes have yet to match thisphysical characteristic. The demands for lead currentlyexceed the amount of recycled lead available.

Zinc

Zinc is usually the main product produced from the sameore as lead and produces potential pollutants as part ofthe process. Most of its applications are as galvanisedcoatings or alloy ingredients. Zinc alloys are readilyrecycled and it can be collected as dust when coated steelis recycled in certain steel manufacturing processes.

Current demands for zinc far exceeds that which isavailable from recycling.

Chrome, titanium, tin and beryllium

Only small quantities are used in other compositematerials, e.g., paint, and are therefore unlikely to berecycled.

4.7 Cabling, wiring and lighting

This section summarises the uses of, and the demand forcabling, wiring and lighting in the UK constructionindustry in 1998 under the headings given in thePRODCOM list. The figures given relate to the totalquantities used of each material.


Cabling, wiring and lighting products and their main usesare summarised in Table 4.7.1 (using the PRODCOMgroupings).

4.7.2 Quantities of cabling, wiring and lightingused in the UK in 1998

The total sales of cabling, wiring and lighting used inconstruction in 1998 represented a material resource useof 0.19Mt. For the purposes of deriving the overall massbalance of the construction industry it has been assumedthat no significant additions or reductions in cabling,wiring and lighting stocks were experienced in 1998 andthat therefore sales are broadly equivalent toconsumption. The issues of construction industry stockand changes in stock are discussed further in Section 3.

In the analysis of the data held by ONS it was establishedthat data relating to a number of products in the lightingand electric lamps categories were suppressed and thatother data were held by number not by mass.

The suppressed data related to fluorescent and mercuryvapour discharge lamps. It is considered that theserepresent a significant contribution to the mass of lightsused in the UK and that accordingly the data presentedhere underestimate the mass of resources used in the UKconstruction industry in this sector.

With regard to other data relating to lamps and lightingmany of these were held by number of items not mass.These items covered a range of lamp types of differentsizes and types. To arrive at an overall mass for theselamps discussions were held with the electrical industryand a number of assumptions were made regarding theiraverage weight. It is acknowledged that, because of thehigh numbers of lamps involved and the assumptionsmade, the overall mass may vary from the figures shownin Table 4.7.2.


The demand for wiring and lighting is driven by a numberof factors including new residential, commercial andindustrial development, building refurbishment andchanges in design together with technical innovation.

Cabling and wiring are required for power supplies,communications and control systems. Power supplyworks are associated with new development andrefurbishment including the rewiring of older electricalinstallations.

Table 4.7.1 Uses of cabling, wiring and lighting in construction in the UK

Material Uses

Insulated wire and cable Used in the installation of electrical systems for heating, lighting and mains supply incommercial, industrial and residential buildings.

Lighting equipment and electric lamps Used in the installation of electrical systems for lighting in commercial, industrial andresidential buildings.

36

Telephone communications have historically been basedaround a wired system but this is now changing as theuse of fibre optic cabling and mobile telephone systemscontinue to expand. The increasing use of cable TV insome areas may go some way to countering this trend.

The increasing sophistication of control systemsassociated with the control of heating and lighting inbuildings will increase demand for cabling and wiring asgreater flexibility and precision in control is sought.

The approach to lighting is also changing as a result ofeconomic pressure, concerns regarding personal securityand safety and the use of lighting in design.

The cost of energy has led to increased attention beingpaid to energy consumption and an increase in thedemand for low energy lighting. Concerns regardinghealth, safety and security have resulted in improvedinternal lighting in industrial, commercial and residentialpremises and in the lighting of highways, footways andthe external environs of properties.

An increased interest in the effects of lighting on interiordécor and external landscaping has led to a demand for awider variety of lighting styles.

4.8 Glass based products

This section summarises the uses of, and the demand forglass based products in the UK construction industry in1998 under the headings given in the PRODCOM list.The figures given relate to the total quantities used ofeach material. Where these products incorporate materialsalready identified under another classification in thedefinition of the construction industry the totals have beenadjusted as necessary in the overall mass balance for theconstruction industry presented in Section 2 to avoiddouble counting.

4.8.1 Material uses

The material glass in all its forms is principally composedof silica sand. Sand is heated to a molten state and fusedwith boric oxide, aluminium oxide, or phosphoruspentoxide and then moulded into various forms. The usesof glass-based products are presented in Table 4.8.1.

4.8.2 Quantities of glass based products used in theUK in 1998

The total sales of glass based products used inconstruction in 1998 represented a material resource useof 1.42Mt. For the purposes of deriving the overall massbalance of the construction industry it has been assumedthat no significant additions or reductions in glass basedproduct stocks were experienced in 1998 and thattherefore sales are broadly equivalent to consumption.

Table 4.7.2 Total sales of cabling, wiring and lighting in the UK in 1998 (tonnes)


Manufacture of insulated wire and cable 31.30 12,902 68,565 81,467

Manufacture of lighting equipment and electric lamps 31.50 84,228 23,924 108,152

Total: All cabling, wiring and lighting 31 189,619

Source: PRA44 Product Sales and Trade: Wire & Cable Products (ONS, 2000), PRA65 Product Sales and Trade: Lighting Equipment(ONS, 2000), Phillips (Pers. Comm. 2002), British Cable Makers Confederation (Pers. Comm. 2002), product information from variousmanufacturers.

Table 4.8.1 Uses of glass based products in construction in the UK

Material Uses

Flat glass. Ordinary glass used for windows etc. in domestic / office applications. Coloured.and textured used for privacy and decorative features.

Non-optical glass bent, edge-worked, engraved etc. Roof lights, decorative features.

Laminated safety glass. Laminated and toughened flat glass used for safety and security.

Multiple-walled insulating units of glass. Double glazing.

Glass fibre. Insulation: ground floor, suspended floor, cavity wall, retrofit cavity wall (blownfibre), external insulation, internal lining, timber framed walls, pitched roof, flatroof, pipe, hot and cold water tank, external door.

Paving blocks of glass. Internal partitions, pavements to act as roof lights for basement areas.

37

The issues of construction industry stock and changes instock are discussed further in Section 3

The distribution of the various glass products sales in 1998is presented in Table 4.8.2 and illustrated in Figure 4.8.1.

However while the figures above represent the total salesof the above products they also include materialsidentified elsewhere in the definition of the constructionindustry. In order to arrive at the true mass balance it isnecessary to identify these ‘precursor’ materialsincorporated in the manufactured products and adjust themass balance total as necessary.

Figure 4.8.2 is a flow chart illustrating the relationshipbetween some of the materials above and other precursormaterials.

The quantities of these precursor materials incorporatedin glass products are set out in Table 4.8.3. Thesequantities have been deducted from the sum of total salesof construction materials and products to arrive at thetrue mass balance of the construction industry presentedin Chapter 2.


Glass is a basic building material with no predictedcompetitor. All previous attempts to replace glass withplastic based materials have not been very successful.The raw materials are derived from non-renewablesources and are extracted by quarrying. Glass and glassfibre products require high levels of energy in theirmanufacture with attendant emissions to air.

Table 4.8.2 Total sales of glass based products in the UK in 1998 (tonnes)


Manufacture of flat glass 26.11 562,896 660,367 1,223,2631

Non-optical glass bent, edge-worked, engraved etc. 26.12.11.90 4,663 2,985 7,648

Laminated safety glass 26.12.12.70 116 298 414

Multiple-walled insulating units of glass 26.12.13.30 323 8 331

Glass fibre 26.14 204,465 -32,699 171,766

Paving blocks of glass 26.15.12.00 8,355 3,645 12,014

Total: All glass based products 2611-2615 1,415,436

1No data could be found or confidently estimated for 26.11.11.15, 26.11.11.30, and 26.11.12.14.

Source: PRA25 Product Sales and Trade: Flat Glass (ONS, 2000), PRA26 Product Sales and Trade: Glass Products (excludingFlat Glass) (ONS, 2000)

Figure 4.8.1 Distribution of glass based products used in construction

Manufacture of flat glass (86.42%)

Non-optical glass bent,edge-worked, engraved etc. (0.54%)

Laminated safety glass (0.03%)

Multiple-walled insulating units of glass (0.02%)

Glass fibre (12.14%)Paving blocks of glass (0.85%)

38

On the positive side, glass in windows make roomshabitable, and glass wool insulation products reduceconsiderably the loss of heat and consequently reduceCO

2 emissions. Flat glass production uses about 15%

recycled glass.

Flat glass

The thermal requirements in the Building Regulationsinitially meant a reduction in the overall areas of windowsin a building, but this has stabilised and with the adventof double-glazing and applied coatings, there has been asubstantial increase in the amount of glass used inbuildings. As more use of triple glazing occurs it isexpected this quantity will rise further. The significantchange in Part L of the Building Regulations, which came

into effect in April 2002 made it mandatory to use lowemissitivity glass (E-glass). Glass consumption iscurrently increasing by between 2 and 3 % per annum involume.

Properly designed double and triple-glazed windows,with k-glass and facing south can over the life of thebuilding make a positive contribution to energyconservation using solar gain.

Recycling glass from buildings is relatively easy toachieve, but is generally uneconomic. If the costs oflandfill continue to rise then this could be an incentive torecycle. However, the addition of coatings on glass toimprove insulation properties may create pollutionproblems in the reprocessing.

Direct re-use of flat glass is possible but rarely undertaken.

Fibre glass

Fibre glass along with expanded polystyrene,polyurethane foams and rock wool make up the majorityof insulation applications. The current BuildingRegulations are readily met using these products.However considerable improvement could be achievedin the amount of heat loss through the elements ofbuildings if the regulations were tightened. If super-

SAND

50,213kt

Silica Sands

4,868kt

Construction

Sands

45,345kt


12kt

CONSTRUCTION


FLAT GLASS: 1,223kt

OTHER PROCESSED

GLASS FOR




CONCRETE PRODUCTS:


SAND


SAND




48kt SAND

NON-

CONSTRUCTION

GLASS



OTHER RAW

MATERIALS

FOUNDRY

PURPOSES: 1,173kt

SAND

OTHER INDUSTRIAL

USES: 1,608kt SAND

GLASS:2,087kt

SAND



Table 4.8.3 Precursor materials used in glassproducts in the UK in 1998 (tonnes)


Sands 14.21.11.50/90 920,033

Lime 26.52.10 141,544

Recycled glass See Chapter 5 212,315

Total of precursor materials used in glass products 1,273,892

39

Table 4.9.1 Uses of ceramic products in construction in the UK

Material Uses

Ceramic sinks and other sanitary fixtures. Used in the construction of kitchen and bathroom interiors in residential andcommercial buildings.

Ceramic electrical insulators and insulating fixtures. Used as insulation for electric installations both internal and external.

Ceramic tiles and flags. Used for flooring and walling in residential and commercial buildings.

Table 4.9.2 Total sales of ceramic products in the UK in 1998 (tonnes)


Ceramic sinks and other sanitary fixtures 26.22 103,344 -46,094 57,250

Ceramic electrical insulators and insulating fixtures 26.23 13,067 -660 12,407

Ceramic tiles and flags 26.30 707,636 3,535,960 4,243,596

Total: All ceramic products 2622-2630 4,313,253

Source: PRA27 Product Sales and Trade: Household and Miscellaneous Ceramics (ONS, 2000), PRA28 Product Sales and Trade: Refractory& Other Technical Ceramics (ONS, 2000), PRA29 Product Sales and Trade: Ceramics, Tiles & Clay Baked Building Products (ONS, 2000),Bathroom Manufacturers Association (Pers. Comm. 2001), Various Ceramic Manufacturers (Pers. Comm. 2001)

insulated houses were to be built, i.e. insulation increasedto 450mm plus, it is calculated that CO

2 emissions from

heating the housing stock could be reduced below thetargets currently set by the Government.

It is expected that the Building Regulations Section Lwill continue to be tightened and this should help glassfibre products. The same applies in terms of Part Erequiring the increase in acoustic insulation, especiallybetween intermediate floors.

How the market will react to the technical merits of glasswool and plastic foam alternatives remains to be seen.

Recycling is problematical as a result of the binders usedand at the moment this has not been resolved. This is nothelped by the fact that the handling of the substance ispotentially dangerous to the operatives, partially due tofibres themselves, some of which may have split torespiratory sizes, but also the accumulated dusts and fibresthat may have become entrapped over the life of thebuilding.

Boards that have been mechanically fixed in position suchas with wall cavities could be recovered and reused ondemolition.

Fibres are used as a replacement for asbestos fibre incertain cement products, but are difficult to reclaim andrecycle as would that used in glass reinforced plastic, thelatter because of the resin binders.

Bent or shaped glass

This is a relatively small market. Much of the glass usedfor roof lights had been replaced by plastic, as themanufacturing process for the glass product is expensive.Bulls eyes and other decorative glass are limited inapplication.

Glass blocks

A small market and the quantities used in any particularapplication are likely to be small, although wallingapplications are currently fashionable. The likelihood ofsalvaging is probably limited as the bonding agentbetween the blocks or supporting frames would bedifficult to remove without shattering the glass.

4.9 Ceramic products

This section summarises the uses of, and the demand forceramic products in the UK construction industry in 1998under the headings given in the PRODCOM list. The figuresgiven relate to the total quantities used of each material.


Ceramic products and their main uses are summarised inTable 4.9.1 (using the PRODCOM groupings).

4.9.2 Quantities of ceramic products used in the UKin 1998

The total sales of ceramic products used in constructionin 1998 represented a material resource use of 4.31Mt.Details are given in Table 4.9.2 on sales of ceramic

40

products in the UK. For the purposes of deriving theoverall mass balance of the construction industry it hasbeen assumed that no significant additions or reductionsin ceramic product stocks were experienced in 1998 andthat therefore sales are broadly equivalent toconsumption. The issues of construction industry stockand changes in stock are discussed further in Section 3.

The distribution of the various ceramic products sales in1998 is illustrated in Figure 4.9.1. Figure 4.9.2 is a flowchart illustrating the inputs and outputs of products andmaterials in the clay and clay products industry includingceramic products. This illustrates the relationship betweensome of the materials above and precursor materials.

Small quantities of common construction clays andbentonite which are included within the definition of theconstruction industry will have been used in themanufacture of ceramic products. Because of the smallamounts involved it was not possible to calculate thequantities involved and therefore no allowance has beenmade in the mass balance calculation for this doublecounting.


Figure 4.9.1 Distribution of ceramic product used inconstruction

Ceramic sinks andother sanitary fixtures (1.33%)

Ceramic electrical insulatorsand insulating fixtures (0.29%)

Ceramic tiles and flags (98.39%)

COMMON CLAYS AND

SHALES FOR

CONSTRUCTION USE

12,281kt

BRICKS: 5,691kt


APPROX


FOR CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS


PLASTIC CLAYS)

CERAMIC PIPES,


PIPE FITTINGS: 59kt

CERAMIC TILES AND

FLAGS: 4,244KT

CERAMIC ELECTRICAL

INSULATORS FOR

CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS: 12kt

CERAMIC SANITARY

FIXTURES: 57kt

CLAY PRODUCTS:

5,920kt

CERAMIC PRODUCTS

SEALANT IN CIVIL

ENGINEERING

APPLICATIONS

NON-CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS

BLOCKS: 32kt

CONSTRUCTIONAL


POTS): 34kt

CONSTRUCTION USE

FIRECLAY

LIGHTWEIGHT

AGGREGATE

41


Figure 4.8.1 demonstrates that the ceramic productsindustry is dominated by ceramic tiles and flags with theseproducts accounting for over 98% of sales in 1998.

The UK ceramic tiles market has recorded strong growthover recent years in both the glazed wall and floor tilesectors. Over the period 1997 - 2001 growth rates of 27%and 55% respectively have been recorded.

In the unglazed ceramic tiles sector growth over the sameperiod has been even greater with sales in 2001 beingdouble the 1997 figure. Much of this market developmenthas been driven by the extensive use of unglazed ceramictiles in conservatory applications.

The UK ceramic tile market is expected to demonstratelong-term growth, although the levels of growth are likelyto be modest. Nonetheless, the long-term prospects arefor a sustained growth reflecting investment in kitchensand bathrooms, encouraged by continued house priceinflation, and long term growth within the newconstruction sector.

In the unglazed tile sector further growth is anticipated,but the extreme levels of growth seen in recent years areunlikely to be repeated. Growth rates will slow to moremoderate levels but are expected to remain above thelevels that will be seen in the glazed market.

Within the glazed ceramic tile sector the strongest shortterm prospects are within the flooring sector. This is afashion trend in part, with the growth in popularity ofsuch products in wet rooms, but there will also be a furtherstimulation to the market through the continued growthof the conservatories market. House price inflation isexpected to continue to stimulate demand with homeimprovements favouring both kitchens and bathrooms.

Without the economies of scale of many of the Europeancounterparts the UK manufacturers have increasingly

been marginalised and have responded by specialisingin niche sectors. Significant growth in the UK productionof ceramic tiles appears unlikely. Imports of ceramic tileswill continue to dominate the UK market, and will benefitfrom the market expansion anticipated.

4.10 Bricks and other clay-based products

This section summarises the uses, and the demand forbricks and other clay-based products in the UKconstruction industry in 1998 under the headings givenin the PRODCOM list. The figures given relate to thetotal sales of each material. Figures are given for thevolume of precursor construction materials that have beenconsumed in order to produce these products. Accountof this has been taken in the overall mass balance for theconstruction industry presented in Chapter 2 the totalsfor which have been adjusted as necessary to avoid doublecounting.


Bricks and other clay-based products and their main usesare summarised in Table 4.10.1 (using the PRODCOMgroupings).

Clay and ceramic building products are manufacturedfrom clay. The clay is pressed into a mould and then firedin a kiln. The great majority of clay productmanufacturing plants have been developed at the clayquarries to avoid the need for transporting and doublehandling the raw clay materials.

4.10.2 Quantities of bricks and other clay-basedproducts used in the UK in 1998

The total sales of bricks and other clay-based productsused in construction in 1998 represented a materialresource use of 5.98Mt. For the purposes of deriving theoverall mass balance of the construction industry it hasbeen assumed that no significant additions or reductions

Table 4.10.1 Uses of bricks and other clay-based products in construction in the UK

Material Uses

Clay building bricks. Used in construction of internal and external walls and other structures.

Ceramic bricks and blocks. Used in construction of internal and external walls and other structures.

Ceramic facing bricks. Used for structural and non-structural masonry where appearance is important.

Ceramic paving blocks. Used for external paving such as patios and pavements.

Clay flooring blocks. Used for flooring of residential and commercial buildings.

Clay roofing tiles. Used for roofing of residential and commercial buildings.

Clay constructional products e.g. chimney pots, Constructional products include chimney pots, cowls, chimney liners, architecturalarchitectural ornaments. ornaments, ventilator grills.

Ceramic pipes, guttering and pipe fittings. Used for water supply, drainage and sewerage.

42

in bricks and other clay-based products stocks wereexperienced in 1998 and that therefore sales are broadlyequivalent to consumption. The issues of constructionindustry stock and changes in stock are discussed furtherin Section 3.

The distribution of the various bricks and other clayproducts sales in 1998 is presented in Table 4.10.2 andillustrated in Figure 4.10.1.

The relationships between clays, clay products and otherconstruction materials are set out in Figure 4.10.2.

The quantities of these and other precursor materialsincorporated in bricks, blocks and other clay productsare set out in Table 4.10.3. These quantities have beendeducted from the sum of total sales of constructionmaterials and products to arrive at the true mass balanceof the construction industry.


Figures 4.10.1 and 4.10.2 clearly demonstrate that theclay products market is heavily dominated by the demandfor bricks. This use of clay accounts for over 95% of theuse in the UK.

The major use of clay bricks in the UK is the domestichousing market and the clay products market is thereforehighly susceptible to movements and trends in the housingmarket.

In terms of housing starts the housing industry outputhas been relatively constant over recent years fluctuatingwithin a range from 174,000 to 187,000 starts a year.The actual figures for the period 1996/97 to 2001/02 arereproduced in Table 4.10.4.

Table 4.10.2 Total sales of bricks and other clay-based products in the UK in 1998 (tonnes)


Clay building bricks 26.40.11.10 5,658,000 32,761 5,690,761

Clay flooring blocks 26.40.11.30 33,193 -1,149 32,044

Clay roofing tiles 26.40.12.50 143,954 19,437 163,391

Clay constructional products e.g. chimneypots, 26.40.12.70 34,670 -1,106 33,564architectural ornaments

Ceramic pipes, guttering and pipe fittings 26.40.13.00 178,685 -58,827 59,650

Total: All bricks and other clay-based products 2640 6,048,502 -8,884 5,979,410

Source: PRA29 Product Sales and Trade: Ceramics, Tiles & Clay Baked Building Products (ONS, 2000), Clay Roofing Tile Association (Pers.Comm. 2001), Brick Development Association (BDA) (Pers. Comm. 2001), DETR Construction Statistics Annual (DETR, 2000), MonthlyStatistics of Building Materials & Components (ONS, 2000)

Figure 4.10.1 Distribution of bricks and other clay-based product used in construction

Clay building bricks (95.17%)

Clay flooring blocks (0.54%)

Clay roofing tiles (2.73%)

Clay constructional products e.g. chimneypots,architectural ornaments (0.56%)

Ceramic pipes, guttering and pipe fittings (1.00%)

43

Table 4.10.3 Precursor materials incorporated intoclay products


Common clays 14.22.12.50 5,919,760

Bentonite 14.22.12.10 Insignificant

Total of precursor materials incorporated 5,919,760 into clay products


Table 4.10.4 Housing starts 1996/1997 to 2001/2002 in Great Britain (thousands)

Period Private enterprise Registered social landlords Local authorities All dwellings

1996/97 153.7 29.1 0.5 183.3

1997/98 162.2 24.1 0.5 186.8

1998/99 152.7 21.9 0.2 174.8

1999/00 159.7 21.0 0.4 181.1

2000/01 154.4 19.3 0.4 174.2

2001/02 164.1 16.7 0.2 180.9

Source: Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, http://www.odpm.gov.uk/news/0209/hb-9.htm

COMMON CLAYS AND

SHALES FOR

CONSTRUCTION USE

12,281kt

BRICKS: 5,691kt


APPROX


FOR CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS


PLASTIC CLAYS)

CERAMIC PIPES,


PIPE FITTINGS: 59kt

CERAMIC TILES AND

FLAGS: 4,244KT

CERAMIC ELECTRICAL

INSULATORS FOR

CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS: 12kt

CERAMIC SANITARY

FIXTURES: 57kt

CLAY PRODUCTS:

5,920kt

CERAMIC PRODUCTS

SEALANT IN CIVIL

ENGINEERING

APPLICATIONS

NON-CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS

BLOCKS: 32kt

CONSTRUCTIONAL


POTS): 34kt

CONSTRUCTION USE

FIRECLAY

LIGHTWEIGHT

AGGREGATE

44

In terms of materials that compete with bricks in thehousing market, only timber is likely to be a realalternative in the near future.

However timber frame construction has dropped from apeak of 25% of the English housing market to its currentlevel of about 10%. Whether with the changes in SectionL of the Building Regulations this will increase againremains to be seen.

4.11 Cement, concrete and plaster products

This section summarises the uses of, and the demand for,cement, concrete and plaster products in the constructionindustry in 1998 under the headings given in thePRODCOM list. This data set represents all sales ofcement, concrete and plaster products in 1998. However,because of the nature of the cement, concrete and plasterproducts industry, the total of these figures does not fullyrepresent the total use of cement, concrete and plasterproducts.

Some cement, concrete and plaster products are sold onfor incorporation in other manufactured constructionmaterials and products. These products do appear in thesesales figures but also appear in the recorded sales of other

construction products. Examples include lime used inmortar production and cement clinker used in cementproduction. The potential double counting is addressedat greater length at the end of this section and in the otherrelevant sections of this report where the adjustmentsnecessary to arrive at the true mass balance are reported.


Cement, concrete and plaster products and their mainuses are summarised in Table 4.11.1 (using thePRODCOM groupings).

4.11.2 Quantities of cement, concrete and plasterproducts used in the UK in 1998

The total sales of Cement, Concrete and Plaster Productsused in Construction in 1998 represented a materialresource use of 124.88Mt. Details are given in Table 4.11.2.

Of this total 25.25Mt were incorporated into constructionproducts. Details of these uses are summarised in Table4.11.3.

For the purposes of deriving the overall Mass Balance ofthe Construction Industry it has been assumed that no

Table 4.11.1 Uses of cement, concrete and plaster products in construction in the UK

Material Uses

Cement clinker. Ground and mixed with gypsum and other materials to produce cement.

Cements. Used in production of mortar, fibre cement products, ready mixed concrete, cementconstructional products. Cement is also used on construction sites mixed with gravel andsand to produce concrete in situ.

Limes. Used in the production of glass, as an additive in pigments and paints, soil stabilisation,rendering, asphalt additive and mortar production.

Plasters. Used in the plastering of external and internal walls to prepare them for paint orwallpapering.

Building blocks and bricks of cement. Used for the construction of external and internal walls for commercial and residentialbuildings.

Tiles, flagstones, and similar articles of cement. Used for walling and flooring in buildings.

Prefabricated structural components of cement As description.for building.

Pipes of cement, concrete or artificial stone. Used for water supply, drainage and sewarage.

Prefabricated buildings of cement. Prefabricated buildings such as sheds, garages, greenhouses, conservatories, holidayhomes or industrial plant room including complete buildings fully assembled ready foruse, complete buildings unassembled and incomplete buildings.

Plaster products for constructional purposes. Mainly consists of plasterboard which is used in the construction of walls and ceilings inbuildings.

Ready-mixed concrete. Used for construction of buildings in-situ on construction sites e.g. floors, blocks.

Factory made mortars. Used as a bedding or adhesive between stone, brick and other materials used in masonryconstruction.

Fibre cement. Used to manufacture external and internal lining panels/boards and pipes.

Articles of plaster or compositions based on plaster. Ornamental articles for use as decoration in building domestic and commercialbuildings.

45

significant additions or reductions in the stocks ofcement, concrete and plaster materials and productsin 1998 and that therefore sales are broadly equivalentto consumption. The issues of construction industrystock and changes in stock are discussed further inSection 3.

The distribution of the various cement, concrete andplaster product sales in 1998 is illustrated in Figure4.11.1.

In addition to the cement, concrete and plaster productsincorporated in other construction products there are alsoother materials which are incorporated in the cement,

concrete and plaster products. These are set out in Table4.11.4. These quantities have been deducted from the sumof total sales of construction materials and products toarrive at the true mass balance of the constructionindustry.

Finally there are certain materials identified under theabove PRODCOM classifications which do not form partof the material use of the construction industry. Thesematerials, described in Table 4.11.5, have been deductedfrom the total material use.

Figures 4.11.2 - 4.11.5 are flow charts illustrating therelationship between some of the materials above andother precursor materials.

4.11.3 Industry trends and influences

Ready mixed concrete

Ready mixed concrete consists of cement, gravels andsands mixed in the proportions appropriate for the useproposed. Minor quantities of additives such asplasticisers and retardents may be added where necessary.The use of ready mixed concrete allows a high degree ofquality control and is widespread throughout the industry.

Table 4.11.2 Total sales of cement, concrete and plaster products in the UK in 1998 (tonnes)


Cement clinker 26.51.11.00 #1 #1 15,118,626

White Portland cement 26.51.12.10 0 68,377 68,377

Grey Portland cement 26.51.12.30 12,658,671 512,370 13,171,041

Alumina cement 26.51.12.50 1,177,000 -14,879 1,162,121

Other hydraulic cements 26.51.12.90 1,511,932 872 1,512,804

Quicklime 26.52.10.33 489,684 -34,979 454,705

Slaked lime 26.52.10.35 367,630 -55,605 312,025

Hydraulic lime 26.52.10.50 743,000 -90 742,910

Plasters 26.53.10.00 1,098,203 6,384 1,104,587

Building blocks and bricks of cement 26.61.11.30 16,135,979 -327,578 15,808,401

Tiles, flagstones, and similar articles of cement 26.61.11.50 9,461,286 -107,937 9,353,349

Prefabricated structural components of cement for building 26.61.12.00 3,704,201 -135,287 3,568,914

Pipes of cement, concrete or artificial stone 26.61.13.00 1,258,470 -71,848 1,186,622

Prefabricated buildings of cement 26.61.20.00 3,738,000 #2 3,738,000

Plaster products for constructional purposes 26.62 2,382,543 38,349 2,420,892

Ready mixed concrete 26.63 53,355,026 -265,084 53,089,942

Factory made mortars 26.64 1,970,353 -11,310 1,959,043

Fibre cement 26.65 164,100 -59,394 104,706

Articles of plaster or compositions based on plaster 26.66.11.00 11,250 -5,873 5,377

Total: All cement and plaster products 2651-2666 124,882,442

1 Consumption back calculated from cement consumption figures.2 No data available on import and export.

Source: PRA30 Product Sales and Trade: Concrete, Plaster & Cement Construction Products (ONS, 2000), DETR Construction StatisticsAnnual (DETR, 2000), British Cement Association (Pers. Comm. 2001)

Table 4.11.3 Cement, concrete and plaster productsincorporated in other constructionproducts in the UK in 1998 (tonnes)


Cement clinker 26.51.11.00 15,118,626

Cement 26.51.12 9,867,975

Lime 26.52.10 259,544

Plaster 26.53.10.00 5,377

Total of cement, concrete and plaster products 25,251,522incorporated in other construction products

46

Table 4.11.5 Cement, concrete and plaster productsnot used in construction in the UK in1998 (tonnes)


Lime for non construction uses 26.52.10 1,254,000

Plaster for non construction use 26.53.10 385,000

Total of cement, concrete and plaster products 1,639,000not used in construction

Table 4.11.4 Precursor materials used in cement,concrete and plaster products in theUK in 1998 (tonnes)


Limestone and gypsum 14.12 25,105,836

Sands 14.21.11 23,301,307

Gravels and stones 14.21.12 27,758,473

Clays 14.22.12 3,402,000

Crushed stone for construction 14.21.12 27,758,473

Cement clinker and cements 26.51 24,986,600

Limes 26.52 118,000

Plasters 26.53 5,377

Total of precursor materials used in cement, 132,436,066concrete and plaster products

Source: PRA30 Product Sales and Trade: Concrete, Plaster &Cement Construction Products (ONS, 2000), Reinforced ConcreteDesigner’s Handbook (Spon 1988), British Cement Association(Pers. Comm. 2000, www.bca.org), Mortar Industry AssociationDatasheets (www.mortar.org.uk), Irish Cement(www.irishcement.ie). Minerit (www.minerit.fit (fibre cementproduct manufacture), British Lime Association (Pers. Comm.2002), Minerals Planning Guidance: Provision of raw material forthe cement industry MPG 10 (1991) (DODP, 2002)

Figure 4.11.1 Distribution of cement, concrete and plaster products used in construction

Cement clinker (13.09%)

Cements (13.78%)

Lime (1.31%)

Plasters (0.96%)

Articles of cementand concrete (21.04%)

Plaster products for constructional purposes (2.10%)

Ready mixed concrete (45.96%)

Factory made mortars (1.70%) Fibre cement (0.09%)

47

White Portland

Cement: 68kt

FACTORY MADE MORTARS:1,959kt OF WHICH 273kt

CEMENT

FIBRE CEMENT PRODUCTS:105kt OF WHICH 53kt

CEMENT


CEMENT

MANUFACTURE OFCONCRETE PRODUCTS

FOR CONSTRUCTION:33,655kt OF WHICH 3,707kt

CEMENT

CEMENT

Total: 15,914kt

Grey Portland

Cement: 13,171kt

Alumina Cement:

1,162kt

Other Hydraulic

Cements: 1,513kt

TILES, FLAGSTONES

ETC: 9,353kt

BUILDING BLOCKS AND

BRICKS: 15,808kt

PREFABRICATED

BUILDINGS ANDCOMPONENTS OF

BUILDINGS: 7,307kt

PIPES: 1,187kt

OTHER USES OF CEMENT:6,041kt

LIMESTONE

19,275kt

CLAY, SHALE,

SAND 3,402kt

CEMENT CLINKER:

15,118kt

GYPSUM (VIRGIN,SECONDARY):

796kt

Sources: PRA30 Product Sales and Trade: Concrete, Plaster & Cement Construction Products (ONS, 2000), PRA88 Product Salesand Trade: Quarrying & Related Activities (ONS, 2000), PRA89 Product Sales and Trade: Mining (Non-Ore) (ONS, 2000), ReinforcedConcrete Designer’s Handbook (Spon 1988), Mortar Industry Association Datasheets (www.mortar.org.uk), British CementAssociation (www.bca.org.uk), Irish Cement (www.irishcement.ie). Minerit (www.minerit.fit (fibre cement product manufacture)),Minerals Planning Guidance: Provision of raw material for the cement industry MPG 10 (1991) (ODPM, 2002)

Figure 4.11.2 Material flows and uses of cement in construction

SAND

50,213kt

Silica Sands

4,868kt

Construction

Sands

45,345kt


12kt

CONSTRUCTION


FLAT GLASS: 1,223kt

OTHER PROCESSED

GLASS FOR




CONCRETE PRODUCTS:


SAND


SAND




48kt SAND

NON-

CONSTRUCTION

GLASS



OTHER RAW

MATERIALS

FOUNDRY

PURPOSES: 1,173kt

SAND

OTHER INDUSTRIAL

USES: 1,608kt SAND

GLASS:2,087kt

SAND



48

LIMESTONE/

CHALK:

92,439KT

CEMENT CLINKER:15,133KT REQUIRNG15,929kt LIMESTONE

/CHALK

CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS (INC

GLASS AND PAINT):256kt

QUICKLIME

455kt

OTHER

CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS:

SLAKED LIME

312kt

LIME

1,510kt

NON-CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS:

1,254kt

FACTORY PRODUCED

MORTAR: 118kt (1,959kt

TOTAL)

OTHER CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS: 138kt

NON-CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS: <10%

HYDRAULIC

LIME

743kt

Sources: PRA88 Product Sales and Trade: Quarrying & Related Activities (ONS, 2000), PRA89 Product Sales and Trade: Mining(Non-Ore) (ONS, 2000), United Kingdom Minerals Yearbook 2001 (Natural Environment Research Council, 2002), Quarry ProductsAssociation (Pers. Comm. 2002), British Lime Association (Pers. Comm. 2002)

Figure 4.11.4 Material flows and uses of limestone and chalk in construction



CONCRETE AGGREGATE:


AND CRUSHED STONE


UNCOATED: APPROX


RAILWAY BALLAST:


AGGREGATE



QUARRIED STONE

FOR OTHER

CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS

OTHER STONE

ECAUSSINE:

305kt

SANDSTONE:

286kt

GRANITE: 933kt

CRUDE OR

ROUGHLY TRIMMED

BLOCKS AND

SLABS

GRANULES

MARBLE: 3kt

DOLOMITE:

1,230kt

LIMESTONE/

CHALK: 92,439kt

SLATE: 405kt

WORKED STONE AND


CRUSHED STONE

137,170kt

OTHER

APPLICATIONS

(SEE

FIGURE 4.11.4)

GRAVEL,

SHINGLE AND

FLINT

37,058kt

OTHER CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS



GRAVEL AND CRUSHED

STONE



GRAVEL AND CRUSHED

STONE

OTHER: 9,847kt

49

Alternative materials are being investigated for theproduction of concrete. Blast furnace slag, recycledpolystyrene and fly ash are among the materials that can beincluded in the recipe for concrete. Increased use of thesematerials will reduce the demand for gravel aggregates inthe production of concrete and ready mixed concrete.

The industry commitment to using alternative materialsis highlighted by the Concrete 2005 Strategy(Construction Industry Alliance, 1996). This wascommissioned in 1996 by the Construction SponsorshipDirectorate of the DoE and developed with the activesupport of the industry and it clients. Targets include that5% of aggregates for precast and in situ concrete are tocome from recycling sources and that the role of cementin cleaning up contaminated land and safely disposingof waste is to be fully developed.

Cements

Grinding cement clinker with a small amount of gypsumproduces portland cement. Blended cements are producedby intergrinding cement clinker, small amounts ofgypsum as well as materials like fly ash, granulated blastfurnace slag, limestone, natural or artificial pozzolanas.The gypsum is increasingly coming from flue gasdesulphurisation gypsum rather than naturally occurringgypsum.

The climate change levy came into effect on the 1st April2001 and is applied to energy used in the non-domesticsector. As energy costs represents 35% of the total costof manufacturing cement the introduction of the climatechange levy was an unwelcome measure for the cement

industry. The industry entered into a climate changeagreement with the Secretary of State for Environment,Transport and the Regions under which it has agreed toreduce its specific energy consumption from its level at1990 by 25.6% by 2010. In return the industry has beengranted an 80% levy reduction. To retain the reduction,targets have to be achieved by key milestone dates. Theindustry is therefore investing in using alternative fuelssuch as tyre chips and waste.

Factory produced mortars

These are a combination of cement, lime and sand. Theproportions of these constituents is dependent on the typeof mortar. The need for quality has resulted in a significantgrowth in demand for factory produced mortars asopposed for those mixed by hand on-site. They benefitfrom accurate cement content, consistent strength,consistent colour, reducing mixing and labour costs,reduced wastage, and compliance with specification.

4.12 Stone and other non-metallic mineral products

This section summarises the uses of and the demand for,stone and other non-metallic mineral products in the UKconstruction industry in 1998 under the headings givenin the PRODCOM list. The figures given relate to thetotal quantities used of each material.


Stone and other non-metallic products and their main usesare summarised in Table 4.12.1 (using the PRODCOMgroupings).

Table 4.12.1 Primary uses of stone and other non-metallic products in construction in the UK

Material Uses

Worked monumental / building stone and articles in marble, Used in construction of monuments or manufactured into blocks and usedtraverline and alabaster. in walling and flooring.

Natural stone kerbstones and flagstones. Used as kerbstones and flagstones.

Tiles and cubes of stone for mosaics. Used in mosaics for walls, floors etc in buildings.

Other worked stone. Used for walls, floors etc in buildings.

Worked monumental / building stone and articles thereof of granite. Used in construction of monuments or manufactured into blocks and usedin walling and flooring.

Worked monumental / building stone and articles in calcareous. Used in construction of monuments or manufactured into blocks and usedstone, granite or slatein walling and flooring.

Worked slate and articles of slate. Used in construction of monuments or manufactured into blocks and usedin walling and flooring.

Bitumen products. Used in the construction of buildings where water-proofing is required.

Bituminous mixtures based on natural and artificial aggregate Used for road surfacing, vehicle parking areas, sport and recreation areas,and bitumen or natural asphalt as a binder. canal lining, reservoir lining, sea wall construction, coastal groynes, dam

construction, asphalt kerbs, airfields, footways, railtrack beds.

Mixtures and articles of heat / sound insulating materials. Used as insulation in the construction of domestic and commercialbuildings.

50

4.12.2 Quantities of stone and other non-metallicmineral products used in the UK in 1998

The total sales of stone and other non-metallic mineralproducts used in construction in 1998 represented amaterial resource use of 43.63Mt. Details are given in Table4.12.2 on sales of stone and other non-metallic mineralproducts in the UK. For the purposes of deriving the overallmass balance of the construction industry it has beenassumed that no significant additions or reductions in stoneand other non-metallic product stocks were experiencedin 1998 and that therefore sales are broadly equivalent toconsumption. The issues of construction industry stockand changes in stock are discussed further in Section 3.

The distribution of the various stone and other non-metallic mineral products sales in 1998 is illustrated inFigure 4.12.1.

However while the figures above represent the total salesof the above products, as described above in manyinstances they include a significant element of doublecounting. In order to arrive at the true mass balance it isnecessary to identify these ‘precursor’ materialsincorporated in the manufactured products and materialsand to deduct these from the totals given above.

Figures 4.12.2 and 4.12.3 are flow charts illustrating therelationship between some of the materials above andother precursor materials.

The quantities of these and other precursor materials of stoneand other non-metallic products are set out in Table 4.12.3.

These quantities have been deducted from the sum of totalsales of construction materials and products to arrive at thetrue mass balance of the construction industry.


Bitumen based products and asphalt

85% of bitumen is used in road construction andmaintenance. Bituminous mixtures based on natural andartificial aggregate and bitumen or natural asphalt as abinder is more commonly known simply as asphalt.Asphalt is the surface for some 95 percent of our roadsas well as for playgrounds, footpaths, car and lorryparking areas and airport runways. The strength comesfrom the aggregates; the binding agent is normally anoil-based bitumen derived from crude oil. Thecomposition is varied to suit the end use. Asphalt plantsare often situated in quarries but they may occasionallybe temporary installations on a major road or airfield site.

The most significant influence on the UK asphalt industryand its customers is the implementation of the Europeanspecification for road bitumen (BS EN 12591) which cameinto effect on 1st January 2002 and which introducedchanges to bitumen grades and grade references.

Reference should also be made to Section 4.2.3 of thisreport (part of the quarry products section) which discussesa number of other influences on some of the precursorproducts to stone and other non-metallic products whichwill affect the demand for and uses of these products.

Table 4.12.2 Total sales of stone and other non-metallic mineral products in the UK in 1998 (tonnes)


Worked monumental / building stone and 26.70.11.00 34,034 42,285 76,319articles in marble, traverline and alabaster.

Natural stone kerbstones and flagstones. 26.70.12.10 80,591 11,674 92,265

Tiles and cubes of stone for mosaics. 26.70.12.30 0 -217 -217

Other worked calcareous stone. 26.70.12.40 19,644 1,433 21,077

Worked monumental / building stone and articles 26.70.12.60 29,131 24,468 53,599thereof of granite.

Other worked monumental / building stone 26.70.12.80 81,136 8,767 89,903and articles.

Worked slate and articles of slate. 26.70.12.90 64,604 53,928 118,532

Roofing or water-proofing felts based on bitumen. 26.82.12.53 12,554,315 78,899 12,633,213

Other products based on bitumen (in rolls). 26.82.12.53 2,253,940 -18,562 2,235,378

Products based on bitumen (exc. rolls). 26.82.12.59 15,830 2,159 17,989

Bituminous mixtures based on natural and artificial aggregate 26.82.12.90 28,203,389 -72,935 28,130,454and bitumen or natural asphalt as a binder (ASPHALT).

Mixtures and articles of heat / sound insulating materials. 26.82.13.00 162,405 -154 162,251

Total: All stone and other non-metallic mineral products. 2670 and 2682 43,499,019 131,745 43,630,764

Source: PRA31 Product Sales and Trade: Abrasive & Other Non-Metallic Mineral Products (ONS, 2000), PRA88 Product Sales and Trade:Quarrying & Related Activities (ONS, 2000), Asphalt in Figures 2001 (European Asphalt Pavement Association, 2002), Product Data Sheets(www.bi-tec.com (bitumen product manufacturers))

51

Figure 4.12.1 Distribution of stone and other non-metallic products used in construction



Worked stone (1.03%)

Bitumen based products (34.12%)

Asphalt (64.47%)

Mixtures and articles of heat /sound insulating materials (0.37%)

CONCRETE AGGREGATE:


AND CRUSHED STONE


UNCOATED: APPROX


RAILWAY BALLAST:


AGGREGATE



QUARRIED STONE

FOR OTHER

CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS

OTHER STONE

ECAUSSINE:

305kt

SANDSTONE:

286kt

GRANITE: 933kt

CRUDE OR

ROUGHLY TRIMMED

BLOCKS AND

SLABS

GRANULES

MARBLE: 3kt

DOLOMITE:

1,230kt

LIMESTONE/

CHALK: 92,439kt

SLATE: 405kt

WORKED STONE AND


CRUSHED STONE

137,170kt

OTHER

APPLICATIONS

(SEE

FIGURE 4.11.4)

GRAVEL,

SHINGLE AND

FLINT

37,058kt

OTHER CONSTRUCTION

APPLICATIONS



GRAVEL AND CRUSHED

STONE



GRAVEL AND CRUSHED

STONE

OTHER: 9,847kt

52

Table 4.12.3 Precursor materials used in stone andother non-metallic products in the UKin 1998 (tonnes)


Other quarry products 14 332,946

Slate 14.13.10.00 118,532


Petroleum bitumen 23.20.32.50 1,720,681

Total of precursor materials used in stone and 29,177,395other non-metallic products

Source: PRA31 Product Sales and Trade: Abrasive & Other Non-Metallic Mineral Products (ONS, 2000), PRA88 Product Sales andTrade: Quarrying & Related Activities (ONS, 2000), Asphalt inFigures 2001 (European Asphalt Pavement Association, 2002),Mike Nunn TRL Limited (Pers. Comm. 2002)




BITUMEN: 12,633kt




BITUMEN


CONSTRUCTION

PETROLEUM

BITUMEN:

1,967kt



OTHER AGGREGATE

RECYCLEDAGGREGATE

OTHER E.G

RECYCLED

GLASS



Sources: PRA31 Product Sales and Trade: Abrasive & Other Non-Metallic Mineral Products (ONS, 2000), PRA88 Product Salesand Trade: Quarrying & Related Activities (ONS, 2000), PRA89 Product Sales and Trade: Mining (Non-Ore) (ONS, 2000), Asphaltin Figures 2001 (European Asphalt Pavement Association, 2002), Mike Nunn at TRL Limited (Pers. Comm. 2002), British Instituteof Petroleum (Pers. Comm 2002)


53

5 Secondary, recycled and reclaimedproducts

5.1 Introduction

In addition to the ‘new’ or ‘primary’ products describedin Chapter 4, the construction industry also uses asignificant volume of secondary, recycled and reclaimedproducts.

Secondary products are essentially waste materials or by-products from processing activities which can be used assubstitutes for primary materials. Recycled products arewaste materials which are transformed into useablematerials and products after processing. Reclaimedmaterials and products are those which can be reused inthe form in which they are recovered.

The great majority of secondary and recycled materialsare used as aggregates while reclaimed products tend tobe timber, clay and stone products.

It is important to note that most of the secondary andrecycled materials are used as substitutes for primaryaggregates. Their use provides a dual benefit in that, ifthey were not used:

� they would have to be disposed of to landfill; and

� primary aggregates would have to be quarried toreplace them.

There is one area of significant construction materialresource use which it has not been possible to quantifyand for which we have been unable to identify reliableestimates of their use. These are materials which arereused on the site where they arise without processing.They include soils which may be excavated and replacedelsewhere as part of ‘cut and fill’ works and constructionand demolition wastes such as brick hardcore used asfill. These materials are not subject to waste managementregulation and the processes by which they are used arenot subject to process authorisations. Accordingly thereis no regulatory framework requiring the reporting of theiruse and such uses are not therefore recorded other thanfor payment purposes under individual contracts.

It is worth noting that the revised proposal of the EuropeanCommission for a Council Regulation on WasteManagement Statistics, which seeks to standardisereporting on waste statistics by establishing definitionsfor the various waste types and waste managementoperations and methodologies for data collection, alsoexcludes these materials.

This section summarises the uses of, and the demand for,secondary, recycled and reclaimed materials in the UK.

The data for secondary and recycled materials relate to1999 rather than 1998 as this is the period for which thebest data is available. Similarly the data for reclaimedmaterials is a ‘best estimate’ made in October 2000. Whilethere may be variations in the use of the individualmaterials between these periods there is no evidence tosuggest that the total quantity of these materials useddiffers significantly between these periods.

Information on C&DW arisings and their uses in Englandand Wales, including regional breakdowns, can be foundin Environment Agency Technical Report P402 -Construction and Demolition Waste Survey (SymondsGroup Ltd., 2000). Information on secondary materialsuse has been obtained from the former DTLR (now theODPM).

Similar information relating to Scotland has been takenfrom the results of a pilot survey reported in the ScottishExecutive publication ‘Recycled Aggregates in Scotland’(Winter and Henderson, 2001).

No equivalent data relating to Northern Ireland have beenidentified. In the absence of comparable data on the useof secondary and recycled materials in construction inNorthern Ireland, a estimate has been made usingpopulation and employment statistics and assumed levelsof use compared to Great Britain.

5.2 Secondary materials

As stated above the most common use of secondarymaterials is as construction aggregate. The materials usedare essentially waste materials, including by-productsfrom mining and quarrying activities, which can be usedas substitutes for primary aggregates. These materialsinclude: blast furnace slag, basic oxygen furnace steelslag, china clay waste, coal mining waste, coastaldredgings, electric arc furnace steel slag, fired ceramicwaste, municipal solid waste incinerator ash, powerstation fly ash (pfa), power station furnace bottom ash(fba), scrap tyres, slate waste, spent foundry sand, spentrailway track ballast, waste glass.

Other secondary materials which are understood to beused in minor quantities but for which no data existinclude: baghouse dust, ball clay waste, cement and limekiln dust, contaminated soils, inland dredgings, non-energy mining waste, non ferrous slags, quarry fines,silica fume, sulphate waste, waste gypsum, waste plastic.The totals given in this section for secondary materialsused in construction are therefore likely to be a slightunder estimate of the actual total.

The broad uses of secondary materials and the quantitiesused in 1999 are set out in Tables 5.2.1 and 5.2.2, andillustrated in Figure 5.2.1.

54

The Environment Agency report covering C&DWarisings in England and Wales identifies a limited numberof uses and destinations for recycled C&DW arisingssome of which are considered to be part of theconstruction industry. These are:

� Recycled aggregates and soils.

� C&DW and soils beneficially reused on landfillsites.

� Materials used on sites exempt from wastemanagement licensing (exempt sites).

C&DW and soils beneficially used on landfill sites havebeen included in their entirety in the mass balancecalculation on the basis that:

� A landfill is a component of the built environment inthe same way that a waste incinerator is.

� The materials would have to be replaced by primarymaterials if these materials were not available.

Table 5.2.1 Uses of secondary materials in construction

Group of materials Materials Uses

Furnace slags. – Aggregate.

Mineral wastes. China clay, coal mining wastes and spent oil shale. Aggregate, sand and minestone.

Coastal dredgings. – Bulk fill.

MSW incinerator ash. – Aggregate and bulk fill.

Power station ashes. Power station fly ash (PFA) and furnace bottom ash (FBA). Aggregate and bulk fill.

Spent railtrack ballast. – Aggregate.

Road planings. – Aggregate.

Others. Ceramic waste, foundry sand and glass. Aggregate, sand and bulk fill.

Table 5.2.2 Geographical use of secondary materials

Quantity used (Kt)

England NorthernGroup of materials and Wales Scotland Ireland Totals

Furnace slags 2,510 90 42 2,642

Mineral wastes 3,730 400 66 4,196

Coastal dredgings 4,000 0 64 4,064

MSW incinerator ash 80 0 0 80

Power station ashes 1,750 216 31 1,997

Spent railtrack ballast 1,150 81 20 1,251

Road planings 6,500 475 112 7,087

Others 245 0 4 249

Sub totals 19,965 1,262 339 21,566

Total use of secondary materials in the UK 21,566

Figure 5.2.1 Distribution of secondary materials used in construction

5.3 Recycled material

The materials most commonly recycled in constructionare aggregates derived from the sorting and crushingof the inert fraction of construction and demolitionwastes (C&DW).

12.25%

19.50%

18.84%

0.00%9.26%

5.80%

32.86%

1.20%

Furnace Slags

Mineral Wastes

Coastal Dredgings

MSW Inc Ash

Power Station Ashes

Spent Railway Track Ballast

Road Planings

Others

55

Used tyres used in landfill engineering have also beenincluded for the same reason. Other uses of used tyres inconstruction have also been included.

There has been much discussion in the waste managementindustry regarding the use of C&DW and soils on exemptsites. Some of this material is being used on constructionsites in place of primary aggregates and is thereforeeffectively being used as a construction material. Othermaterial is simply being ‘disposed of’ on exempt sites.In between these two situations is a grey area wherebymaterials are used for legitimate but possibly not strictlynecessary purposes such as ‘excessive’ landraising,landscaping or noise bunding.

There are also wide variations in practices across thecountry. In some urban areas where there is a highdemand for aggregate materials and high transportationand landfill costs, C&DW arisings will tend to beprocessed for re-use and ‘disposal’ to exempt sites willbe correspondingly low. Conversely, in depressedindustrial areas, C&DW arisings will either be left onsite unprocessed or ‘disposed’ of at nearby exempt sites.

We are not aware of any studies where these uses havebeen quantified and reliable estimates made of theproportions of the materials being used for constructionpurposes or of those being disposed of. In the absence of

such data it has been assumed that 1/4 of the totalunprocessed C&DW and soils ‘used’ on exempt sites areused for ‘necessary’ construction purposes and theremainder is effectively being disposed of.

In addition to being used as an aggregate, glass is alsorecycled back into glass products. It is estimated thatapproximately 15% of the material used in glass productsis recycled glass.

The broad uses of recycled materials in construction andthe quantities used in 1999 are set out in Tables 5.3.1and 5.3.2, and illustrated in Figure 5.3.1.

5.4 Reclaimed and salvaged materials

In their report ‘Deconstruction and re-use of constructionmaterials’ BRE estimate that approximately 3.3milliontonnes of C&D Waste is reclaimed for re-use. Thebreakdown of these materials is given in Table 5.4.1.

5.5 Summary

The total use of secondary, recycled and reclaimedmaterials in the construction industry in the UK issummarised in Table 5.5.1.

Table 5.3.2 Geographical use of recycled materials in the UK

Quantity used (kt)

Group of materials England Wales Scotland Northern Ireland Total UK

Recycled aggregates and soil 24,388 746 1,629 507 27,270

C&DW and soil used on landfills 9,111 421 450 169 10,151

Used tyres used in landfills – – – – 26

Used tyres (other) – – – – 15

Glass – – – – 212

Materials used on exempt sites 4,754 325 102 169 5,350

Total 43,023

Table 5.3.1 Use of recycled materials in construction

Group of materials Materials Uses

Recycled aggregates and soil. Hard inert materials and soils. Aggregate, fill and soils.

C&DW and soil used on landfills. Hard inert materials and soils. Site engineering, cover and restoration.

Used tyres used in landfills. Whole and shredded tyres. Drainage.

Used tyres (other). Whole, baled, shredded and crumbed. Drainage culvert beds, embankments, slopestabilisation, sound barriers, roof tiles, roadsurfacings, fill, insulation.

Materials used on exempt sites. Hard inert materials and soils. Bulk fill.

Glass. Glass. Recycled back into glass products or used asan aggregate.

56

Table 5.5.1 Secondary, recycled and reclaimedmaterials used in the UK

Material / Product type % of total Quantity (kt)

Secondary materials 31.8 21,566

Recycled materials 63.3 43,023

Reclaimed materials 4.9 3,324

Total UK 100 67,913

Table 5.4.1 C&DW reclaimed in the UK

Material / Product type Quantity (kt)

Architectural / Ornamental antiques

Stone 91

Timber 29

Iron and steel 16

Clay 3

Bathroom furniture 1

Reclaimed materials

Timber beams and flooring 234

Clay bricks and tiles 749

Clay and stone paving 672

Stone walling 1,083

Salvaged materials

Iron and steel 75

Timber 371

Total UK 3,324

Figure 5.3.1 Distribution of recycled materials used in construction

Materials used on exempt sites 12.43%

Glass 0.50%

Used tyres (other) 0.03%

Used tyres used in landfills 0.06%

C&DW and soil used on landfills 23.59% Recycled aggregates

and soil 63.38%

57

6 Energy use in the constructionindustry

6.1 Introduction

This chapter presents data on the amount of energy usedby the construction industry in 1998. Data for this sectionwas calculated from data presented in the DTI’s Digestof Energy Statistics (DTI, 2001). Data were apportionedto the construction industry on the basis of economic datain the case of mineral extraction and construction productmanufacture. In the case of transport, data wereapportioned on the basis of data provided by the DTLRon the number of kilometres travelled by goods vehiclesby type of industry. Data on construction site activitycame directly from DTI statistics. Further methodologicalissues are set out in Box 6.1.1.

The energy uses quantified in this section relate to:

� the extraction, processing, manufacturing andtransport of construction materials and products;

� the transport of construction product manufacturingwastes;

� construction and demolition activities; and,

� the transport of construction and demolition wastes.

Energy used during the occupation of the builtenvironment is excluded from this study.

6.2 Summary

Energy use in the construction industry in 1998 was7,843kt of oil equivalent, this was 23% of the total amountof energy used by industry in the United Kingdom(34,461kt used in total by industry). A summary of energyuse by construction sector is given in Table 6.2.1 andFigure 6.2.1 . Table 6.2.2 and Figure 6.2.2 illustrate theamount of energy consumed by the construction industrycompared to all UK industry and total consumption ofenergy by all sources.

The figures in the Table 6.2.1 were calculated using datafrom the DTI Digest of Energy Statistics. A figure forenergy use for mineral extraction and constructionproduct manufacture was also calculated using ONS data.This alternative calculation gave a result that was 5%lower at 3,710kt.

Box 6.1.1 Note on methodology

The energy data used in this section in largely came from the DTI Digest of Energy Statistics for 2001. A numberof issues concerning the methodology adopted are highlighted here:

1 Figures for fuel use by product and material manufacture were calculated by apportioning DTI statistics forenergy use with industry manufacturing sales statistics. It is acknowledged that this is not an ideal method tocalculate energy consumption. Problems include:

� Products excluded from the definition of the construction industry to avoid double counting still consumeenergy in their manufacture but are excluded using this methodology.

� The methodology assumes that energy consumption is consistent across all industries.

� Not all products traded e.g. asphalt.

� The sales data was not complete.

Notwithstanding the above this was found to be the most practical method to adopt given the dataavailable. Data was not available on the makeup of energy consumption within the industry sectorsexamined. DTI acknowledge in the Digest of Energy Statistics that ‘the consistency of the classificationacross different commodities cannot be guaranteed because the figures reported are dependent on what thedata suppliers can provide’ (DTI, 2001).

2 The energy figures presented for product and material manufacture do not include any energy used in theprocessing of reused/recycled/reclaimed materials.

3 Figures on fuel consumption by transport were calculated using a combination of DTI and DfT statistics. Thenumber of kilometres travelled by product, materials and wastes were calculated using several assumptionsregarding average load and distance travelled.

58

Table 6.2.2 Comparison of energy consumption bythe construction industry by fuel type

Fuel type Construction Industry National

Petroleum products 4,355 6,328 76,534Coal 344 1,607 3,223Natural gas 1,929 15,140 58,837Electricity 1,225 9,216 28,702

Sub total 7,843 32,291 167,296

1 This only includes comparison with those energy sources utilisedby the construction industry.

Table 6.2.1 Summary of energy consumption by the construction industry in kilotonnes of oil equivalent (ktoe)1

Motor Gas Fuel NaturalActivity spirit DERV oil oil Coal gas Electricity Total

Mineral extraction, product and material manufacture n/a n/a 642.54 107.24 343.71 1,740.32 1,092.80 3,927

Transport products and materials 131.28 1,499.16 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 1,630

Transport of secondary and recycled products 34.83 397.72 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 433

Construction site activity n/a 539.10 n/a 12.47 n/a 188.82 132.00 872

Transport relating to construction site activity 66.64 760.98 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 828

Transport of wastes from product and material manufacture 1.02 11.65 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 13

Transport of construction and demolition waste 11.31 129.11 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 140

Total 245 3,338 652 120 344 1,929 1,225 7,843

1 All data is presented in kilotonnes of oil equivalent.

Source: DTI Digest of Energy Statistics 2001, John Garnsworthy DfT (formerly DTLR) (Pers. Comm. 2001), data on volumes of products,materials and wastes from other sections of this report.

Figure 6.2.1 Energy used in the construction industry by activity

Mineral extraction, product and

material manufacture (47.8%)

Transport of products

and materials (19.8%)

Transport of secondary and

recycled products (5.3%)

Construction site activity (10.6%)

Transport relating to

construction site activity (10.1%)

Transport of construction and

demolition waste (1.7%)

Transport of wastes from product and

material manufacturer (0.2%)

Transport of quarry wastes (4.6%)

59

6.3 Mineral extraction and construction productand material manufacture

Mineral extraction and construction product manufactureaccounts for 52% of energy consumed by the constructionindustry. Most of the fuel used is natural gas, thebreakdown in given in Figure 6.3.1.

6.4 Transport

The transport of construction products and materialsaccounts for 20% of energy consumed by the constructionindustry. This is 13% of all the fuel used in the transportof goods in the United Kingdom.

Transport of secondary and recycled products accountsfor 5% of energy consumed by the construction industry.This is 3% of all the fuel used in the transport of goods inthe United Kingdom.

Transport of wastes from product and materialmanufacture accounts for less than 1% of energyconsumed by the construction industry.

Transport of construction and demolition waste accountsfor 2% of energy consumed by the construction industry.

6.5 Construction and demolition site activity andrelated transport

Construction and demolition site activity together withrelated transport accounts for 21% of energy consumed

by the construction industry. Most of the fuel used is DERVotherwise known as diesel, see Figure 6.5.1. The naturalgas would by used for powering generators on constructionsites; the natural gas can also be used to power fork lifttrucks and other vehicles (DTI pers. comm. 2001).

Figure 6.2.2 Comparison of energy consumed by the construction industry by fuel type (ktoe)

0

10,000

20,000

30,000

40,000

50,000

60,000

70,000

80,000

90,000

Petroleum Products Coal Natural Gas Electricity

Fuel Type

kto

eConstruction

Industry

National

60

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

Gas Oil Fuel Oil Coal Natural Gas Electricity

Fuel Type

kto

e

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Motor Spirit DERV Fuel Oil Natural Gas Electricity

Fuel Type

kto

e

Construction and

Demolition Site Activity

Transport Relating to

Construction and

Demolition Site Activity

Figure 6.3.1 Energy consumed by mineral extraction and construction product and material manufacture (ktoe)

Figure 6.5.1 Energy consumption by construction and demolition site activity (ktoe)

61

7 Wastes

7.1 Introduction

Wastes arise in four forms - solid, sludge, liquid andaqueous. Solid, sludge and liquid wastes are primarilyregulated and monitored by the Environment Agency.Aqueous wastes can be discharged under one of tworegulatory regimes:

� to sewer under a private agreement between a dischargerand a sewerage undertaker;

� to ground or surface water under the terms of a ‘consentto discharge’ authorised by the Environment Agency.

While the management of all such wastes is regulatedthrough a number of legislative acts, some of them are‘exempt’ from the waste licensing regulations by virtueof their ‘inert’ nature. Accordingly there is no requirementfor the arisings and management of these wastes to berecorded.

Data on those waste arisings falling within the remit ofthe Environment Agency are contained in the recentlypublished Strategic Waste Management Assessments.These cover data for 1999 and are based on nationalsurveys of waste arisings.

While data have been collected by the EA on all fourwaste types, they are not all available at the level of detailwhich would permit the identification of these wasteswith regard to construction industry activity. Anecdotalevidence would suggest that by far the greatest proportionof waste generated by the construction industry will besolid waste and that such comparatively minor quantitiesof sludge and liquid wastes as are produced will beassociated with material and product manufacture ratherthan construction and demolition site activity.

Whereas double counting has been avoided in quantifyingmaterial resource use, a different approach is required inrespect of waste generation. In quantifying wastegeneration, wastes generated at all stages of theproduction of a construction product have been includedas these all represent resources used in the production ofa construction material or product.

The waste data given in this section also include thosematerials removed from the construction industry stockprior to demolition. While it is acknowledged that thesematerials are reclaimed for reuse and are not disposedof, recent interpretations of waste legislation suggests thatthese materials should be considered as waste until suchtime as they reused. They therefore appear in this reportas both wastes arising and material resources.

7.2 Solid, sludge and liquid wastes

Solid, sludge and liquid wastes generated by theconstruction industry can be considered in three parts:

� Wastes arising from the manufacture and productionof construction materials and products.

� Wastes arising from construction site activities; and,

� Wastes arising from demolition site activities.

7.2.1 Wastes arising from the manufacture andproduction of construction materials andproducts

Data on solid, sludge and liquid waste arisings associatedwith construction material and product manufacture weresought from the Environment Agency on the basis of thedefinition of the construction industry presented inChapter 3.

In responding to the request the Agency advised that noinformation was available on mining and quarryingwastes since these were specifically excluded from thenational survey. The Agency also advised that, for reasonsof commercial confidentiality and statistical confidence,data were not always available at the level of detail sought.Accordingly, in some sectors of the construction industry,as defined for this project, waste data have beenaggregated. Similarly data relating to the some of theminor additional materials and products are not available.Notwithstanding this we believe that the overall order ofmagnitude of wastes arising from the manufacture ofconstruction products and materials is representative.

Data on mining and quarrying wastes were taken fromthe Digest of Environmental Statistics published by theformer Department of the Environment, Transport andthe Regions (DETR,2000).

No similar data were available with regard to wastesassociated with the manufacture of construction materialsand products in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Estimatesfor these wastes were therefore made on the basis of thelevel of construction activity. The estimated total wastesgenerated by the construction materials and productsindustries in the UK is presented in Table 7.2.1.

Quarry wastes dominate the wastes generated byconstruction material and product manufactureaccounting for 96.7% of the total. The distribution of theother wastes is illustrated in Figure 7.2.1.

62

7.2.2 Wastes arising from construction anddemolition site activity

Data on the majority of construction and demolitionwastes arising have been derived from two publishedsources. For England and Wales data have been takenfrom the Environment Agency report ‘Construction andDemolition Waste Survey - National survey of theproduction, recycling and disposal of construction anddemolition waste in England and Wales, 1999-2000’(summarised in the EA Strategic Waste ManagementAssessment 2000 reports (SWMA)). For Scotland datahave been derived from the report ‘Recycled Aggregatesin Scotland’ published by the Scottish Executive Central

Table 7.2.1 Wastes from the construction materialsand products industry

Waste tonnage (kt)

England NorthernMaterial / Product and Wales Scotland Ireland UK

Quarry products 52,190 5,173 1,349 58,712

Wood products 213.50 21.16 2.10 236.76

Finishes, coatings,Adhesives etc. 79.85 7.91 0.78 88.55

Plastic products 35.32 3.50 0.35 39.17

Basic metals and fabricated 148.51 14.72 1.46 164.69metal products

Cabling, wiring and lighting 35.38 3.51 0.35 39.23

Glass-based products 163.78 16.23 1.61 181.62

Ceramic products 76.66 7.60 0.75 85.01

Bricks and other clay-based 446.77 44.28 4.39 495.44products

Cement, concrete, plaster etc. 570.18 561.5 5.60 632.30

Stone and other non-metallic 18.41 1.82 0.18 20.41mineral products

Total 53,978 5,855 1,367 60,695

Figure 7.2.1 Wastes from the construction materials and products industry (excluding quarry wastes) (kt)

Research Unit in 2001. Data in both of these reports referto arisings in 1999.

No similar data are available for Northern Ireland andestimates have therefore been made on the basis of thelevel of construction activity.

Three main waste types were recorded by the EA survey:

� Construction and demolition waste.

� Waste soil.

� Mixed C&D waste and soil.

The definitions adopted for the survey were based on theUK Waste Classification System: Waste CompositionCategories (16th Draft) (Environment Agency, 1998). Itshould be noted that the definition of construction anddemolition wastes adopted in the survey does not includeall wastes that might be considered as falling within a broaddefinition of C&DW. As the estimates were based on a surveyof landfill, crusher and screener, and exempt sites two keyareas of C&DW arisings were not included. These were:

� Materials arising and used on site without processing.

� Materials processed during road reconstructionactivities.

Industry sources suggest that the use of unprocessedmaterials arising on construction sites is widespread andthe quantities used significant. These materials alsosubstitute for aggregate materials that would otherwisehave to be quarried and therefore also represent a relevantresource use. However no reliable sources of data werefound identifying such materials and it has not thereforebeen possible to make a realistic estimate. It isacknowledged that this is a major omission from theconstruction industry mass balance.

237

89

39

165

39

182

85

495

632

20 Wood products

Finishes, coatings, adhesives etc.

Plastic products

Basic metals and fabricatedmetal products

Cabling, wiring and lighting

Glass - based products

Ceramic products

Bricks and other clay basedproducts

Cement, concrete, plaster etc.

Stone and other non-metallicmineral products

63

Consideration was also given as to whether materialsprocessed on site during road reconstruction should beincluded as part of the construction and demolition wastestream. It was decided that as these were predominantlyrecycled back into road construction they should not beconsidered as wastes. They have however been includedas material resources used in the construction industryas they would otherwise have to be substituted for withprimary aggregate materials. Details of the quantitiesinvolved are given in Chapter 5.

It is worth noting that the amended proposal for a Regulationof the European Parliament and of the Council on WasteStatistics - COM(2001)137 final - also recognises thedifficulties in obtaining such data and states in the ExplanatoryMemorandum that ‘Internal Recycling (‘recycling of wasteon the site where the waste was generated’) has been deleted,thereby further simplifying data collection requirements’(European Commission, 2002).

BRE in their report ‘Deconstruction and reuse ofconstruction materials’ (Hurley, 2001) estimate constructionwaste arisings to be of the order of 10m tonnes per year ofwhich the majority are landfilled. In the absence of moredetailed data it has been assumed that 80% is landfilled andthe remaining 20% is sent for recycling. The proportion ofthese materials sent for landfilling will have been identifiedby the EA survey. The estimated 2m tonnes sent for recyclinghave been added to the other arisings apportioned acrossthe constituent countries of the UK in the same proportionsas the other C&DW and soils.

As described earlier, materials reclaimed for subsequentre-use have also been classified as waste for the purposeof this study. BRE estimate that these reclaimed andsalvaged materials total some 3,324kt per year. In theabsence of more detailed data these arisings have beenapportioned across the constituent countries of the UKon the same basis as the recycled construction wastes.

In addition to the C&DW data reported under the prioritywaste streams sections of the SWMA reports, the SWMAreports also identify quantities of C&DW and asbestosarising from industrial and commercial activities. Dataon these wastes have been obtained from Annex 2 of theSWMA reports.

Municipal waste also includes small elements of C&DWarising from household renovation and improvement andDIY. It has not been possible to identify any data relatingto the proportion of municipal solid waste that arises as aresult of construction and demolition activities, themajority of which it is expected would be generated byDIY activities. In the absence of such data a figure of 1%by weight has been assumed.

The resulting wastes generated by construction anddemolition activity are estimated to be as set out inTable 7.2.2 and illustrated in Figure 7.2.2.

7.3 Special wastes

The Environment Agency’s SWMA reports also identifythe quantities of special wastes arising in England andWales under the heading Construction and DemolitionWastes and Asbestos (C&DW+A). Special wastes arewastes defined under the Environmental Protection(Special Waste) Regulations 1996 (as amended) and arebroadly any wastes on the European hazardous wastelist that have one or more of fourteen hazardousproperties (The Stationery Office, 1996).

No similar data are available for Scotland and NorthernIreland and estimates have therefore been prepared basedon the average figures for England and Wales and therespective levels of economic activity in the constructionsector. The resulting levels of C&DW+A special wastesarising, which are included in the overall figures forC&DW above, are given in Table 7.3.1.

Table 7.2.2 Construction and demolition waste arisings

Waste tonnage (kt)

Material England Wales Scotland Northern Ireland Total UK

C&DW 32,501 1,283 4,224 1,115 39,123Soil 22,391 1,285 4,504 827 29,008Mixed C&DW and soil 14,303 717 441 15,460

Recycled construction wastes 1,656 79 209 57 2,000

Architectural / Ornamental antiques 116 6 15 4 140Reclaimed materials 2,266 108 286 78 2,738Salvaged materials 369 18 47 13 446

C&DW in industrial and commercial wastes 970 59 53 2 1083C&DW in municipal wastes 215 13 26 8 262

Total C&DW waste generated 74,787 3,566 9,362 2,545 90,260

64

While this represents a comparatively small proportionof the total of the wastes produced by the constructionindustry (less than 1%) it is nevertheless a significantquantity of waste requiring specialist treatment anddisposal at over 1Mt / year.

7.4 Aqueous wastes

Aqueous wastes are water-based wastes, which aregenerally discharged to the public sewer system underthe terms of a ‘trade consent’. These consents are issuedby the individual sewerage undertakers. Although thenature and quantities of these wastes has to be declaredby those discharging the wastes to the undertaker, veryfew of these undertakers record the nature of the industrymaking the discharge. Accordingly it has not beenpossible to identify such discharges made by theconstruction industry within the resources available tothis study.

7.5 Summary

The construction industry produced the wastes set out inTable 7.5.1 in 1999.

Table 7.5.1 Waste generated by the constructionindustry in 1999

% of WasteWaste type total arisings (kt)

Quarry wastes 38.9 58,712

Waste from material and 1.3 1,983product manufacture

Construction and demolition waste 59.8 90,260

Total waste 100.0 150,955

Including special wastes 0.75 1,132

Table 7.3.1 Special wastes (C&DW+A)

Location Arisings (kt)

England 979

Wales 27

Scotland 100

Northern Ireland 26

Total 1,132

Figure 7.2.2 Construction and demolition waste arisings (kt)

39,123

15,460

1,083

29,008

2,000

140 4462,738

262C&DW

Soil

Mixed C&DW and soil

Recycled construction materials

Architectural / ornamental antiques

Reclaimed materials

Salvaged materials

C&DW in industrial and

commercial wastes

C&DW in municipal wastes

65

8 Emissions to air from theconstruction industry

8.1 Introduction

This section presents data on emissions to air for activitiescarried out by the construction industry in 1998. Selectedemissions were examined based on the World BusinessCouncil for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) ‘eco-efficiency’ indicators (Verfaille and Bidwell, 2000). Twoparameters were considered - the actual tonnage of emissionsmade by the construction industry and their CO

2 equivalents.

CO2 equivalents are a measure used to compare the

emissions from various greenhouse gases based on theirglobal warming potential (GWP) compared to CO

2.

The emissions examined are listed in Table 8.1.1 togetherwith their CO

2 equivalents. Further detail on the indicators

can be found in Chapter 3.

The data presented were obtained from the Office forNational Statistics. Further detail on the methodologyadopted is given in Box 8.1.1.

8.2 Summary

In 1998 a total of 27,990kt of emissions were producedby the construction industry for the indicator emissions

examined. This represents 4% of the emissions for thesechemicals from all economic activity in the UnitedKingdom.

Table 8.2.1 gives a breakdown of emissions by activity.It can be seen that the most significant emissions aregreenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide. Figure8.2.1 shows the breakdown of total emissions by activitytype. Construction material and product manufacturedominates.

In Table 8.2.2 the emissions figures are presented in termsof their carbon dioxide equivalents. Particulates are not agreenhouse gas and are therefore excluded from this table.

Box 8.1.1 Methodology

The data used for calculating the air emission figures were obtained from the Office for National Statistics (ONS).ONS obtain the base data for their analysis from the National Environmental Technology Centre (NETCEN). ONScompile the data for the environmental accounts. The data was provided according to SIC code and therefore couldbe related to the definition of the construction industry. The emissions reported relate to direct emissions only and assuch do not include any emissions resulting from National Grid energy usage. Figures for emissions due to productand material manufacture were calculated by apportioning ONS according to industry manufacturing sales statistics.It is acknowledged that this is not an ideal method to calculate energy consumption. Problems include:

� Products that have been excluded from the definition of the construction industry to avoid double countingstill produce emissions in their manufacture but are excluded using this methodology.

� The methodology assumes that emission generation is consistent across all industries.

� Methodology assumes that value is proportional to emissions generated.

� Not all products are traded e.g. asphalt.

� The sales data was not complete.

Figures for emissions due to transport were calculated by apportioning total emissions by freight transport accordingto kilometres travelled by different sectors of the construction industry. This assumes all transport is by road.

Figures for emissions due to construction and demolition site activity were taken directly from the ONS data,classified as SIC 45.

Table 8.1.1 Emissions to air from the constructionindustry examined

Emissions examined CO2 equivalent

CO2 (carbon dioxide) 1

CH4 (methane) 21

N2O (nitrous oxide) 310

HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons) Average of 6000 adoptedPFCs (perfluorocarbons)

SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride)

Particulates Not applicable

t

66

In 1998 the equivalent of 28,327kt of carbon dioxideemissions was produced by the construction industry.Table 8.2.2 demonstrates the relative impact of certainpollutants, for instance nitrous oxide, when compared tothe actual volume produced.

Figure 8.2.2 illustrates the relationship between theemissions from the various construction industryactivities and how this relationship changes dependingon whether the actual emissions or the CO

2 equivalents

are considered.

Table 8.2.1 Breakdown of selected air emissions from the construction industry by activity and type (kt)

Othergreenhouse

gases(exc CO

2,

Partic- CH4, N

2O)

Carbon Nitrous ulatedioxide Methane oxide matter HFC,

PFC,Reference / Activity CO

2CH

4N

2O PM

10SF6 Sub total

1 Mineral extraction, construction product and material manufacture 19,603 2.05 0.51 29.05 0.002 19,635

2 Transport of products and materials 2,513 0.21 0.08 0.98 0.000 2,514

3 Transport of secondary and recycled products 667 0.05 0.02 0.26 0.000 667

4 Construction and demolition site activity 3,655 0.29 0.33 5.29 0.000 3,661

5 Transport relating to construction and demolition site activity 1,276 0.10 0.04 0.50 0.000 1,276

6 Transport of wastes from product and material manufacture 20 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.000 20

7 Transport of construction and demolition waste 216 0.02 0.01 0.08 0.000 217

Totals 27,950 2.72 0.99 36.16 0.002 27,990

Figure 8.2.1 Breakdown of air emissions from the construction industry

8.3 Mineral extraction and construction productand material manufacture

Air emissions from construction product and materialmanufacture account for 70% of the emissions from theconstruction industry. Figure 8.3.1 illustrates therelationship between the emissions from the variousconstruction product and material manufacturing industrysectors and how this relationship changes depending onwhether the actual emissions or the CO

2 equivalents are

considered.

Tables 8.3.1 and 8.3.2 present the detailed data on actualemissions and CO

2 equivalents respectively for the

various construction product and material manufacturingindustry sectors.

Transport of secondaryand recycled products (2.4%)

Transport of constructionand demolition waste (0.8%)

Transport related toconstruction site activity (4.6%)

Transport of wastes from mineral extraction,product and material manufacture (0.1%)

Transport of productsand materials (9.0%)

Mineral extraction, productand material manufacture (70.1%)

Construction Site Activity (13.1%)

67

Table 8.2.2 Breakdown of selected air emissions from the construction industry by activity and type (kt ofCO

2 equivalents)

Othergreenhouse

gases(exc CO

2,

CH4, N

2O)

Carbon Nitrousdioxide Methane oxide HFC,


2CH

4N

2O SF6 Sub total

1 Mineral extraction, product and material manufacture 19,603 43.06 158.37 12.22 19,817

2 Transport of products and materials 2,513 4.32 25.20 0.00 2,543

3 Transport of secondary and recycled products 667 1.15 6.69 0.00 675

4 Construction site activity 3,655 6.06 102.83 0.00 3,764

5 Transport relating to construction site activity 1,276 2.19 12.79 0.00 1,291

6 Transport of wastes from product and material manufacture 20 0.03 0.20 0.00 20

8 Transport of construction and demolition waste 216 0.37 2.17 0.00 219

Totals 27,950 57.19 308.25 12.22 28,327

Figure 8.2.2 Comparison of actual emissions to CO2 equivalents produced by the construction industry

Min

eral

ext

ract

ion,

pro

duct

and

mat

eria

l man

ufac

ture

Tran

spor

t of p

rodu

cts

and

mat

eria

lsTr

ansp

ort o

f sec

onda

ry a

nd

recy

cled

pro

duct

s C

onst

ruct

ion

site

sct

ivity

Tran

spor

t sel

atin

g to

cons

truct

ion

site

act

ivity

Tran

spor

t of w

aste

s fro

m

prod

uct a

nd m

ater

ial

man

ufac

ture

Tran

spor

t of c

onst

ruct

ion

and

dem

oliti

on w

aste

Emissions to air

CO2 Equivalents

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

18,000

20,000

kt

Industry Activity

68

Figure 8.3.1 Air emissions by construction product and materials sector (kt)

Qua

rry p

rodu

cts/

min

eral

extra

ctio

nW

ood

prod

ucts

Fini

shes

, coa

tings

, adh

esive

sPl

astic

pro

duct

sG

lass

bas

ed p

rodu

cts

Cer

amic

pro

duct

sC

lay

base

d pr

oduc

ts

Cem

ent,

conc

rete

, pla

ster

etc

Ston

e an

d ot

her n

on-m

etal

lic

min

eral

pro

duct

sFa

bric

ated

met

als

Cab

ling,

wiri

ng a

nd li

ghtin

g

Emissions to airCO2 Equivalents

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

kt

Material/Product Category

Table 8.3.1 Air emission by sector and emission type (kt)

Othergreenhouse

gases(exc CO

2,

Partic- CH4, N

2O)

Carbon Nitrous ulatedioxide Methane oxide matter HFC,


2CH

4N

2O PM

10SF6 Sub total

1 Quarry products / Mineral extraction 513 0.05 0.06 18.89 0.000 532

2 Wood products 894 0.53 0.11 1.54 0.000 896

3 Finishes, coatings, adhesives 2,232 0.13 0.05 0.77 0.000 2,233

4 Plastic products 1,023 0.05 0.03 0.26 0.000 1,023

5 Glass based products 396 0.02 0.00 0.30 0.000 396

6 Ceramic products 700 0.05 0.01 0.34 0.000 700

7 Clay based products 995 0.65 0.04 2.31 0.000 998

8 Cement, concrete, plaster etc 12,033 0.51 0.17 4.20 0.000 12,038

9 Stone and other non-metallic mineral products 63 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.000 63

10 Fabricated metals 664 0.06 0.03 0.43 0.000 665

11 Cabling, wiring and lighting 89 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.002 89

Totals 19,603 2.05 0.51 29.05 0.002 19,635

1 No sales data available for bitumen production, therefore assumption made of proportion of SIC 23.20 relating to bitumen production.

69

Table 8.3.2 Air emission by sector and emission type (kt of CO2 equivalents)

Othergreenhouse

gases(exc CO

2,

CH4, N

2O)

Carbon Nitrousdioxide Methane oxide HFC,


2CH

4N

2O SF6 Sub total

1 Quarry products / Mineral extraction 513 1.02 17.95 0.00 532

2 Wood products 894 11.14 35.31 0.00 940

3 Finishes, coatings, adhesives 2,232 2.78 15.00 0.00 2,250

4 Plastic products 1,023 1.11 8.55 0.00 1,032

5 Glass based products 396 0.43 1.01 0.00 397

6 Ceramic products 700 1.03 2.33 0.00 703

7 Clay based products 995 13.55 12.92 0.00 1,022

8 Cement, concrete, plaster etc 12,033 10.62 54.07 0.00 12,097

9 Stone and other non-metallic mineral products 63 0.10 0.50 0.00 64

10 Fabricated metals 664 1.17 9.94 0.80 676

11 Cabling, wiring and lighting 89 0.12 0.80 11.42 102

Totals 19,603 43.06 158.37 12.22 19,817

70

9 Trends and influences and theirimpacts on the constructionindustry

9.1 Introduction

An aim for this mass balance study is to understand thescope for greater resource sustainability for the industry.This requires a review of influences, trends and impactsand a discussion of the prospects for positive change.Detailed quantitative models for reducing the mass ofeach of the resources, wastes and emissions described inthe previous chapters are highly desirable but beyondthe scope of this study. However this chapter begins theprocess of characterising the complex forces acting forand against improvement and suggests where someopportunities and barriers lie.

9.1.1 Influences

The last decade has been a time of considerable changein the UK construction industry. While it has undertakenmassive infrastructure and innumerable new-buildprojects, there has been a huge increase in works of repair,maintenance and refurbishment. Under intense criticismfrom government, from clients and from the public, andwith changes forced on it from competition, regulationand other pressures, the industry has responded byaddressing some of its long established practices.

There has been a plethora of Government and industryinitiatives seeking to improve one or other aspect of theconstruction process. Some are about procurement, someabout design, some about site methods, and many areabout environmental improvement. Many aim to reducethe cost of construction, improve the supply chain, changeprocurement systems, work more safely, etc. rather thanbeing specifically about resource use. But as greaterefficiency, improved productivity, appropriate quality, andvalue for money are the intended outcomes, they all bearupon this discussion.

These influences, and those of wider import such as socio-economic trends and demographic factors, are part ofthe complex array of forces affecting the prospects forimprovement.

9.1.2 Approach

This chapter of the study is qualitative and exploratoryin its approach. Wherever possible observations have beenbased on existing knowledge. In some cases, however,subjective assessments were made using common sense.

Guided by the project advisory group a range of specificinfluences, trends and impacts of significance to UK

construction resource use were put forward for furtherinvestigation. A range of literature was consulted andrelevant information was compiled and then groupedunder the following 3 categories:

Category 1 External forces.

Category 2 Construction processes.

Category 3 Design.

Each of the above categories is discussed in more detailin the Boxes 9.2.1, 9.2.2 and 9.2.3 and then Table 9.3.1characterises each category in terms of the prospects forgreater resource sustainability. This leads into a briefexploration of future scenarios, the current policyframework, the need for a coherent approach and somebroad conclusions.

9.2 External forces, construction processes anddesign

In this section three tables are presented which describeexamples of influences and trends, and some of theirimpacts, affecting resource use, wastes and emissions.Each table looks at a separate set of issues. Box 9.2.1 isentitled ‘External forces’ and examines influences andtrends which whilst largely beyond the direct control ofthe construction industry have a significant bearing onthe amount, type and location of construction activity.Box 9.2.2, is entitled ‘Construction processes’. Thisexamines a number of construction practices which tendto influence site based waste minimisation practices. Box9.2.3 is entitled ‘Design’ and examines influences andtrends which affect in particular the amount of resourceinputs into the construction process.

9.2.1 External forces

Box 9.2.1 provides examples of influences and trendsthat result from forces such as macro-economicconditions, demographic trends and climatic andgeographical factors which are largely outside the directcontrol of the construction industry and relatedgovernment and industry policy initiatives. Their impactsgenerally are to increase resource use, wastes andemissions, determine trends in the use of certainconstruction materials and intensify land use.

71

Box 9.2.1 External forces

Key influences and trends

Economic stability and prosperity continue to fuel all sectors of the construction industry leading to growth inleisure and commercial facilities and infrastructure development, including an emerging programme of new road,hospital and school building and potential near future investment in rail.

However, insufficient housing provision and continuing aspirations for home ownership and homeworking iscombined with land shortages, high house price inflation (particularly in the south-east) and a trend towards thedevelopment of brownfield sites. Although many seek rural homes in order to increase their quality of life, poorpublic transport counters de-urbanisation.

The risks from climate change may become significant over the next 2 decades. Fears about the rises in rainfalllevels and in sea levels - and therefore coastal and flood plain flooding - will reduce development on land which isliable to flood putting further pressure on habitable land.

Impacts on the construction industry

Infrastructure and housing development will lead to increased resource use, emissions (including CO2 from ‘high

embodied energy’ materials) and wastes across the board, with attendant environmental and social impacts. Interms of mass the significant resource use increases are likely to come from aggregates, bricks and steel.

The existing housing stock of 21 million homes will require maintenance and significant upgrading. Spending inthis area will continue to be a major proportion of UK construction spend. Much of this work will be undertakenby SMEs with a traditionally poor performance in sustainable resource use. The DIY sector is already large and isgrowing; the amount of DIY waste in MSW is thought to be significant yet hard to quantify and reduce.

There will be greater housing densities within urban areas and intensification of land use (particularly in the south-east) and there will be larger urban regeneration schemes on brownfield sites. (Planning requirements will require60% of new-build to be on brownfield sites). The prospects for effective waste management and minimisation arereduced by low availability of space and local communities can suffer from noise and traffic pollution frommaterials (including waste) transport. Although new techniques are emerging, the remediation of contaminatedland will continue to produce a high proportion of contaminated waste material through traditional ‘dig and dump’approaches (which currently account for well over half of current practice).

Forecast demand for new homes is 3.8 million units. If building techniques are based on existing methods largeinputs of primary resources and products will be required and current waste and emissions ratios are likely topersist. Resource, waste and emissions flows are likely to be geographically concentrated which could causetraffic, engine emission, waste management and noise problems.

Climate change could mean a requirement for massive (concrete based) construction to help even-out the temperaturevariations that may occur. To build with mass the traditional British cavity construction techniques could be scrappedin favour of solid (waterproof) walls (e.g. a construction of 200mm concrete with 100mm insulation). Floodingwill particularly affect existing building stock – flood damage to timber, plasterwork etc will lead to wastes whichare difficult to segregate and therefore recycle. More sea defences will be required driving up inputs of concreteand aggregates. There may be a trend towards tanked raft foundation construction up to 1.5m high. More frequentstorm with winds of over 130 mph winds could lead to buffeting of structures requiring more strength and thereforeadditional material.

72

Box 9.2.2 Construction processes


Driven by stakeholder and client pressure, competition and risk management larger companies are increasinglyexamining their social and environmental impacts and the commercial opportunities to be derived from moresustainable approaches. In addition, they are increasingly attempting to encourage the supply chain to adopt betterpractice, although the structure of subcontractor relationships can in some circumstances hinder this positivetrend.

Positive partnership approaches between construction companies and waste management companies are slowlyemerging.

There are trends towards the adoption of tools to help improve resource use, waste management and environmentalperformance. Such tools include Environmental Management Systems, BRE’s Environmental Assessment Method(BREEAM), ICE’s Civil Engineering Environmental Quality and Assessment Scheme (CEEQUAL), CIRIA’sSustainable Construction Indicators and other industry KPIs and BRE Smartwaste, which is a web based wastequantification tool.

Good practice guidance in the areas of environmental management, waste minimisation and sustainable resourceuse (including information on using non-primary materials) is increasingly available.

Markets are also developing for recycled materials and there is better information about the location of materialsrecycling facilities.


Most major companies now appear to be aware of resource use and waste quantification and minimisation issues.There is a greater understanding of the true cost of waste and the commercial advantages of waste reduction. On acompany level this should reduce the proportions of wastes of all types which leave the construction site forlandfill disposal.

Some construction waste minimisation demonstration projects have shown that waste reduction can be significantboth in terms of the mass of waste diverted from landfill sites and also the cost savings to construction companiesthat can be achieved. Many waste minimisation initiatives have resulted from fairly rudimentary quantificationand management processes and can be replicated throughout the industry.

In terms of aggregate material, waste ‘reduction’ has tended to result in their uses in low grade applications.However, the emphasis is increasingly toward the use of recycled aggregates in higher grade applications, althoughmany perceive barriers in this area. CIRIA’s Internet register of recycling sites, along with other similar initiativesfrom the research community, is providing valuable information which will increasingly help support thedevelopment of markets for recycled materials for construction. Guidance available on the use of recycled materialsin construction, including information provided by the Aggregates Information Service, BRE, TRL and Viridisprovides technical support to companies who are investigating their use and will only serve to improve resourceefficiency.

A number of companies are now looking at the use of KPIs as a way of measuring waste production and improvingperformance. These are often an integral part of their company EMS. However even larger companies tend to lackthe waste quantification and data collection procedures necessary to make the use of KPIs effective. The industryis not yet ready to use them to formally benchmark and report at a national level but as company systems improvethey will become increasingly important in supporting positive change. The greatest impacts will come whencompany KPIs are linked to national resource efficiency targets.

Currently up to 30% of construction is rework. Most faults are caused by process problems, such as poorworkmanship and site supervision. This problem may militate against some of the positive impacts describedabove and is compounded by skills shortages being experienced within the industry.

73

Box 9.2.3 Design


There are increasing technological advances in ICT including CAD visualisation, quality and performance ofmaterials and components. There is also a rapidly increasing understanding amongst designers of the need tointegrate the principles of sustainable resource use into their designs.

New software increases the efficiency of the design process by allowing data to be transferred between specificationsand drawings. It enables virtual testing procedures and can manage orders and delivery schedules.

There are on-going developments in material science transforming strength-to-weight ratios and enabling the useof recycled and secondary materials in aggregates.

Other technological advances include new factory production techniques, greater use of prefabrication, pre-assemblyand standardisation of components and designs.

There is an increase in factory built timber-framed buildings. For example 10% of new-build housing is nowtimber framed. There is no technological reason why more timber framed houses cannot be built.

Designers are increasingly able to design adaptable accommodation with flexible in-built facilities – the trend maybe towards lightweight construction, often favoured for material savings, quality/ speed of construction and futureadaptability.


Design innovation and creativity supported by design tools including computer models are improving performancein almost every dimension, including helping to reduce resource inputs and wastes, improving ‘buildability’ andwhole-life costs, optimising internal energy use and structural safety and avoiding over specification. Continuedimprovements in this area could help improve overall resource efficiency by reducing the proportion of materialsrequired to produce a given product. This will have a positive impact across the range of construction resourceinputs described in previous chapters. By minimising inputs there will also be positive impacts on the proportionsof wastes and emissions produced. New techniques may also radically change the types of materials used in thefuture.

CAD is becoming an increasingly useful tool for viewing and changing designs instantaneously, and allowingcreativity and the exploration of design trade-offs relating to quality, materials, wastes, cost and time. It enablesthe visualisation of the site construction process and can improve waste management.

New smart materials are continually emerging: photochromic glass; ‘intelligent’ insulation that exchanges heatand controls moisture; building cladding containing photovoltaic cells for energy management; paints with ‘smart’pigments to absorb atmospheric pollutants. These can have positive impacts on the quantities and types of materialsused.

There are new types of beams and joists made from timber; steel or carbon composites. These are increasingstrength and reducing weight. There is greater use of recycled materials such as rubber, glass and secondarymaterials from industrial processes as well as lightweight composite materials which can be shaped into highquality modular systems in the factory.

If timber framed buildings reach the popularity of some other countries there could be modest impacts in terms ofthe reduction of steel, brick and concrete inputs.

There is a trend towards lightweight prefabrication construction systems, as opposed to heavy site-worked massiveconstruction. This will tend to reduce the amount of concrete used in construction.

74

9.2.2 Construction process

Box 9.2.2 provides examples of influences and trends thatresult from the construction industry’s increasing attentionto counterbalancing the negative aspects of constructionsite activity. Within this context the trend is generallypositive with many initiatives focused explicitly onimproving environmental performance and minimisingwaste. However, the focus here is ‘end of pipe’ in nature.

Notwithstanding this the benefits that can be achievedwill be twofold, firstly limiting the volumes of wastegoing to landfill disposal and secondly reducing thedemand for primary materials through their substitutionwith recycled products.

As some of these wastes are diverted from landfill sitesto recycling facilities these processes are important insupporting the markets for non-primary products.Environmental management systems will be increasinglyimportant in managing dust and emissions but will deliverimprovements mostly at a construction site level.

9.2.3 Design

Box 9.2.3 provides examples of influences and trendsthat result from the construction industry’s increasingfocus on improving design techniques and principles andusing better materials and technologies. This area ofactivity provides the greatest potential gains in resourceefficiency because it can reduce the resource inputs intothe construction process. However, trends in this area mayalso result in negative outcomes. For exampleprefabrication using composite materials may result inwastes which are difficult to recycle.

9.3 Characterisation of the influences, trends andimpacts

Table 9.3.1 provides a broad characterisation of each ofthe 3 suggested categories of industry influences, trendsand impacts. These characterisations are derived frombasic assessments, all of which are qualitative, of theeffects of influences on the use of the resources or theproduction of wastes and emissions.

9.3.1 Scenarios

Building on this process of understanding andcharacterising the influences, a suite of 3 scenarios forthe future can be tentatively formulated, each scenariohaving a different outcome in terms of levels of resourceinputs and the production of wastes and emissions.

Scenario 1: Business as usualThis would involve no intervention in the current statusquo. External forces would remain the key determinantsof resource inputs and wastes and emissions levels. Trendsin improved site based processes and design approacheswould have gradual positive impacts – but these couldbe cancelled out by macro-economic, geographical,demographic and climatic influences.

Scenario 2: Radical changeThis would involve strong intervention in the currentstatus quo. External forces and industry influences wouldbe addressed by strong policy initiatives both from withinand from outside the construction industry. This scenariowould require a strong political will, long term visionand coherence between policy areas. Trends in improvedsite based processes and design approaches would stillbe encouraged but would be driven much more stronglyby regulations and economic incentives for companies.

Table 9.3.1 Characterisation of influences, trends and impacts

1 External 2 Construction Process 3 Design

These influences refer to macro-economicconditions, demographic trends andclimatic and geographical factors.

They have a major impact on the types andamounts of resources used, wastesproduced and the kinds of environmentalimpacts experienced.

The construction industry however haslittle or no direct control over these factors.

Where improvement is possible, it wouldneed to be effected at the level of macropolicy.

There are positive trends with industryincreasingly adopting environmental andwaste minimisation practices.

However the impacts are limited toreducing the environmental consequencesfrom resource use and to the minimisationof wastes from construction sites – asopposed to addressing resource inputs.

Increasingly waste materials will be sentto recycling facilities. This will beimportant for stimulating the recycledmaterials market.

This area is where the greatest degree ofpositive influence lies for the industry.Improvements in materials, technologies anddesign will lead to improvements in resourceefficiency.

In contrast to site based waste minimisationprocesses, it can have significant influencesover the proportions of primary resource inputsand the specification of non-primary materials.

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Scenario 3 Evolutionary changeThis scenario would accept that mustering the politicalwill to control many of the external influences would beunrealistic. Any coherence to the policy framework wouldbe achieved on a gradual and incremental basis. The focuswould be on supporting the positive influences ofimproved design. There would be a secondary focus onimproving site based process improvements. Particularattention would be paid to supporting markets for non-primary materials and removing barriers to their use.

9.4 Policy

The above influences, trends and impacts are in partdetermined by policy. These are formulated andimplemented at different levels from internationallegislation to initiatives from within the UK constructionindustry. There appears to be no coherent framework forthe policies affecting construction resource use withTable 9.4.1 listing a range of disparate policies that havea bearing on the topic.

9.5 Developing a more coherent approach

As suggested above there is currently no single cohesiveapproach at the policy level to achieving sustainableresource use within the construction industry. If we acceptthat the ‘business as usual’ scenario discussed above isunacceptable and the ‘radical change’ scenario ispolitically unrealistic then we are forced to concentrateattention on the prospects for ‘evolutionary change’. Inthis scenario policy coherence would be achieved on agradual and incremental basis and would have as itsprimary focus improvements in design.

In drawing attention to design we are looking at thesubject in its broadest sense and considering:

� Design for longevity.

� Design for flexibility of use.

� Lean design.

� Design for deconstruction.

� Design for recycling.

� Efficient use of materials.

The secondary focus would be on improving site basedprocesses and support for markets for non-primarymaterials and removing barriers to their use.

Although there have been a number of initiativesaddressing individual aspects of design it would appearthere is little impetus at present for developing a coherentpolicy framework for improving design practices. As

better design appears to hold the most realistic prospectof significant progress in the long term this is a gap thatrequires attention.

In terms of studies which begin to examine the economicsand markets for non-primary materials it may beappropriate to look to the European Commission PriorityWaste Streams Programme. This involved research whichtook an industry wide view and began to point towardscoherent solutions.

In 1995, following extensive stakeholder consultation, itproposed a construction and demolition waste (C&DW)management strategy1, including 54 recommendations.This strategy was derived from the following stated aims:

1 conserving natural resources;

2 reducing the quantities of waste for final disposal;

3 reducing the environmental harm caused by waste.

While primarily looking to improve C&DW management,the strategy recognises that to achieve this action isrequired across a number of industries and sectors. Thisincludes addressing waste minimisation through product,building and engineering design as well as wastegenerated by construction and demolition activity.Accordingly a number of the recommendations made areof direct relevance to reducing the demand for materialresources.

The consultees believed that if the strategy wereimplemented as a coherent package it would significantlyimprove C&DW management in a manner which wouldnot impose a disproportionate burden on any one sub-sector of the construction industry. Adoption of thestrategy by the UK has so far been piecemeal.

Looking specifically at C&DW management theCommission went on to undertake a study2 whichexamined the factors influencing C&DW managementpractices throughout the European Union and theireconomic impacts. Three broad levels of recyclingtechnologies and their applications were identified. Theseare set out in Box 9.5.1.

The study found the situation in the UK was bestcharacterised as being a mix of Levels 1 and 2.

1 Report of the project group to the European CommissionOctober 1995, Part 2 – Strategy Document and Part 3 -Recommendations of the Project Group.

2 Report to DGXI European Commission - Construction andDemolition Waste Management Practices and their EconomicImpacts, February 1999.

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Table 9.4.1 Policy which influences resource use, wastes and emissions

European UnionThe 6th European Union Environmental Action Programme identifies improved ‘Resource efficiency and management’ as one of its keyobjectives. The European Commission is presently engaged on the development of a Community Strategy on Sustainable Resource Use.

The legal definition of waste derives from the European Commission Framework Directive on Waste (75/442/EEC as amended by 91/156/EC)under which any material which is discarded, or is required to be discarded, is classed as a waste – waste is therefore determined by intentionrather than nature.

Directive 1999/31/EC, the Landfill Directive, seeks to reduce the volumes of waste going to landfill and imposes controls on the nature andtypes of wastes disposed of and the manner in which they can be disposed.

National policy including macro-economicsDetermines areas such as GDP growth levels, personal wealth, production of greenhouse gases, planning and the amount of new infrastructureworks such as schools, hospitals and road building. About 40% of the construction industry’s output by value (some £24 billion per year) ispurchased by the public sector.

The Minerals Planning Policy (MPG 6) aims to provide advice to mineral planning authorities and the minerals industry on how to ensure that theconstruction industry receives an adequate and steady supply of material at the best balance, of social, environmental and economic cost, whilstensuring that extraction and development are consistent with the principles of sustainable development. The proposed changes to this Policy mayhelp to stimulate reduced dependence on primary aggregates, by increasing the proportionate use of secondary and recycled materials.

The UK Government has set a target in Planning Policy Guidance 3 (PPG3) that 60% of new developments should be on brownfield sites by 2008.This is sure to place more pressure on landfill whilst the traditional ‘dig and dump’ approach to contaminated land remediation continues.

The Government has established WRAP - the Waste & Resources Action Programme. WRAP’s stated role is to create stable and efficientmarkets for certain recycled products and materials. WRAP has a remit to undertake research into, and provide capital support to initiatives toimprove recycling in, the plastic, paper, glass, wood and aggregates industries. At present WRAP’s activities are concentrated on improvingrecycling rather than the wider issue of resource efficiency.

National fiscal policiesThe Landfill Tax is one of the Government’s main instruments for driving a reduction of landfill disposal of waste. This was introduced in 1996and currently stands at £13 per tonne for active waste and £2 per tonne for inactive waste. An escalator of £1 per tonne per year was introducedfor active waste in 1999 that will take the rate to £15 per tonne in 2004 when the Landfill Tax is due be reviewed. Revenue and survey datasuggests that the Landfill Tax, at its current level, is not stimulating a significant shift away from landfill. It is likely that much more needs tobe done to make companies aware of the true cost of waste, beyond waste disposal costs, and to make alternative waste management methods aviable option for both waste producers and the waste management sector. The Finance Act 2001 introduced an Aggregates Levy from April2002. The Levy’s purpose is to address the environmental costs of aggregates extraction and encourage the use of recycled materials - theincreased cost of primary aggregate may affect markets, including secondary materials. Waste spoil from previously worked quarries maybecome an economically viable material. The revenue from the levy is used to finance a Fund which supports work on:

� Minimising the demand for primary aggregates.

� Promoting environmentally friendly extraction and transport.

� Reducing the local effects of aggregate extraction.

The recently introduced Climate Change Levy may impact on the manufacture of materials for use in construction. It is part of a range of measuresthat are designed to help the UK meet its legally binding commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The UK’s goal is to achieve a 20%reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by the year 2010. There are reduced rates of Levy for energy-intensive industry sectors, including manyconstruction materials producers, which agree targets for improvements in energy efficiency that meet the Government’s criteria.

National regulationsThe Government’s regulations Changes to the Government Building Regulations (Part L in England and Wales and Parts J & A in Scotland)aim to improve the thermal efficiency of buildings, The new regulations set out mandatory requirements e.g. relating to any replacementwindows and windows in new structures. The changes will affect every new and replacement window fitted from Spring 2002. These changeswill also affect other areas such as specifications for insulation and possibly building design.

Construction industry strategiesSir John Egan’s Construction Task Force report ‘Rethinking Construction’ and associated initiatives (such as Construction Best PracticeProgramme, Housing Forum, Movement for Innovation, Respect for People) have headed a strong push for more measurement of performancethrough the adoption of Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) to measure and improve factors such as:

� Construction waste going to landfill.

� Primary aggregates output per unit of construction value.

� Amount of secondary and recycled aggregates used compared with virgin aggregates.

There are now several industry wide initiatives aiming to improve all aspects of construction including:� Sir Martin Laing: Sustainable Construction Task Group. ‘Building a better quality of life’ is a strategy for more sustainable construction - a

blueprint produced in close consultation with the construction industry for modernising the way in which the industry designs and builds.� Institution of Civil Engineers: ‘Society, Sustainability and Civil Engineering’ which sets out a commitment to help the civil engineering

industry to deliver more sustainable civil engineering and outlines a series of actions that the partners to the strategy will undertakethemselves.

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Again this study concluded that no single policyintervention could bring about a transformation inC&DW recycling practice on its own. It identified fourconditions which must be met before C&DW recyclingcan be expected to reach a significant level at which itwill be sustained and economically viable. Theseconditions, set out in Box 9.5.2, illustrate again how thereis a need for a coherent range of measures to be takenacross a number of sectors by government and industry.

The study concluded that if any of these four conditionsis not met, then that member state or region will find iteffectively impossible to progress beyond Level 1.

However, Level 2 (and possibly even Level 3) technologyis likely to follow as soon as all four conditions are met.

However, the EU study also found that widespread andconsistently high levels of recycling (in which some75% or above of ‘core’ C&DW are recycled in mostregions) is likely to be achieved only if some form ofban on landfilling C&DW is imposed and enforced, orif a requirement is put in place that all C&DW must beseparated with each stream being directed to some formof re-use or recovery operation. Doing this wouldeffectively remove the second condition from the listabove.

Box 9.5.1 Relationship between types of facilities and country recycling rates

Level 1 Mobile crushing and sorting plant, suited only to the processing of inert C&DW.

Generally associated with countries with lower recycling rates.

Level 2 More complex sorting and sieving capable of dealing with mixed (mainly inert) C&DW.

Generally associated with countries with intermediate recycling rates.

Level 3 Hand sorting and facilities for other C&DW (mixed and contaminated) streams.

Generally associated with countries with higher recycling rates.

Box 9.5.2 Conditions for sustained recycling

Condition 1 Landfill sites must be well managed, and ‘fly tipping’ of waste must be uncommon andsubject to sanctions.

This condition is generally considered to be met in full in the UK.

Condition 2 The holder of the C&DW must face a significant financial cost for landfilling waste, withhazardous or mixed wastes facing significantly higher costs (to avoid contamination and todiscourage mixing).

Whether this condition is met in the UK is a matter of debate in the industry.

Condition 3 The opportunity must exist for the main bulky inert fraction of the C&DW to be treated(crushed and sorted) prior to re-use or recycling.

This condition is not met across the UK as there is not a widespread and readily accessiblenetwork of processing facilities.

Condition 4 There must be at least a tacit acceptance (by users, specifiers and other similarly interested‘actors’) that suitably prepared C&DW-derived aggregates may be used to displace primaryaggregates (positive action to draw up technical standards is not essential, but C&DW-derivedaggregates should not be discriminated against on the basis of their origins alone) .

This condition is not met in the UK as, while there are standards permitting the use ofrecycled materials in many (but by no means all) situations, their use is far from widespread.

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By contrast, it also found that relying on a mechanismsuch as a tax on landfill or a levy on primary aggregateswould not on its own achieve high recycling rates underall circumstances, because the tax would have to be setat politically unacceptable levels before it changed thebehaviour of engineers and demolition contractors inareas with easy access to landfills (or quarries). Varyingthe tax rate to match local conditions would createconsiderable distortions to trade, and would thereforeprobably be equally unacceptable.

Finally it concluded that the economic costs of banninglandfilling and/or requiring separation (which have to beset alongside the undoubted environmental and resource-saving gains) are not trivial.

9.6 Summary

In relation to understanding the prospects for greaterefficiency in construction resource use a range ofinfluences and trends have been discerned and theirimpacts discussed. Although the prediction process iscomplex, and deserves more detailed research, thisChapter has begun the process of characterising thecomplex forces acting for and against improvement.

The main influences and trends, and their associatedimpacts on resource use, wastes and emissions, weredivided into 3 main categories: ‘External’, ‘ConstructionProcesses’ and ‘Design’. External influences were seento have the greatest affect, tending to drive up both inputsand outputs and determining types of material inputs andthe geographical location and intensity of development.However controlling these influences would requireradical change underpinned by strong political will.

It would appear that a more realistic scenario forimprovement would be to strive for more coherencewithin the policy framework in a way which focusedattention on supporting the positive influences ofimproved design, which are particularly effective inreducing resource inputs for a given product. This shouldbe underpinned by national level targets for improvingresource efficiency and supported by a secondary focuson improving site based construction processimprovements such as waste minimisation. Within thisscenario attention would need to be paid to thedevelopment of markets for non-primary materials andremoving barriers to their use.

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10 Conclusions and recommendations

10.1 Conclusions

There is increasing pressure on all sectors of industry todemonstrate that their practices are sustainable in the longterm. To do this they need to be able to show that theyare aware of and monitoring the effects of their actionsand that they are taking steps to address those areas whereimprovements may be made. Until now the constructionindustry has only been doing this in a piecemeal anduncoordinated manner. This report helps to address thisproblem by providing the first complete overview ofquantities of resource inputs, wastes and emissions inthe construction industry and by suggesting how therelated data can be linked to strategies for futureimprovement.

10.1.1 Data quality

We have found that there is a significant lack of massdata on resource use. This makes it difficult for theindustry to demonstrate that it is monitoring the impactsof its activities. For example the Office of NationalStatistics (ONS) holds data on trade in many constructionproducts - but only some of this is available on a massbasis. Many products are quantified in other ways,including financial value, number of units, area andlength. In a number of instances it has therefore beennecessary to make assumptions on conversion factors toderive the mass data required.

There is also an absence of data on a number of materialsand products where the raw materials are not traded. Anexample of this would be the clay used in brickmanufacture where the clay is extracted on the site of thebrickworks. In cases like this it has been necessary tocalculate the use of for raw materials from product sales.

Data collection is further complicated because somematerials are traded through a number of stages, each ofwhich is recorded by the ONS. Aggregates for example,can be recorded as aggregate sales, in ready mix concretesales, and in the sales of finished concrete products. Insituations like this it has been necessary to adjust the datato avoid double counting.

In the light of the findings of this study we conclude thatthere is a need for the construction industry to developand implement a transparent system for monitoringresource use. Combined with accurate data in other areassuch as economic and social development, this wouldunderpin effective policy development and the planningof treatment and processing facilities.

10.1.2 Resource use, wastes and emissions

Notwithstanding the difficulties experienced in collectingdata it has been possible to calculate figures for the totalnatural resource use of the construction industry and toidentify the wastes and emission generated.

Resource useThe construction industry annually requires 424 milliontonnes of material resources and a further 7.8 milliontonnes of fuel (oil equivalent) to produce 363 milliontonnes of construction products. Although not quantifiedit can be assumed that significant amounts of water areconsumed.

This annual material requirement can be expressed as anannual consumption of over 7 tonnes per head ofpopulation - or a lifetime consumption of 540 tonnes perperson. As an indication of the scale of this resourcerequirement, 540 tonnes is approximately the weight of540 family cars.

Wastes and emissionsThe construction industry annually produces 151 milliontonnes of solid, sludge and liquid wastes and generates28 million tonnes of emissions. To this must be added anunquantified amount of aqueous wastes and otheremissions to atmosphere not considered under this study.

Quarry productsThe study showed that aggregates, concrete, clay andstone products account for the great majority ofconstruction resource inputs. Although the currenteconomic conditions may not be favourable, a significantquantity of this material is, from a technical perspective,potentially reusable if properly managed.

At present some 20 million tonnes of certain constructionand demolition wastes and soils are deposited at sitesexempt from the provisions of the waste managementlicensing regime. While this approach may be entirelyappropriate in terms of effective waste management, thereare some parts of the construction and waste managementindustries that consider that a significant proportion ofthis material could be used to substitute for primaryaggregate materials. It is understood that the EnvironmentAgency is presently reviewing the regulations relating tothese exemptions.

On the positive side it is estimated that approximately20% of aggregates consumption is already met fromsecondary and recycled materials sources and that some3.3Mt of materials are reclaimed directly for re-use.

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Non-quarry productsWhile only a comparatively small proportion of theindustry’s overall resource consumption, non-quarrymaterials are annually consumed in significant quantities:over 9Mt of timber; 4Mt of metal products; 1.4Mt ofplastic products; and 1.4Mt of glass. Some materials areparticularly significant when the energy use in theirproduction is taken into account. Steel, cement and glassfall into this category.

With the possible exception of some timber products,which can be contaminated with preservatives, thesematerials are also potentially recoverable for reuse orrecycling if properly managed.

Timber products, if not directly re-usable can beprocessed into chipboard products. Significant quantitiesof metals from construction are already recovered andrecycled. Plastic recycling is presently in its infancy butis expected to develop further in the future. Glass fromdemolition works, particularly sheet glass in the form ofwindows, has the potential to be directly re-used in itsoriginal form without further processing, however thisapproach requires a degree of management on demolitionsites that is not often to be found. Significant quantitiesof glass are also processed for use as aggregate.

10.1.3 Summary

The report has shown the scale of construction resourcesuse, wastes and emissions. The goal of resourcesustainability requires reductions in all 3 areas.

In Chapter 9 we saw that a barrier to achieving this endis the currently fragmented approach to those policiesinfluencing resource efficiency and the use of non-primary materials. While it is acknowledged thatgovernment and industry have developed a number ofsector specific strategies, each aimed at achieving definedobjectives, the scale of the problem requires action whichis coherent across all parts of the industry.

The government has set up the Waste & Resources ActionProgramme (WRAP) which provides advice and supportin a number of discrete areas of material use, some ofwhich are of direct relevance to the construction industry.The stated role of WRAP is to create stable and efficientmarkets for certain recycled products and materials. Atthe time of writing WRAP has a remit to undertakeresearch into, and provide capital support to initiativesto improve plastic, paper, glass, wood and aggregatesindustries recycling. At present WRAPs activities areconcentrated on improving recycling rather than the widerissue of resource efficiency.

The absence of a body which is able to provide strategicdirection specifically for the construction industry byencouraging policy coherence and setting priorities foraddressing resource inputs, non-primary materialsmarkets, wastes and emissions, is a fundamental obstacleto achieving significant progress.

10.2 Recommendations

Four primary recommendations are made that it isconsidered will improve resource use productivity in theconstruction industry. These are summarised in Table10.2.1 and expanded in Tables 10.2.2 - 10.2.5.

Each recommendation has an associated list of actionswith it together with an indication of those parts of theindustry which should take the lead in taking the actions.It is acknowledged that some of these actions are likelyto be contentious while others may not be practicable atthis time. The aim at this stage is to highlight a numberof key issues which we consider need to be addressed ifresource use efficiency is to be improved and the industryis to become more sustainable.

Table 10.2.1 Recommendations to improveresource use productivity in theconstruction industry

1 Implement comprehensive, consistent and permanent resourceflow monitoring and reporting procedures.

2 Implement resource management planning initiatives aimed atminimising resource use and maximising resource recovery.

3 Implement practical measures to reduce the demand forresources.

4 Implement measures to maximise the recovery of potentiallyrecoverable material resources.

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Table 10.2.3 Resource management planning initiatives

Implement resource management planning initiatives aimed at minimising resource use and maximising resource recovery

1 Set up a construction industry wide initiative to review future social and economic trends with a All stakeholdersview to predicting possible future resource and waste management needs. (This could be a broaderforum covering all industries).

2 Set up a construction industry wide initiative to drive forward policies and actions aimed at reducing All stakeholdersresource use and maximising resource recovery.

3 Set up and fund a dedicated programme of research aimed specifically at improving resource Government / Industryproductivity in construction.

4 Revise the existing planning guidance to positively encourage developments designed to minimise Governmentthe demands on resources and waste generation.

5 Revise existing planning guidance to positively encourage the development of material recovery Governmentcentres in close proximity to areas of development / redevelopment.

Table 10.2.2 Monitoring and reporting

Implement comprehensive, consistent and permanent resource flow monitoring and reporting procedures

1 Establish national construction industry wide system for data collection, analysis, monitoring and Government / Industryreporting (to address all aspects of material sourcing, use and destinations using a mass balance approach).

2 Extend and develop the use of Key Performance Indicators with particular reference to resource use. Government / Industry

3 Establish industry accepted conversion factors from ONS recorded non mass data to mass data. Trade associations

4 Develop mechanisms for reporting the mass consumption of construction materials and products not Trade associationsrecorded by ONS or others.

5 Investigate the feasibility of developing mechanisms for recording changes in construction ‘stock’ Government / Industry(i.e. the built environment).

6 Require the identification of resource use (solid, liquid and gaseous) and emissions (solid, liquid, Government / Industryaqueous and gaseous) in company reporting (WBCSD).

7 Require water companies and the Environment Agency to record water use by SIC. Government

8 Require sewerage undertakers to record discharges of aqueous wastes to sewer by SIC. Government

9 Investigate the development of a system of resource use monitoring using existing Standard Methods Professional bodies / Industryof Measurement and Bills of Quantities.

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Table 10.2.5 Maximising recovery and recycling

Implement measures to maximise the recovery of potentially recoverable material resources

1 Implement measures to eliminate the landfill or incineration of potentiallyrecoverable material resources. Government

2 Implement a requirement for the separation at source of recoverable C&DW. Government

3 Review the operation of the current exemptions from waste management licensing to Governmenteliminate the ‘disposal’ or ‘unnecessary use’ of potentially recoverable material resources.

4 Consider the development of a ‘resource recovery bond’ to be lodged at the time of construction to Industrycover the costs of deconstruction and material recovery.

5 Undertake a review of reprocessing capacity and identify areas with greatest potential for improving Governmentresource recovery.

6 Develop and implement a national strategy for increasing reprocessing capacity (both fixed and mobile). Government

7 Collect and disseminate data on the availability of processing facilities and materials recognising the Local authoritiesneed for data to be current and available at a local level.

8 Require material recovery from demolition through the implementation of resource recovery / waste Government / Local authoritiesmanagement plans in demolition permits.

Table 10.2.4 Practical measures

Implement practical measure to reduce the demand for resources

1 Require: Clients

� material resource ‘lean’ design.

� design for flexibility of use.

� design for longevity.

� increased standardisation / prefabrication in construction.

� design for deconstruction / material recovery.

2 Collect, collate and publicise existing data on improving resource use productivity through a single Government / Industrysource. Identify needs for future research.

3 Develop conditions of contract to encourage risk sharing between clients and contractors in the use of Professional bodiessecondary and recycled materials.

4 Encourage the ‘mining’ of potentially recoverable resources (derelict / abandoned built environment). Government

5 Maximise the recovery of potentially recoverable resources (see below). Government / Industry

6 Carry out analyses on the use of stockpiles, current and emerging supplies of existing secondary materials Governmentversus primary materials. Review need for economic or regulatory measures to encourage increased usebased on findings.

7 Seek to minimise / optimise the movement of construction products and materials and C&D wastes. Industry

8 Require ‘whole life resource use’ analysis. Clients

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Appendix 1: GlossaryThe descriptions given in this section are indicated to provide guidance as to how the terms described have been usedin this report. They are not intended to provide full legal or technical definitions.

A number of these have been taken from the CIRIA Reclaimed and Recycled Materials Handbook definitions(Coventry et al., 1999).

Aggregate Granular material used in construction. Aggregate may be natural, artificial or recycled.

BRE Building Research Establishment

CIRIA Construction Industry Research and Information Association.

Construction Construction is taken to mean all activities contributing to the construction, maintenanceand renovation of the built environment. This includes building and civil engineering works.

Construction Products Any product which is produced for incorporation in a permanent manner in constructionworks, including both building and civil engineering works.

C&DW Construction and Demolition Wastes - All wastes which arise from construction, renovationand demolition activities. These include waste, surplus and damaged products and materialsarising at construction, renovation and demolition sites, whether originally incorporatedpermanently in the construction works, or used temporarily during the on-site activities.

Demolition Demolition is taken to comprise the process of the deliberate and planned or controlleddestruction or dismantling of building or civil engineering works and structures.

DETR Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (till June 2001).

DEFRA Department of the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (from June 2001).

DfT Department for Transport (from May 2002).

DTI Department of Trade and Industry.

DTLR Department for Transport, Local Government and the Regions (from June 2001).

Disposal Disposal refers to ‘final’ disposal and is taken to include incineration without energyrecovery, and landfilling. Definitions of ‘disposal operations’ are given in Annex IIA ofDirective 75/442/EEC as amended by Directive 91/156/EEC. The conditions under whichthese operations may be undertaken are given in the main text of the Directive.

EA Environment Agency.

‘Exempt site’ A site where certain waste materials may be processed of disposed of under exemptionsfrom waste management regulation.

EWC European Waste Catalogue European Waste Catalogue (Decision 94/3/EEC refers) -Commission Decision 94/3/EEC of 20th December 1993 establishes a list of wastes pursuantto Article 1(a) of Council Directive 75/442/EEC on waste.

Hazardous Waste ‘Hazardous Waste’ is defined by reference to a list of wastes drawn up by EuropeanCommission which have one or more of the properties listed in Annex III of the HazardousWaste Directive.

HDPE High density polyethylene.

MDPE Medium density polyethylene.

NACE Nomenclature générale des activités économiques dans les Communautés européennes.General Industrial Classification of Economic Activities within the European Communities- a classification covering the whole range of economic activity.

NETCEN National Environmental Technology Centre.

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

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ODPM Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (from May 2002).

KPI Key Performance Indicator.

Primary products Products and materials comprising, or manufactured or derived from, raw (virgin)and materials materials (see also the definition of secondary materials below).

PFA Pulverised fuel ash.

PRODCOM PRODCOM stands for PRODucts of the European COMmunity Inquiry, a survey ofmanufactured products governed by EU Regulation. Product definitions arestandardised across the EU to give comparability between Member States’ data and theproduction of European data at product level. Data on both value (sales) and volume(units) are collected. It covers some 4,800 products assigned to 249 industries asdefined by the 1992 Standard Industrial Classification.

PVC Polyvinyl chloride.

Reclaimed or re-used A material or product that has been recovered from the waste stream and is used inmaterials and products another application without undergoing processing to change its physical or chemical

form.

Recovery ‘Recovery’ is taken to include recovery, recycling/reclamation and re-use. Definitions of‘operations which may lead to recovery’ are given in Annex IIB of Directive 75/442/EEC as amended by Directive 91/156/EEC.

Recycled material A material or product that has undergone some form of processing to change itsor product physical or chemical properties or a product that incorporates a material within it that

has been recycled.

Renovation Renovation is taken to include the activities of refurbishment, repair, maintenance,restoration and rehabilitation of building and civil engineering works aimed atextending their lifespan.

Re-use The use of a material or product once again for its original purpose, or for a differentpurpose, without prior processing to change its physical or chemical characteristics.

Secondary products Products and materials comprising, or manufactured or derived from, materials thatand materials would otherwise be waste.

SIC Standard Industrial Classification System. A system which classifies establishments bytheir primary type of activity.

Spoil Soil or rock or other earth material arising from excavation, dredging or other groundengineering work.

Sustainable development ‘Development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising theability of future generations to meet their own needs’ (H Brundtland 1987, WorldCommission on Environment and Development, ‘Our Common Future’).

TOE Tonnes of Oil Equivalent. One tonne of oil equivalent (TOE) is defined as 107kilocalories (41.868 gigajoules). This quantity of energy is, within a few per cent, equalto the net heat content of 1 tonne of crude oil. 1 Mtoe = 4.1868 x 104 TJ 1 Mtoe = 107Gcal 1 Mtoe = 3.968 x 107 MBtu 1 Mtoe = 11630 GWh.

UPVC Unplasticised polyvinyl chloride.

Waste Waste (definitions reproduced from Directive 75/442/EEC as amended by Directive 91/156/EEC) ‘Waste’ is defined as ‘any substance or object in the categories set out in Annex1 which the holder discards or intends or is required to discard’ The ‘holder’ means ‘theproducer of the waste or the natural or legal person who is in possession of it’ The ‘producer’means ‘anyone whose activities produce waste (‘original producer’) and/or anyone whocarries out pre-processing, mixing or other operations resulting in a change in the natureof the composition of this waste’.

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Environment Agency (2000). Strategic WasteManagement Assessment 2000. London. Swindon: WRc.

Environment Agency (2000). Strategic WasteManagement Assessment 2000. North East.Swindon: WRc.

Environment Agency (2000). Strategic WasteManagement Assessment 2000. North West.Swindon: WRc.

Environment Agency (2000). Strategic WasteManagement Assessment 2000. South East (excludingLondon). Swindon: WRc.

86

ONS (2000). Monthly Statistics of Building Materials& Components. London: Office for National Statistics.

ONS (2000). PRA17 Product Sales and Trade:Sawmilling, Panel Boards & Joinery Products.London: Office for National Statistics.

ONS (2000). PRA23 Product Sales and Trade: PlasticPlates, Sheets, Tubes & Profiles. London: Office forNational Statistics.

ONS (2000). PRA24 Product Sales and Trade:Builders’ Ware & Miscellaneous Plastic Products.London: Office for National Statistics.

ONS (2000). PRA25 Product Sales and Trade: FlatGlass. London: Office for National Statistics.

ONS (2000). PRA26 Product Sales and Trade: GlassProducts (excluding Flat Glass). London: Office forNational Statistics.

ONS (2000). PRA27 Product Sales and Trade:Household and Miscellaneous Ceramics. London:Office for National Statistics.

ONS (2000). PRA28 Product Sales and Trade:Refractory & Other Technical Ceramics. London:Office for National Statistics.

ONS (2000). PRA29 Product Sales and Trade:Ceramics, Tiles & Clay Baked Building Products.London: Office for National Statistics.

ONS (2000). PRA30 Product Sales and Trade:Concrete, Plaster & Cement Construction Products.London: Office for National Statistics.

ONS (2000). PRA31 Product Sales and Trade:Abrasive & Other Non-Metallic Mineral Products.London: Office for National Statistics.

ONS (2000). PRA 33 Product Sales and Trade: FirstProcessing of Iron & Steel. London: Office forNational Statistics.

ONS (2000). PRA 34 Product Sales and Trade: Non-Ferrous Metal Production. London: Office for NationalStatistics.

ONS (2000). PRA 35 Product Sales and Trade:Casting of Iron, Steel, Light Metals & Non-FerrousMetals. London: Office for National Statistics.

ONS (2000). PRA 36 Product Sales and Trade: MetalStructures & Builders’ Joinery. London: Office forNational Statistics.

ONS (2000). PRA 37 Product Sales and Trade: Tanks,Boilers & Other Metal Container Products. London:Office for National Statistics.

ONS (2000). PRA 43 Product Sales and Trade: Locks& Hinges. London: Office for National Statistics.

ONS (2000). PRA44 Product Sales and Trade: Wire &Cable Products. London: Office for National Statistics.

ONS (2000). PRA 45 Product Sales and Trade:Fastners, General Machine Chains & Springs.London: Office for National Statistics.

ONS (2000). PRA46 Product Sales and Trade:Miscellaneous Fabricated Metal Products. London:Office for National Statistics.

ONS (2000). PRA65 Product Sales and Trade:Lighting Equipment. London: Office for NationalStatistics.

ONS (2000). PRA88 Product Sales and Trade:Quarrying & Related Activities. London: Office forNational Statistics.

ONS (2000). PRA89 Product Sales and Trade: Mining(Non-Ore). London: Office for National Statistics.

ONS (2000). PRQ29 Product Sales and Trade:Miscellaneous Chemical Products: Quarter 1 - 4.London: Office for National Statistics.

ONS (2000). PRQ27 Product Sales and Trade: Glues& Gelatines: Quarter 1 - 4. London: Office forNational Statistics.

ONS (2000). PRQ21 Product Sales and Trade: Paints& Similar Coatings: Quarter 1 - 4. London: Office forNational Statistics.

Reynolds C E and Steedman J (1988). ReinforcedConcrete Designer’s Handbook. London: E & F N Spon.

Symonds Travers Morgan / ARGUS (1995).Construction and demolition waste project in theframework of the priority waste streams programme ofthe European Commission, report of the project groupto the European Commission, Part 1 - InformationDocument. Brussels: European Commission.

Symonds Travers Morgan / ARGUS (1995).Construction and demolition waste project in theframework of the priority waste streams programme ofthe European Commission, report of the project groupto the European Commission, Part 2 - StrategyDocument. Brussels: European Commission.

87

Symonds Travers Morgan / ARGUS (1995).Construction and demolition waste project in theframework of the priority waste streams programme ofthe European Commission, report of the project groupto the European Commission, Part 3 -Recommendations of the Project Group. Brussels:European Commission.

Symonds Group Ltd (1999). Construction anddemolition waste management practices and theireconomic impacts, final report to DGXI. Brussels:European Commission.

Symonds Group Ltd (2000). Construction anddemolition waste survey. Swindon: WRc.

The Stationery Office (1996). The Special WasteRegulations 1996. London: The Stationery Office.

United Nations (1997). The Kyoto Protocol. NewYork: United Nations.

Verfaille and Bidwell (2000). Measuring eco-efficiency:A Guide to Reporting Company Performance.WBCSD.

Winter M G and Henderson C (2001), Recycledaggregates in Scotland. Edinburgh: Scottish ExecutiveCentral Research Unit.

88

Personal communications

Bathroom Manufacturers Association (Pers. Comm. 2001)

Brick Development Association (BDA) (Pers. Comm. 2001)

British Cable Makers Confederation (Pers. Comm. 2002)

British Institute of Petroleum (Pers. Comm 2002)

British Lime Association (Pers. Comm. 2002)

Clay Roofing Tile Association (Pers. Comm. 2001)

David York at Sitebatch (pers. comm. 2002)

Department for Transport (formerly DTLR) (Pers. Comm. 2001)

Department of Trade and Industry Energy Group (Pers. Comm. 2001 and 2002)

Mike Nunn at TRL Limited (Pers. Comm. 2002)

Office for National Statistics (Pers. Comm. 2001)

Phillips (Pers. Comm. 2002)

Pilkingtons (Pers. Comm. 2002)

Quarry Products Association (Pers. Comm. 2002)

Steel Construction Institute (Pers. Comm, 2002)

Trada (Pers. Comm. 2002)

Websites

BITEC (Bitumen Technology) (www.bi-tec.com)

British Institute of Petroleum (www.petroleum.co.uk)

British Cement Association (www.bca.org.uk)

Irish Cement (www.irishcement.ie)

Laybond Flooring Manufacturers (www.laybond.co.uk)

Minerit (www.minerit.fi)

Mortar Industry Association (www.mortar.org.uk)

National Statistics (www.nationalstatistics.gov.uk)

Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (www.odpm.gov.uk)

Press releases

British Institute of Petroleum, March 2002, Press Release ‘Slight Decrease In UK Demand For 1999’. BritishInstitute of Petroleum Library and Information Service

89

Table A3.1 SIC classifications relating to construction materials and products

SIC No. Description SIC No. Description

1411 Quarrying of stone for construction. 2630 Manufacture of ceramic tiles and flags.

1412 Quarrying of limestone, gypsum and chalk. 2640 Manufacture of bricks, tiles and construction products in bakedclay.

1413 Quarrying of slate. 2651 Manufacture of cement.

1421 Operation of gravel and sand pits. 2652 Manufacture of lime.

1422 Mining of clays and kaolin. 2653 Manufacture of plaster.

2010 Saw milling and planing of wood, 2661 Manufacture of concrete products for construction purposes.impregnation of wood.

2020 Manufacture of veneer sheets: manufacture of 2662 Manufacture of plaster products for construction purposes.plywood, laminboard, particle board, fibre boardand other panels and boards.

2030 Manufacture of builders carpentry 2663 Manufacture of ready mixed concrete.and joinery of wood.

2430/1 Manufacture of paints, varnishes and 2664 Manufacture of mortars.similar coatings.

2430/2 Manufacture of printing ink. 2665 Manufacture of fibre cement.

2430/3 Manufacture of mastics and sealants. 2666 Manufacture of other articles of concrete, plaster and cement.

2462 Manufacture of glues and gelatine. 2670 Cutting, shaping and finishing of stone.

2523 Manufacture of builders’ ware of plastic. 2811 Manufacture of metal structures and parts of structures.

2611 Manufacture of flat glass. 2812 Manufacture of builders’ carpentry and joinery of metal.

2612 Shaping and processing of flat glass. 2822 Manufacture of central heating radiators and boilers.

2614 Manufacture of glass fibres. 3130 Manufacture of insulated wire and cable.

2622 Manufacture of ceramic sanitary fittings. 3150 Manufacture of lighting equipment and electric lamps.

2623 Manufacture of ceramic insulators andinsulating fittings.

Appendix 3: Definition of the construction industryThe Standard Industrial Classifications identified as representing the Construction Materials and Products Industry asdefined by Davis Langdon and Everest (DLE) and the Construction Products Association (CPA) in their study of theUK Building Materials Sector undertaken for the former Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions(DETR) are set out in Table A3.1.

The DLE/CPA report acknowledges that the list reproduced in Table A3.1 includes products which are used forconstruction and products which are not used exclusively for construction.

90

Table A3.2 Additional PRODCOM classifications relating to construction materials and products

PRODCOM PRODCOMreference Description reference Description

14.50.10.00 Natural bitumen and natural asphalt; asphalites 26.82.12.90 Products based on bitumen (excl. in rolls).and asphalic rocks.

14.50.23.40 Asbestos. 26.82.13.00 Bituminous mixtures based on natural and artificialaggregate and bitumen or natural asphalt as a binder.

23.20.32.50 Petroleum bitumen. 26.82.16.30 Mixtures and articles of heat/sound-insulatingmaterials n.e.c.

24.66.48.67 Fire-proofing; water-proofing and similar protective 28.63.12.30 Base metal cylinder locks used for doors ofpreparations used in the building industry. buildings.

25.21.21.53 Rigid tubes; pipes and hoses of polymers of ethylene. 28.63.12.50 Base metal locks used for doors of buildings (excl.cylinder locks).

25.21.21.55 Rigid tubes; pipes and hoses of polymers of propylene. 28.63.14.10 Base metal hinges.

25.21.21.57 Rigid tubes; pipes and hoses of polymers 28.63.14.40 Base metal mountings, fittings and similar articlesof vinyl chloride. suitable for buildings (excl. hinges, castors, locks

keys spy holes fitted with optical elements and keyoperated door bolts).

25.21.21.70 Rigid tubes; pipes and hoses of plastics (excl. of 28.63.14.60 Mountings, fittings etc. for doors, staircases of basepolymers of ethylene, of polymers of propylene, metal.of polymers of vinyl chloride.

25.21.22.70 Plastic fittings for plastic tubes pipes and hoses (incl. 28.63.14.70 Base metal automatic door closers.joints; elbows and flanges).

25.24.24.00 Plastic parts for lamps, light fittings and illuminated 28.74.11.13 Fasteners, screw machine products, chains andsigns and name plates. - 90 springs.

26.15.12.00 Paving blocks of glass for building or construction 28.75.27.37 Iron or steel non-mechanical ventilators, guttering,purposes n.e.c. hooks and similar articles used in the building

industry (excl. forged or stamped).

26.82.12.53 Roofing or waterproofing felts based on 28.75.27.41 Perforated buckets and similar articles used in thebitumen (in rolls). building industry (excl. forged or stamped).

26.82.12.59 Other products based on bitumen (in rolls).

Table A3.2 sets out sub - classifications of the PRODCOM list not included within the DLE/CPA definition of theconstruction products industry considered to be part of the construction industry.

91

Table A3.3 PRODCOM classifications in Table A3.1 not related to construction materials and products

PRODCOM PRODCOMreference Description reference Description

20.10.90.00 Treatment, impregnation or preservation of wood. 26.11.11.79 Drawn / blown antique, horticultural and other glass.

20.10.22 Wood and wool flour. 26.12.11.50 Optical glass of HS 7003, 7004, 7005, bent workedged, engraved etc.

20.10.23 Wood in chips or particles. 26.12.12.15- Toughened or laminated safety glass for use in19,53 & 55 vehicles.

24.30.21.30 Prepared pigments; opacifiers; colours and similar 26.12.13.50 Mirrors.preparations for ceramics; enamelling or glass. & 90

24.30.21.50 Vitrifiable enamels and glazes; engobes (slips) and 26.66.12.00 Articles of cement; concrete or artificial stone forsimilar preparations for ceramics; enamelling or glass. non-constructional purposes.

24.30.21.70 Liquid lustres or similar preparations; glass frit and 31.50.11,12, Sealed beam lamp units, filament lampsother glass in powder granules or flakes. 13, 14 including tungsten halogen filament lamps.

24.30.22.13 Oil paints; varnishes and prepared water pigments; 31.50.21,22 Electric and non-electric lamps whether portable,&15 for finishing leather (incl. Enamels; lacquers and & 23 desk, bedside or floor standing.

distempers).

24.30.22.43 Pigments dispersed in non-aqueous media in liquid 31.50.31.00 Photographic flashbulbs and flashcubes.or paste form; used in the manufacture of paints;pearl essence (incl. metallic powders and flakes,enamels).

24.30.23.50 Artists; students or signboard painters’ colours; 31.50.32.00 Lighting sets for Christmas trees.& 70 amusement colours and modifying tints in tablets;

tubes; jars; bottles and pans.

24.30.24 Printing inks. 31.50.33.00 Searchlights and spotlights.

24.62.10.30 Gelatin and its derivatives; isinglass (excl. case in 31.50.42.30 Parts of portable electric lamps worked by dryglues and bone glues). batteries accumulators or magnetos (excluding for

cycles or motor vehicles).

26.11.11.13 Optical glass; whether or not coloured throughout& 75 the mass; opacified; flashed or having an

absorbent / reflecting layer; but not otherwise worked.

Table A3.3 sets out sub - classifications of the PRODCOM list included within the DLE/CPA definition of the constructionproducts industry which are not considered to be part of the construction industry.

92

Table A3.4 Standard industrial classifications 1968 - 1992

SIC 68 SIC 92

1 General Builders 45.21.1/2 Construction of commercial / domestic buildings

2 Building and civil engineering contractors 45.21.1/2 Construction of commercial / domestic buildings

3 Civil engineers 45.21.3 General construction of civil engineering works

4 Plumbers 45.33.0 Plumbing (inc. heating & ventilating, refrigeration, sanitary)

5 Carpenters and joiners 45.42.0 Joinery installation

6 Painters 45.44.0 Painting and glazing

7 Roofers 45.22.0 Erection of roof covering and frames (inc. suspended ceilings)

8 Plasterers 45.41.0 Plastering

9 Glaziers 45.44.0 Painting and glazing

10 Demolition contractors 45.11.0 Demolition and wrecking of buildings; earthmoving

11 Scaffolding specialists 45.25.0 Other construction work involving special trades

12 Reinforced concrete specialists 45.25.0 Other construction work involving special trades

13 Heating and ventilating engineers 45.33.0 Plumbing (inc. heating & ventilating, refrigeration, sanitary)

14 Electrical contractors 45.31.0 Installation of electrical wiring and fittings

15 Asphalt and tar sprayers 45.23.0 Construction of highways, roads, airfields and sport facilities

16 Plant hirers 45.50.0 Renting of construction or demolition equipment with operator

17 Flooring contractors 45.43.0 Floor and wall covering

18 Constructional engineers 45.25.0 Other construction work involving special trades

19 Insulating specialists 45.32.0 Insulation work activities

20 Suspended ceiling specialists 45.42.0 Joinery installation

21 Floor and wall tiling specialists 45.43.0 Floor and wall covering

22 Miscellaneous 45.25.0 Other construction work involving special trades

(1) The above mapping of 1968 to 1992 SIC was supplied by the Construction Marketing Intelligence of the DETR(2) SIC 1992 contains the following categories not mapped to SIC 196845.12 Test drilling and boring45.24 Construction of water products45.34 Other building installations45.55 Other building completions

Table A3.4 sets out the relationship between the 1968 standard industrial classifications and the 1992 standard industrialclassifications.

93

Table A4.1 Successor materials and products grouped by successor material / product section

Section

Precursor Precursormaterials - materials -PRODCOM code description Mass (t) Successor Material / Product

4.1 Quarry products14.21.12.30 Crushed stone for construction. -22,677,332 Pre-coated aggregates.23.20.32.50 Petroleum bitumen. -229,064 Pre-coated aggregates.

4.7 Glass products14.21.11.50/90 Silica and construction sands. -795,121 Manufacture of flat glass.

-4,971 Non-optical glass bent, edge-worked, engraved etc.-269 Laminated safety glass.-215 Multiple-walled insulating units of glass.

-111,648 Glass fibre.-7,809 Paving blocks of glass.

26.52.10 Lime. -122,326 Manufacture of flat glass.-765 Non-optical glass bent, edge-worked, engraved etc.

-41 Laminated safety glass.-33 Multiple-walled insulating units of glass.


N/A Recycled glass. -183,489 Manufacture of flat glass.-1,147 Non-optical glass bent, edge-worked, engraved etc.



4.9 Bricks and clay products14.22.12.50 Common clays for construction. -5,690,761 Clay building bricks.

-32,044 Clay flooring blocks.-163,391 Clay roofing tiles.

-33,564 Clay constructional products e.g. chimneypots, architecturalornaments.

4.10 Cement, concrete and plaster products14.12.10 Limestone. -19,275,000 Cement clinker.

-454,705 Quicklime.-312,025 Slaked lime.-742,910 Hydraulic lime.

14.12.10 Gypsum. -3,419 White Portland cement.-658,552 Grey Portland cement.

-58,106 Alumina cement.-75,640 Other hydraulic cements.

-1,104,587 Plasters.-2,420,892 Plaster products for constructional purposes.

Continued ....

Appendix 4: Precursor and successor material and product tablesThis appendix sets out the various products and materials included within the definition of the construction industrygiven in Appendix 3 which are either precursor or successors to other products and materials included within thedefinition of the construction industry. The adjustments made to avoid the double counting of these materials andproducts are set out in Tables A4.1 and A4.2.

Table A4.3 sets out those materials not incorporated in construction which have accordingly been deducted from themass balance total

94

Table A4.1 (Continued) Successor materials and products grouped by successor material / product section

Section

Precursor Precursormaterials - materials -PRODCOM code description Mass (t) Successor Material / Product

14.21.12.10 Gravel, shingle and flint. -5,058,688 Building blocks and bricks of cement.-2,993,072 Tiles, flagstones, and similar articles of cement.-1,142,052 Prefabricated structural components of cement for building.

-379,719 Pipes of cement, concrete or artificial stone.-1,196,160 Prefabricated buildings of cement.

-16,988,781 Ready mixed concrete.

14.21.11.50/90 Silica and construction sands. -3,952,100 Building blocks and bricks of cement.-2,338,337 Tiles, flagstones, and similar articles of cement.

-892,229 Prefabricated structural components of cement for building.-296,655 Pipes of cement, concrete or artificial stone.-934,500 Prefabricated buildings of cement.

-13,272,486 Ready mixed concrete.-1,567,000 Factory made mortars.

-48,000 Fibre cement.

14.21.12.30 Crushed stone for construction. -5,058,688 Building blocks and bricks of cement.-2,993,072 Tiles, flagstones, and similar articles of cement.-1,142,052 Prefabricated structural components of cement for building.



14.22.12.50 Common clays for construction. -3,402,000 Cement clinker.

26.51.11.00 Cement clinker. -64,958 White Portland cement.-12,512,489 Grey Portland cement.

-1,104,015 Alumina cement.-1,437,164 Other hydraulic cements.

26.51.12 Cement. -1,738,924 Building blocks and bricks of cement.-1,028,868 Tiles, flagstones, and similar articles of cement.


-5,839,894 Ready mixed concrete.-273,000 Factory made mortars.


26.52.10 Lime. -118,000 Factory made mortars.

26.53.10.00 Plaster. -5,377 Articles of plaster or compositions based on plaster.

4.11 Stone etc Products14.21.12.30 Crushed stone for construction. -27,005,236 Bituminous mixtures based on natural and artificial aggregate and

bitumen or natural asphalt as a binder (ASPHALT).

14.13.10.00 Slate. -118,532 Worked slate and articles of slate.

14 Quarry products. -332,946 Various items of worked stone.

23.20.32.50 Petroleum bitumen. -505,329 Roofing or water-proofing felts based on bitumen.-89,415 Other products based on bitumen (in rolls).

-720 Products based on bitumen (exc. rolls).-1,125,218 Bituminous mixtures based on natural and artificial aggregate and


Total -191,713,510

95

Table A4.2 Successor materials and products grouped by precursor material / product section

Section

Precursor Precursormaterials - materials -PRODCOM code description Mass (t) Successor material / Product

4.1 Quarry products14.12.10 Limestone. -19,275,000 Cement clinker.

-454,705 Quicklime.-312,025 Slaked lime.-742,910 Hydraulic lime.

14.12.10 Gypsum. -3,419 White Portland cement.-658,552 Grey Portland cement.

-58,106 Alumina cement.-75,640 Other hydraulic cements.

-1,104,587 Plasters.-2,420,892 Plaster products for constructional purposes.

14.13.10.00 Slate. -118,532 Worked slate and articles of slate.

14.21.11.50/90 Silica and construction sands. -795,121 Manufacture of flat glass.-4,971 Non-optical glass bent, edge-worked, engraved etc.



-3,952,100 Building blocks and bricks of cement.-2,338,337 Tiles, flagstones, and similar articles of cement.


-13,272,486 Ready mixed concrete.-1,567,000 Factory made mortars.


14.21.12.10 Gravel, shingle and flint. -5,058,688 Building blocks and bricks of cement.-2,993,072 Tiles, flagstones, and similar articles of cement.-1,142,052 Prefabricated structural components of cement for building.



14.21.12.30 Crushed stone for construction. -22,677,332 Pre-coated aggregates.-5,058,688 Building blocks and bricks of cement.-2,993,072 Tiles, flagstones, and similar articles of cement.-1,142,052 Prefabricated structural components of cement for building.


-16,988,781 Ready mixed concrete.-27,005,236 Bituminous mixtures based on natural and artificial aggregate and


14.22.12.50 Common clays for construction. -5,690,761 Clay building bricks.-32,044 Clay flooring blocks.

-163,391 Clay roofing tiles.-33,564 Clay constructional products e.g. chimneypots, architectural ornaments.

-3,402,000 Cement clinker.

14 Quarry products. -332,946 Various items of worked stone.

4.3 Finishes etc23.20.32.50 Petroleum bitumen. -229,064 Pre-coated aggregates.

-505,329 Roofing or water-proofing felts based on bitumen.-89,415 Other products based on bitumen (in rolls).

-720 Products based on bitumen (exc. rolls).-1,125,218 Bituminous mixtures based on natural and artificial aggregate and


Continued ....

96

Table A4.2 (Continued) Successor materials and products grouped by precursor material / product section

Section

Precursor Precursormaterials - materials -PRODCOM code description Mass (t) Successor material / Product

4.10 Cement, concrete and plaster products26.51.11.00 Cement clinker. -64,958 White Portland cement.

-12,512,489 Grey Portland cement.-1,104,015 Alumina cement.-1,437,164 Other hydraulic cements.

26.51.12 Cement. -1,738,924 Building blocks and bricks of cement.1,028,868 Tiles, flagstones, and similar articles of cement.-392,580 Prefabricated structural components of cement for building.-130,528 Pipes of cement, concrete or artificial stone.-411,180 Prefabricated buildings of cement.

-5,839,894 Ready mixed concrete.-273,000 Factory made mortars.


26.52.10 Lime. -122,326 Manufacture of flat glass.-765 Non-optical glass bent, edge-worked, engraved etc.



-118,000 Factory made mortars.

26.53.10.00 Plaster. -5,377 Articles of plaster or compositions based on plaster.

Secondary and recycledRecycled glass. -183,489 Manufacture of flat glass.

-1,147 Non-optical glass bent, edge-worked, engraved etc.-62 Laminated safety glass.-50 Multiple-walled insulating units of glass.


Total -191,713,510

Table A4.3 Non construction applications

Section

Material MaterialPRODCOM code description Mass (t)

4.10 Cement etc.26.52.10 Lime for non construction -1,254,00026.53.10.00 Plaster for non construction -385,000

Total -1,639,000

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