THE CULTURAL LOGIC OF POSTMODERNISM AS CRITIQUED BY FREDFUC JAMESON

THE SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

A Thesis

Presented to

The Faculty of Graduate Studies

of

The University of Guelph

by

LISA TAMARA WILSON

In partial fulfillment of requirements

For the degree of

Master of Landscape Architecture

November, 2000

O Lisa Tamara Wilson, 2000

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ABSTRACT

POSTMODERNISM'S CULTUBU LOGIC AS CFUTIQUED BY FREDRIC JAMESON

THE SOCIAL. TRANSFORMATION OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

Lisa Tamara Wilson University of Guelph, 2000

Advisor: Professor N. Pollock Elwand

This thesis is the investigation of the social transformation of metropolitan landscape

architecture that has occurred within postmodem society. The metropolitan city is

fimdamentally different fiom the city of the modem era. As the transformation between the

modem and the postmodem era occurred, the cultural construction of that society also

changed. These changes to culture also influenced the psychological foundation of cultural

production within society.

This thesis creates a greater understanding of the psychological elements of

postmodernism that influence the design of landscape architecture. This is achieved by

creating a modelof the key cornponents of the current cultural logic, these being, time, space,

action, truth and reality. This model was developed fkom the critique of postmodern society

which was presented by Frednc Jarneson in his book Postmodemisrn, or, The Cultural Logic

of Lare Capitalism (199 1 ) and the philosophy of Hannah. By applying this model to 3 case

studies of parks within Toronto, the evaluation of the current cultural condition of landscape

architecture is performed.

Acknowledgernents

The completion of this thesis would not have been possible without the involvement

of many people. The first people 1 would like to acknowledge are my advisor Nancy Pollock

Elwand and cornmittee member Jirn Taylor. Both have been not only inspiring, but also

patient over the writing process. They brought both insight and rigor to rny study.

Khaldoon Ahmad is another person who has been indispensable during the past

several months. His kindness in taking me under his philosophical wing and his generosity

with his tirne has greatly helped in deveIoping the thoughts presented in ?his research.

Khaldoon often provided the guidance 1 required to persevere in the toughest of times.

Although unbeknownst to him, Will Robinson is also an individual to be

acknowledged. It was Will who lent me his copy ofPostmodemism, or, n e Culfural Logic

of Late Capitalism (199 1) a year and a half ago. Since then many pages have been tom and

dog eared as the book was read and loved.

To al1 the other people who have known me through this journey, thank you for your

encouragement and good thoughts!

Table of Contents

Acknowledgernents Table of Contents Figures

ONE: INTRODUCTION 1

TWO: JAMESON AND THE METROPOLITAN CONTEXT 8

The Metropolis Fredric Jarneson's Cultural Logic The Disappearance of the Individual Subject Stylistic Triumph of Pastiche A Crisis in History Schizophrenic Consciousness Rise of the Hysten'cal Sublime

The Appropriateness of Jameson within Landscape Architecture Postmodernisrn as a Cultural Logic

History and Depthlessness Present and lnstantaneous Existence Postmodern Hyperspace Image and Media

THREE: A MODEL OF POSTMODERNISM AS CULTURAL LOGIC FOR THE EVALUATION OF METROPOLITAN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE 50

Time Space Action Truth & Reality

FOUR: THE EVALUATION OF FOUR TORONTO PARKS 59

Methodology Background Study: Cloud Gardens Consewatory Case Studyl: Cumberland Park

The City of Toronto Design Brief Jury's Report Written Su bmission Cultural Logic of Pcstmodernism

Case Study 2: Court House Square The City of Toronto Brief Jury's Report The Written Subrnission

Cultural Logic as Postmodernism Case Study 3: Dundas Square

The City of Toronto Design Brief The Written Submission Jury's Report Cultural Logic as Postmodemism

FIVE: CONCLUSIONS

The Social Transformation of Landscape Architecture in Toronto Cultural Logic of Landscape Architecture Landscape Architecture and the Metropolis

General References

APPENDIX A: SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

Juror A Juror B Juror C Juror D Juror E

Figures

Figure 1 : A Graphic Representation of Jameson's Mode1 29

Figure 2: Landscape Architecture's Potential Action within its Environment 40

Figure 3: The Bonaventure Hotel LeR Ariel view of building, Right Lobby (Source: The Westin

Hotel & Resort web site)

Figure 4: Development of the Model for this Research

Figure 5: Map of Toronto with Study Area Highlighted (Map by "Toronton MapArt Publishing,

1997)

Figure 6 : Park Locations within Toronto (Map: "To:onton by MapArt Publishing, 1997)

Figure 7: Literature Reviewed in Park Evaiuation

Figure 8: Cloud Gardens Conservatory (Photos: Author)

Figure 9: Base Plan of Cloud Gardens Park (Source: Canadian Architect)

Figure 10: Cloud Garden Conservatory Analysis

Figure 1 1 : Cumberland Park (Photos: Author)

Figure 12: Base PIan of Cumberland Park (Source: Landscape Architecture April 1993)

Figure 13: Cumberland Park Analysis

Figure 14: Court House Park (Photos: Author)

Figure 15: Base PIan of Court House Park (Source: City of Toronto Design Brief and Author)

Figure 16: Court House Park Analysis

Figure 17: Model of Dundas Square (Source: The City of Toronto's web site)

Figure 18: Base PIan of Dundas Square (Source: Brown and Storey Written Submissions)

Figure 19: Dundas Square Anaiysis

Figure 20: Summary of Park Analysis

One: Introduction

The postmodern metropolitan cityl is fundamentally different fiorn the city of the

modern era. Research regarding the contemporary metropolitan condition within the city

often fails to discuss the nature of postmodernism in regards to the various components, or

players, that create the urban fabric of the metropolis. Postmodernism is often used to

describe a particular style within the metropolis, such as the architecture of Michael Graves.

Such a description does not adequately describe the rneaniïg of postmodernism, for the

evolution of the metropolis into a postrnodem city has not been an isolated experience of

changing aesthetics and social trends. Every component of the metropolis' fiarnework

(architecture, art, media, and the economy) has been influenced or fiindamentally changed as

the metropolis has evolved. These fùndamental changes in îhe metropolis are certainly not to

the exclusion of landscape architecture2.

It is difficult to pinpoint when the transformation of landscape architecture within

society became postrnodern. The metropolis, however, and its cultural production, began to

feel the impact of a changing society half a century ago.

". . .at some point following World War II a new kind of society began to emerge variously described as postindustnal society, muttinational capitalism, consumer society and media society, New m e s of consumption; planned obsolescence; an ever more rapid rhythm of fashion and styling changes; the

' Metropolitan city and metropolis (which 1 will utilize interchangeably) refer to the urban built environment, more specificaily to the areas of urban built environment where dwelling is not the essential funetion-

Landscape Architecture, within this discussion, is to be conceived of as the discipline which deals with the design and creation of spaces within the metropolis. It ako refers to the spaces themselves as being landscape architecture- These spaces are parks, street-scaping, courtyards, plazas and public open spaces. The design of these spaces is not synonymous with landscaping which is a horticulturally focused discipline.

penetration of advertising, television ànd the media generally to a hitherto unparalleled degree throughout societr, the replacement of the old tension between city and country, center and province by the suburb and 5y universal standardization; the growth of the great networks of superhighways and the arriva1 of automobile culture - these are sorne of the features which would seem to mark a radical break with that older prewar society in which rnodernism was shll an underground force." (Jameson 1983, p. 124- 125)

The transformation of the metropolis, including landscape architecture, has been a

result of the change of cultural logic fiom that of the modem era. Contemporary cultural

logic, also referred to as postmodemism in this research, is the psychologica13 foundation of

cultural production within society4. Understanding postmodemism as the contemporary

cultural logic is based within the psychological changes that have occurred within the

metropoliss. The goal of this research is to create a greater understanding of the

psychological elements of postmodernism that influence the design of landscape architecture

within a rnetropolitan environment. This will be achieved by creating a mode1 of the key

components of the current cultural logic, these being time, space, action, and tnith and

realig. These four general terms encompass the psychological changes that have influenced

' Psychology is defmed in this research as referring to the mental domain- (This definition is consistent with the writings of George Simmel.) The psychological aspects of the various elements of postmodernism in addition to the psychology of the meeopolitan individual both refer to the mental conception of the metropolitan environment. Thus the psychology of space is the mental conception of space and the psychology of the individual is the mental sphere of the individual.

' Cultural production responds to themes, intentions, social issues and values and other influences that exist within society. These influences, sunimarized as a general trend within society, provide the psychoIogicai foundation of a specific period in tirne. When this trend perrneates al1 aspects of society, it is descnied as a cultural logic. The cultural logic explains the universal rational or intention of cultural production on al1 scales of metropolitan existence during any time period.

Although many changes are visually apparent, such as the change in architectural style, these are the physical manifestation of the universal rational or intentions of the cultural logic. The psychology, which influenced these physical changes, is the mental (and social) parameters of existence within the city. The psychologicai conditions that frrst affect the subconscious, or the state of muid of the metropolitan individual.

the postmodem rnetropolitan individual's experience%ffandscape architecture. The purpose

of this research is to identi& these key components of time, space. action. and truth and

reality and present them in model form so that an understanding of the cultural condition of

contemporary landscape architecture can be achieved7. Through the discussion of the

rnetropolitan context necessary for the creation of the model, an understanding of the

psychology of contemporary metropolitan existence will also be provided. Within the

postmodem city the psychology of the metropolitan individual is an important design

consideration because it is indicative of the mental consideration of existence in the

postmodern city. It is thus important that landscape architects are aware of this psychology

and its presence within the postmodern city.

This research will provide an understanding of the current cultural condition of

landscape architecture within Toronto. The landscape architecture, which the model will be

applied to within this paper, is four parks within Metropolitan Toronto. An understanding of

the social transformation of these pieces of landscape architecture will provide insight into

the current cultural condition of landscape architecture within Toronto. The current cultural

condition will be reflective of the extent that the language of postmodernisrn8 has been

Experïence is to be taken in the broadest sense of the terrn including a historical experience, and imrnediate experience or a perceived experience. These expenences may be both direct interaction with the landscape architecture and any indirect contact as well.

7 Although it is intended that the model wili be applicable to al1 contemporary Iandscape architecture, this study will only deal with four pârks within Toronto.

Language is used as a term to encompass the ability of people within a cultural logic to commiinicate and express ideas and concepts specific to that era. As the cultural production within the metropolis becomes increasingIy posmiodem, the language of postmodernism ais0 permeates society. As the language becomes more developed, people fllrther removed £tom cultural production are also capable of understanding the concepts that the ianguage reflects.

developed. Insight into the future of landscape architecture in Toronto can be presented

based on the understanding of the development of the language of postmodemism.

The essence of this research is,

"The social transformation of landscape architecture in ~ o r o n t o ~ can be understood

by identiwng key elements of the cultural logic of postmodemisrn. By applying these

elements to parks within Toronto, one can evaluate the current condition of landscape

architecture."

The nature of the human condition is an important design consideration for landscape

architects. However, the current cultural logic of metropolitan existence is not sufficiently

explored within the literature provided to most landscape architects. A full understanding of

the cultural logic requires an exploration of the psychology of the metropolitan individual

and the various components of the city (architecture, art, media and landscape architecture).

Although this research will provide landscape architects with a mode1 to understand the

cultural condition of landscape architecture, it will also provide an overview of

postmodemisrn fiom a psychological perspective which will contribute to the greater

understanding of design within a rnetropolitan environment.

This research will also provide landscape architects with an integrated understanding

of postrnodemism. The philosophy of Fredric Jameson, along with other authorities, is used

in the presentation of the cultural context of postmodemism and in the development of the

9 The Don Valley Parkway, Eglinton Avenue, and Dufferin Sbeet are used in this research to define the metropolitan area of Toronto. These streets form an area of built urban environment where dwelling occurs but is not the primary function. These streets also reflect previous and present political boundaries in the city of Toronto. See Figure 5 on page 57 for a rnap outlining the study area.

model. Fredric Jarneson discusses many components of the netropolis and their condition

within the postmodern cultural logic. Jameson isolates five key components of

posû-nodemism within his book Postmodemism. or, The Cultural Logic of Late Copitalism

(199 1). Although these elements were considered within the discussion of the metropolis,

they were not used for the model itself. A more complete understanding of the psychology of

the hurnan condition is required within a model that evaluates postrnodern landscape

architecture". Thus Jameson's discussion of the cultural logic (postrnodernism) is

augrnented to present a model representative of the cultural logic which will be more relevant

to landscape architects ' '. A reintegration of the cultural transformation of postrnodernism within Jameson's

model will provide the social requirements of the design of public space within a

metropolitan context. An understanding of the psychology of the postmodern individual, in

combination nith a cultural understanding of the transformation of art and media, economy,

and architecture fiom the modern era, is necessary to conceptualize the social elements

required within Jameson's model.

1 O The psychological changes that occur within the design of landscape are not as intuitively understood as those that have rnanifested within the art and architecture of postmodernism Landscape architecture's public nature expands the sphere of design from aesthetic design to design that also includes function, and thus the psychological and social implications of the landscape architect are not as easily interpreted as those of the artist. Architectural design is similar to fandscape architecture in that both are aesthetic and fûnctional. Architects, however, are able to convey their design intent more easily than landscape architects because of the lirniting factors involved with designing a building-

I I Jameson's key elements were presented within the framework of Iate capitalism's cultural logic, which he felt to be the defining characteristic of postmodernism. They respond to the cultural changes of the metropolis as being directly related to the economic structure of late capitalism. The social transformation of the metropolis, however, does not respond solely to the conditions of late capitalism. Late capitalism contains an inherent cultural element by nature but is not a comprehensive definition of postmodernism's culture. Thus, the application of Jameson's model would fail to realize the psychological changes that the metropolitan individual embodies as a result of the social transformation of postmodernism, and subsequently, not be sufficient to evaluate the cultural condition of landscape architecture,

This thesis wili be presented as follows: Chapter two presents the Iiterature review for

this research. The literature review will be subdivided into two main sections. The first

section provides the metropolitan context. It is compiled fiom the literature of severai

authorities on posûnodernism's view of the cultural production within the metropolitan

enviromments, as well as the context of the city itself. Secondly, is the presentation and

discussion of Fredric Jameson's model. Once the key elements of the model have been

discussed, the appropriateness of its use in conducting landscape architectural research will

be presented-

The model will be presented in chapter three. This model was developed through the

research of this thesis. T t will discuss the main themes of postrnodeniism as they relate to the

psychology of the rnetropolitan individual and the relevance to landscape architecture.

Chapter four will focus on three pieces of landscape architecture in metropolitan

Toronto". The case studies for this research will be presented and analyzed and general

conclusions will be made about each of the parks, Once the examination of the parks has

been concluded, conc1usions about the social transformation of landscape architecture within

Toronto will be provided. The social transformation is the portion of the research that will

provide the understanding of the evolution of landscape architecture fkorn the rnodemist era

to its current condition.

Chapter five will be the concluding chapter. Conclusions will be made concerning

both the current cultural condition of landscape architecture within Toronto and the language

of postmodernisrn. Once these are understood, a reexamination of the metropolitan context

will be necessary. This reexamination will provide an understanding of the extent of the

'" Cumberland Park, Courthouse Square, and Dundas Square.

current cultural condition of landscape architecture in retation to the cuItural production of

the greater metropolitan environment. This will provide landscape architects with the

opportunity to understand the trends that have occurred within design to date, and the

importance of cultural understanding on a psychoIogical level,

Two: Jameson and the Metropolitan Context

Postmodernist metropolitan life did not break filom the pre-existing modemist

culture; rather there existed a slowly evolving sense of consciousness. Metropolitan life

became a postmodern culture without any clear beginning, nor has this social change given

us any indication that it will end. There were clues along the way, particulariy in the areas of

cultural production where postmodernism was first conceived as a philosophical and literary

project, It became obvious that postmodernism was far more transcendental than these

projects alone. Metropolitan life in the postmodem era became commodified, chaotic and

reproduced. Postrnodernism's essence is neither lirnited to these characteristics of

contemporary cultural life, nor is postmodern culture synonymous with the formation of a

contemporary consumer society. The cultural implications of conternporary consumerism,

however, begin to give the former modernist some insight that "...our western culture is

becoming increasingly a civilization of image." (Kearney 1988, p. 1) As Robert Hughs

reflects on the current cultural status, the "modernist achievement will continue to affect

culture for another century at Ieast,. . but its dynamic is gone, our relationship to it is

archeological." (Tbid. p. 24) The modernist era is now welI within our past but it continues to

leave us with a conceptual hangover. Modernist culture was understood as a linear sequence.

This linear sequence is replaced %y the postmodern idea of a synchronie polyphony of

styles." (fiid. p. 27) There no longer exists a clear focus within culture; it has become a

multitude of styles which are al1 conceived of in unison.

The subtle understanding of the social transformation of both culture and landscape

architecture within the postrnodern metropolis must recognize the platforrn of cultural

context that made the transformation possible. A discussion of the North Amencan

metropolis is sufficient in presenting the parameters of discussion, but not in providing the

context of the transformation of society. Postmodern society came to fi-uition after a unique

combination of social realization and capitalist evolution within what was primarily a North

American context. This combination occurred in the years following the Second World War

when a conscious power shift was seen fiom the military and economic dominance of Britain

to that of a North Amencan flavour. North American capitalist dominance was realized

within a global context, changing the domain and perspective of the world's economies. The

globalization of thought and social perspective, which may have been initiated by the

multinational impact of trade, but more likely by the global realization of the two World

Wars, was given recognition within several communication and philosophical spheres, North

America, with its newfound dominance (Touraine 1995, p. 186), had the confidence to

realize a self-promotional evoIution and brought forth the opportunity for the synchronic

polyphony of styles, which is a defining characteristic of postmodernism- (Kearney 1988, p.

24)

What is tïuly important within the discussion of the changing metropolitan landscape

is the cultural logic which exists that makes the social and cuItural production occuning

today fundamentally different and unique from the evolution of the rnetropolis during modem

times. These changes within the metropolis have resulted in a social transformation of

Iandscape architecture. It is the social nature of these changes that necessitates the discussion

of the impact of postmodernism on the cultural sphere of the metropolis and Iandscape

architecture. The understanding of the evolution of art, media, economics, and architecture

provide the foundation of the cultural changes within postrnodern society.

In addition to the evolution of the cultural sphere, the metropolis has also been

socially transformed. The social transformations manifesting within postrnodern society are

to be conceived within the evolution of history, the existence of ~ e i n ~ " , and the psychology

of the built environment. The built environment, in addition to the cultural changes which

have occurred, affects the metropolitan individual in the postrnodern era- PsychologicaIly,

art, media, and architecture necessitate a different social understanding of the visual setting

that these elements have created. The social and cultural production of art, media,

architecture, and landscape architecture are the visual background of public space.

Landscape architectural design occurs within a social £i-amework that responds to the same

cultural and social conditions of production as that of art, media, and architecture. The

psychological parameters of the rnetropolitan individual influence the conditions of its

creation, for it is the social nature of the design of p.,ibIic spaces that is reflective of the

context in which these spaces exist. As the metropolis continues to change its conception of

public space, the design of these spaces is also affected. It is both the social and the cultural

together which have transformed the postmodern metropolitan individual. It is in the context

of the psychology of the postmodern metropolitan individual that the cultural logic of the

metropolis will be examined to understand the social transformation of landscape

architecture.

The psychology of the metropolitan individual, and the change in the metropolitan

culture within the postmodern era have been the topic of a large body of literature which has

1 > The capitalization of being in this manner is a philosophical tool to delineate betsveen the physical being and the Beîng which is the ultimate reference of existence for being. Some philosophers use Being as a term synonyrnous with God, but here this is not tbe case, although the relationship of Being as a referent for being is pertinent within this discussion.

been produced since the second worfld war. AIthough the authors of such literature are al1 in

agreement that postmodem society i s fiindamentally different fiom the culture of the modem

era, the nature and reason for this difference is a point of dispute, Critics of postmodernism,

such as Jurgen Habermas, criticize posûnodernity for its inability to separate itself fiom the

modem era except by virtue of the tenn 'post'. (Habermas 1997, p. 227) Jean-Francois

Lyotard presents a simi1a.r attachrnent to modernism where although he challenges many of

the assumptions ernbedded within mrodernism, his philosophy ultimately acknowledges a

"cyclical process that Ieads to ever mew modemisms." (Leach 1997, p, 207) Within both of

these examinations of postmodernism, as well as within the works of many of the other

philosophers concerned with the postmodem condition such as Jean Baudrillard and Jaques

Derrida, the link between cultural production and the psychology of the postrnodem

condition is evident. Even within Charles Jenck's work, which was initialIy limited to a

specific style of architecture, the influence of the social transformation of society is

undeniable in terms of its effect on tIhe cultural production within postmodem society.

This research focuses on the critique of the postrnodem condition by Fredric Jameson

within his book Postmodemism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalkm (199 1). This

particular work presents a sophisticarted understanding of postrnodernism which deals with

the underpinnings of the cultural conditions within the metropolis. It is the nature of this

sophistication, in addition to Jameson's multi disciplinary review of postmodernism which

isolated his work as the focus of thiç research. Prior to Jameson's first wrïtings on the

postrnodern condition in the early 19807s, a large body of postrnodem literature focused on

the phenornenon of postrnodernism as opposed to the processes within society which

provided the social conditions neces.sary for postmodernism to have occurred. Although one

of the key theorists of postmodernism, Jameson's philosophy is often incornplete in resolving

the projects he proposes. He has been criticized for not only his inability to fully extend his

iüea of 'the waning effect' of postrnodernisrn (a major point o f his discussion in the social

change in culture and its effect on art and architecture) to a point that it reconciles with his

political theones, but also for his treatment of late capitalism and culture. Although the

connection of late capitalism to the cultural phenomenon of postrnodernism appears to be the

intent of Postmodemisrn, or, the Cultural Logic of late Capitalisrn (199 1 ) the relationship of

this connection is not clearly revealed, but rather simply presented as fact. (Homer, no date,

P- 1)

Many theorists also bring question to Jameson's understanding of 'heterogeneous'

such as in Wes Cecil's book review of Postmodemisrn, or, the Cultzrral Logic of Late

Capitalism(l99 1). Although the conception of heterogeneous has not been developed

throughout the book, it is important within Jarneson's initial presentation of his project

(appearing first on page 1). The original proposition of heterogeneous elernents within

Emest Mandel's conception of late capitalism becomes obscured when Jameson atternpts to

provide a greater scientific understanding of postrnodernism (Cecil, no date, p. 1).

Recognizing these short comings within Jameson's conception of the cultural logic of

late capitalism, the psychology of Hannah Arendt in ï?ze Htlrnarr Condition (1 958) (arnong

the work of other philosophers such as Giami Vammo and Paul Virilio) were used to

relocate the social phenomenon within postrnodernism. Although Arendt's work predates the

postmodem period, it provided the relevant understanding of the human condition necessary

to reinterpret Jameson's proposition of postrnodernism. Arendt's work is the reflection on

human activities or "vita activam- (Hirakawa, no date, p. 1) The modes of human activity

within Arendt's work (action, labour and speech) and their relation to the nature ofhumanity

are transcendental and are not confined to the phiIosophica1 project of modeniity. They

instead provide a psychological foundation which can be reinterpreted within a multitude of

cultural logics.

Hannah Arendt's work becarne integral within the reinterpretation of Jameson's

mode1 because both philosophers exarnined the fine difference between human nature and the

human world. It is this agreement within their philosophical projects that made Arendt's

work the underlying structure in the examination of Jameson's conception of postrnodernism.

Ham& Arendt's work was also relevant for this research because the design, use,

and function of landscape architecture in contemporary society are inherently connected to

the psychological conditions of the individual. As the psychology of the rnetropolitan

individual transformed through the change in sociew fiom modernity to postmodemity, the

implication of this transformation has revealed itself in the individual's relationship with the

metropolitan landscape.

The postmodem condition of art, media, and architecture, as well as the conception of

~ e i n ~ ' in the postmodem era create a cultural context where the rnetropolitan individual is

disoriented, alone, gullible and disinterested. These psycholagical parameters presented by

the metropolitan individual are inherently manifested within tnily postmodern landscape; that

being landscape architecture that is a product of the cultural logic of conternporary society.

This connection of metropolitan landscape architecture with the cultural logic of society is

inherent because of both the social and the metropolitan context of landscape. Every element

of the constitution of the postmodern metropolitan existence has demonstrated a social

transformation as a result of the changing psychology of the metropolitan individual. This

social transformation has produced the new cultural logic in which postmodern landscape

architecture is presented.

It is necessary to examine social transformation of landscape architecture in terms of

its relationship to the psychology of the rnetropolitan individual before a discussion of

postmodem design styles. (Although in academia there is a large body of discussion on

design styles that occurs without the preceding discussion of landscape architecture and

psychology.) The fundamental changes within the landscape architecture of postmodern

society are social in nature and originate on the level of the individual's relationship with the

physical existence of the city. It is upon the understanding of the metropolitan individual's

existence within the context of the postrnodem environment that the nature of landscape

architecture's social change can be comprehended.

The Metropolis

In this research it is important that the postmodern metropolitan context is

understood. This context must preclude the discussion of postmodern landscape architecture

for an understanding of the society in which landscape design is occurrïng will provide the

foundation for the discussion of postrnodern landscape. Once the context is presented, the

various elements of cultural production may be examined separately and as they relate to

postrnodem landscape architecture.

The postmodern metropolitan city is essentially psychologically different from the

classic rnetropolis of the modem era. This psychological change includes both how the

physical structure of the rnetropolis affects the individual as well as how the culture

contained within the metropolis has dissolved the organization of the social arena of modern

times.

"The new conditions of Iife created, above all, by the structure of the modern city are

depicted as an uprooting of man fiom his traditional setting.. ." (Vattirno 1988, p. 36)

Posmiodernisrn has changed the way in which social actions are experienced, and how, as

social creatures, existence is lived. The metropolitan individual's psychological foundations

are within ". . .the intensification of emotional life due to the swift and continuous shif? of

extemal and interna1 stimuli." (Sirnrnel 1997, p.70) The differences within the physical

rhythm of the metropolis give both a foundation of existence for the individual to view

themselves against, and the parameters of the culture within which they live.

The cultural appearance of postmodernisrn, however, ". . .cannibalizes al1 the

architectural styles of the past and combines them in overstimuIating ensembles-" (Jarneson

1991, p. 19) In addition to the architecture, which composes the cityscape, the metropolis

has been decorated with the products of technology. This decoration has proliferated to the

extent that media is no longer escapable within the physical landscape of the metropolis. The

extemal layer of media has produced the distortion of the individual's conception of location

and belonging within the cognitive boundanes of the metropolis. This distortion occurs both

upon a conscious and subconscious level. Georg Sirnmel intellectualizes the intensity of the

rhythm caused by the extemal stimulus of the metropolitan landscape. Sirnrnel's writing

descnibes the subconscious emotional reaction of the individual towards the events contained

within the metropolitan. (Simmel 1997, p. 70) Subconsciously the metropolitan individual

ceases to internalize the emotional impact of the intensity of visual barrage within the city.

Emotional reactions are replaced by a mental predominance. "Thus the reaction of the

metropolitan person to those events is moved to a sphere of mental activity which is least

sensitive and which is furthest removed fiom the depths of personality." (Ibid. p. 70) This

subconscious reaction distorts the individual's sense of location and belonging within the

metropolitan city because it negates the emotional reaction of existing within the iandscape

of the city.

The metropolitan individual also experiences a distortion of location within the

conceptualized boundaries of the city on a conscious level. The reality of place within the

metropolis is no longer clear fiom the interpretahon of the signage and cues belonging to the

metropolis. The modem tnumph of urban design has dissolved within the conceptual

f2amework of postrnodemism. Kevin Lynch analyzed the modem metropolitan environment

in tems of identity, structure and meaning. (Lynch 1960, p. 8) Within the rnetropolitan,

spaces and patterns give a meaning to the observer. Beyond Ùiis, however, ". . .the object

must have some meaning for the observer, whether practical or emotional." (Ibid. p. 8) The

objects that compose the postmodem landscape architecture within the metropolis no longer

require of themseives traditional meaning and visual cues. Architecture fiom the modem era,

of which rnost metropolises are comprised, has been denied its former meaning through the

imposition of postmodem elements upon their settings. Most comrnonly, the former art of

aesthetic design within architecture is being replaced by the image of media. Where

architectural practices spoke to the buildings as a complete entity, the image of media is often

separable or unrelated to the location and function ofthe building upon which it has been

attached. Media has problematized the conception of reality. (Eisenrnan 1996, p. 58) n i e

subtleties of urban design and architectural practices, which psychologica~ly guide the

rnetropolitan individual through the civscape, have been neglected by the impact of the

overwhelming visual media through the city.

The physical structure no longer presents us with the syrnbols necessary to locate the

individual, in a cognitive sense, within the background of metropolitan life.

In this new perspective devoid of horizon, the city was entered not through a gate nor through an arc de triomphe, but rather through an electronic audience system. Users of the road were no longer understood to be inhabitants or privileged residents. They were now interlocutors in permanent transit. (Virilio 1997, p. 382)

Technological advances in this manner, that being the effacement of the edge of the

metropolis, have changed both the psychological edge to the city and the physical edge. The

postmodern metropolis is no longer a distinct entity that is separate and recognizable. An

urban mass has been formed through both the physical sprawl of the suburban landscape that

surrounds the metropolis and by the capability of communication technologies to connect the

periphery to the central axis, the city. (Tbid. p. 382)

"As a unity of place without any unity of tirne, the City has disappeared into the

heterogeneity of that regime comprised of the temporality of advanced technologies. The

urban figure is no longer designated by a dividing Iine that separates here kom there." (Ibid.

p. 382) In the postmodern metropolis, the conception of near and far no longer needs to

exist- Terms that exist to reference distance are dissolved by the 2bility to virtually transcend

this space. The h c t i o n of the rnetropolis can thus be dissipated amongst several locations

which need not be geographically connected,

The rnetropolis is no longer a self contained nor a self explaining entity. The modern

city with its districts and fùnctions has disappeared through the fieedoms that technology has

brought into the contemporary consumerist society- "The idea of the city has been

dismantled; the city is now a constellation of densities forever avoiding a condition of critical

mass." (Koolhaas 1996, p. 90) Without the linear clarity of modem culture the postmodern

metropolis is being forced to reintegrate its existence within the psychological

transfarmations of contemporary culture. The physical structure of the metropolis remains as

a nostalgie emblem of its rnodernist creation, but its exterior presence no longer speaks to the

culture Erom which it came. It is the firnction of the metropolis which is no longer

recognizable at the level of the individual's psychological perception or in the collective

individual's cultural conception.

The metropolitan individual exists within the postmodern city. It is a new cultural

landscape within which the individual exists. "The fundamental ideological task of the new

concept, however, must remain that of coordinating new foms of practice and social and

mental habits." (Jarneson 1991, p. xiv) Without the cultural reality of the modern

perspective, the social structure of the city has been required to reintegrate itself within the

conditions presented by its postrnodern existence. The cultural and social practices of the

metropolitan individual have become the guide for the future function of the metropolis. The

initial visual and psychological changes within the postmodem metropolis have occurred as a

result of the social and cultural production of architecture, art, and media within the new era.

These have been the most abundantly visual indicators of the postmodern condition, The

new reality for the postrnodern metropolis of the future will be far more complex than the

visual indicators of postmodernism. It will be the combination of the social and cultural

traditions realized within the visual metropolis with the psychologÏcal needs of the urban

existence that will constitute the metropolis. This will be a reflection of the totality of the

cultural logic of postrnodernisrn,

Landscape architecture's social transformation cornes fiom the change in psychology

of the metropolitan individual within the postrnodem cultural logic. This social

transformation, although comprehensible when discussing a specific expenence of built

landscape architecture, is Iess comprehensible when regarding landscape experience kom a

research perspective where the conceptual design of the landscape is primarily considered.

Thus, a detailed and practical understanding of the social transformation of Iandscape

architecture within the rnetropolis of Toronto is not immediately comprehended f?om a

literary review of the psychoIogy of the metropolitan individual in the current cultural logic

and landscape architecture.

The abstract concept of landscape architecture's social transformation can be

recognized within the context of a particular city (in this research, Toronto) if the key

indicators of the social transformation and their presence within the postrnodem cultural logic

are concisely illustrated. An attempt to present a succinct discussion, which would provide

the foundation of the cultural logic of postmodemism, was presented by Fredric J a m e ~ o n . ~ ~

Fredric JarnesonYs discussion of postmodernism at a lecture series at Stanford

University and within his book Postmodernisrn, or, the Cultural togic of Late Capitalism

( 1 99 1 ) provides a point of departure through which postmodem society can be understood.

The £ive point scherne which elucidates the defining elements of postmodern society focuses

on the connection between late capitalism and the current cultural logic. The examination of

Fredric Jameson's model and its applicability to Iandscape architecture proves profilematic in

its disregard to the social transformation that led to the cultural logic of postmodern. The

evolution of the psychology of the metropolitan individual in a social context, the primary

concern of the discourse on the social transformation of landscape architecture, is not

irnrnediately clear within Jameson's model. Jameson's mode1 instead focuses on isolated

experiences of the psychology of the postrnodern condition.

Although Jameson's model is not directly applicable to landscape architecture, it

provides a literary review of postrnodernism that is pertinent within this research. Jameson's

philosophy of the cultural logic of contemporary society provides a discussion of

postmodemism which is primady psychological in its examples as opposed to dealing with

stylistic qualities. Although he often refers to pieces of postmodern cultural production and

their style of creation, he is primarily concerned with the psychoIogica1 influences and

14 The clear definition of this foundation was presented by Jameson during the Stanford Presidential Lectures and Syrnposia in the Humanities and Arts in 1999. This discussion was a synopsis of the concepts in his book Postrnodernisrn. or. tlze Cultural Logic of Lafe Capitalism.

impacts of specific design decisionsl*. He also provides an understanding of postmodernisrn

which is not historical or perïodical, but rather fluid. He ofien looks at pieces which may

have been traditionally considered modem in styling, but comprehends the change in cultural

influence which presents their psychology as being postmodern.

Jameson's interdisciplinary discussion of postmodern is thus relevant to the context

in which Iandscape architecture is produced. It is Jameson's five key elernents which are not

usefùl in Iandscape architectural research.

Fredric Jameson's Cultural Logic

Fredric Jarneson proposes that the essential difference between postmodern and

modern society is a social fùnction that is directIy dependent on the difference in positing of

postmodemism within the contemporary economic system. This difference is in spite of the

constitutive elements of the two phenornenona, for Fredric Jameson first makes the

assumption that al1 of these aspects could be identical and the distinction of social function

would still remain. Thus, Fredric Jameson's distinction of rnodernist fkom postmodernist

societies revolves around the "transformation of the very sphere of culture in contemporary

society" (Jameson 1991, p.5) as it is directly related to the position of postmodem thought

within the Iate capitalist system.

1 S It is important to understand that Jameson is discussing the psychology of isolated exampIes and does not provide a social context through which the metropolitan individual's interaction with the examples can be extended to. Landscape architecture is inherently social and requires an understanding of a cultural psychoiogy as well as an individual psychology.

Fredric Jameson presents the elements of his model as the "...constitutive features of

the postmodem-" @id, p.6) They are representative of the key indicators of Jarneson's

conception of postmodem society and postmodern cultural production. He regards the new

depthlessness16 in sociew as being the result of the first two elements within the model; the

disappearance of the individual szrbject and the pastiche occurring within society's culture of

the image. It is through the initial understanding of this depthlessness that Jarneson is also

able to posit the crisis in hi~toricity'~. Although the cnsis is connected to the disappearance

of the individual subject, it is more indicative of the idea of pnvate temporality. The notion

of temporality is not disrnissed following the discussion of historicity, but rather is fùrther

elucidated in the context of the schizophrenic consciousness which Jarneson feels exists in

postmodem culture. Jarneson's final discussion is of that of the hysterical szrblime. It is here

that the technoIogy of contemporary society is most influential and that Jameson grounds his

mode1 within the late capitalist system. (Ibid. p. 6)

These elements present the underlying therne of unconnectedness. This is the state of

the metropolitan individual in reIation to both their Iived metropolitan context and to their

psychological condition1*. Jameson discusses at length the change in the nature of the

interaction of the postrnodern metropolitan individual with cultural production within the

l6 Fredn-c Jameson uses the term depthiessness to refer to the postrnodern trend of postmodern art losing its 'depth' as compared to modem art. It is Jarneson's position that modem art was composed in order to project some meaning into society above and beyond that of beauty. This rneaning existed in either the intent of the artïstic production (as with Jackson Pollock) or within the composition's subject (as wïth Munch). Jameson does not believe that there exists the same thought and meaning withh postmodern art and refers to it as being depthless (without depth of meaning).

" Historicity is the lived context of history.

'' We will r e m to the theme of uncomectedness in the development of the model which will be used within this research.

presentation of the five key elements of the cultural logic. In many ways these discussions

are transferable to landscape architecture for they deal with the metropolitan individual

impression of the subject of cultural production and the intention of the 'artist'. Jameson

does not continue the discussion to the point of interaction within the cultural production.

Landscape architectural research can build upon the nature of an individual's interaction with

cultural production; however, it is necessary to recognize the need to experience the three-

dimensional aspect of landscape architecture.

Jameson's model is provided below. (A graphic representation is presented in figure

1 on page 29) Although this model will not be applied to the case studies in this research, it

was the psychological differences between the various elements (in combination with

Arendt's writings) that provided the foundation for the model which was used. The

following elements present the initial context of cultural production within a postmodem

metropolitan environment.

The Disappearance of the Individual Subject

The disappearance of the individual subject is primarily referred to within Fredric

Jameson's discussion of art within modem culture and 'art' that is being produced in a

postrnodem marner. It is one of the two elements within the model that relate to the new

depthlessness Jameson illustrates within contemporary creative design. The disappearance of

the individual subject is the influence of the depthlessness within the 'intent' of creative

production of contemporary society. TO illustrate his point, he first compares two paintings

that utilize the shoe as the subject. These are Van Gogh's painting of the peasant shoes and

Andy Warhol's Diamond Dust ho es'^. He refers to Van Gogh's shoes as being perceived in

objectalZO form as a "clue or a symptom for some vaster reality which replaces it as its

ultimate tmth." (Ibid. p. 8) It speaks to the observer with the immediacy of lived expenence

and illustrates a reality nch in familiarity of an existence that is fathomable.

Warhol's shoes do not express the sarne immediacy in contrast to the work by Van

Gogh. (Ibid. p. 8) Their reproducible lack of detail cornmodifies the image and the sterile

setting leaves the observer with no reference. The shoes do not extend beyond a graphic

image. Warhol's shoes are postmodern cultural production because they are presented as an

image that cannot dialectically engage the metropolitan individual.

Postmodernism is unable to resolve the hermeneutic gesture by restoring the image of

art to a larger lived context. (Ibid. p. 8) Without any reconciliation the art in postmodern

times achieves a ". . .flatness or depthlessness, a new kind of superficiality in the most literal

sense.. ." (Tbid. p. 9)

The depthlessness and the flatness of the artistic production within postrnodern

culture negates the idea of the personalized experience of aesthetic production. Without the

lived context within artistic production the experience of art becornes anonymous and

without the appeal of individual rneaning, depiction or statement. It is thus that the

individual subject is no longer realized within the dirnensionless art of the postmodern

metropolis.

l9 Fredric Jameson uses the Warhol example as being indicative of constitutive features of postmodernism Although 'Pop Art' is traditionally considered to be modern, Jameson argues that the psychology of Warhol's Diamond Dust Shoes is postmodern. In this researc h the psychoIogica1 influences of Warhol's works are to be read as postmodern staying consistent with Jameson's philosophy.

'O Perceived as an independent object separate fkom the context of the painting.

Styiistic Triumph of Pastiche

While still explonng the depthlessness of cultural production within postmodem

society, Jameson uses the discussion of the pastiche to recognize the increasing dominance of

the culture of the image- Jameson utilizes the word 'pastiche' to refer to the method of

cultural production from a creative standpoint within the current cultural logic, Pastiche is "a

cannibalization of past cultures, process substance into sheer simulation." (Jameson 1999,

lecture) The cultural production within postmodern society exists with the increasingly

unavailable persona1 style. (Ibid- p- 16) Personal style in modem culture was not solely

lirnited to the original production of both the subject and intent. Parody was often ernployed

within the cultural production of modemism. Through the use of parody a second resonance

was provided for a subject or intent of cultural production (e-g., Marcel Duchamp's piece

L.H.O.O.Q., more cornmonly known as the Mona Lisa with a mustache). This second

resonance within modem culture was replaced with the pastiche of postmodernism (e.g.

Sadie Lee's Bona Lisa). "Pastiche is, like parody, the imitation of a peculiar or unique,

idiosyncratic style.. ." (Ibid. p. 17) Although both concepts are innately forms of imitation,

they are also distinct in rneaning. The distinction between parody and pastiche in the context

of modernism and postrnodernism is that pastiche is a forrn of reproduction whereas parody

is production. Pastiche removes the capacity of original thought fiom the creative discipline

whereas parody manifests only after a reintegration of either the subject or the object within

the context of the work.

Jameson's position is that within the new depthlessness of the postmodem society,

there exists only the culture of the image. This culture is distinct frorn original cultural

production because it is dependent on the cultures of the past, (Ibid. p. 18) Pastiche is the

imitation of "dead styles" and projects itself ". . .through al1 the masks and voices stored up in

the imaginary museum of a now global culture." (%id- p. 18) Jarneson refers to the

eclecticism of postrnodern architecture to delineate this point. Postmodern architecture

". - .randomly and without principle but with gusto cannïbalizes al1 the architectural styles of

the past and combines then in overstimulating ensembles." @id, p. 19) A similar process is

also apparent within literature and f i h s of contemporary society. Jameson concludes that

within the culture of the image ". .,we are condemned to seek History by way of our own pop

images and simulacra2' of that of history, which for itself remains forever out of reach."

(Ibid. p. 25)

A Crisis in History

Jameson introduced the concept of history within his discussion of the pastiche.

Within that discussion he alluded to bis impending discussion of history in postmodern

~ o c i e ~ ~ . Jameson asserts that there is a crisis in history, or more accurately, historicity.

(Ibid. p. 25) Historicity describes the crisis in history as it relates to the Iived context of

history. In that historicity is not archival fact, its value is superceded by the cultural

influences that redefine lived history's connotation.

While still engaged within the discussion of architecture, art and literature, Jameson

looks at the simulacmm produced in postmodem society and the influence that it has had on

the conception of histoncal time. Simulacrum, Plato's Imguage for ". . .the identical copy for

'' A sirnulacra iç a reproduction of something for which there was never an original.

'> 7 - This discussion is more accurately descnied as lack of the ability to have a discussion of historicity (as opposed to history) in postmodern culture.

which no original has ever existed.. ." (Ibid. p. la), utilizes the past as a referent and thus

removes the chronology of existence and time together and replaces that with spectacle. The

spectacle is foundation for the intensification of desire for the products of contemporary

culture. Nostalgia of the spectacle is able to capture the attention of the consumer of cultural

production while keeping the aesthetic experience anonymous. It is thus that aesthetic

experience is no longer responsible for the cry, or gesture, which was so intirnate and

personal. Without the interconnectedness of the observer with the individual experience of

aesthetic, the nostalgie response is able to provide a predictable and unobtmsive reaction

within the observer.

As the collective cultural history empties into images of nostalgia, cultural production

is transformed into an emotional sphere of amusement. What was unwanted within the self-

reflection of the project of modemity, or the truth it elucidated, is now replaced by the

packaged expenence of the images of posûnodernism and its cultural production. There is no

longer risk or fear associated with the aesthetic experience, but this has also been at the

expense of genuine excitement, joy or sorrow. This anonyrnous experience of

uncon~ectedness is the realization of the disappearance of historîcity as being the

understanding of the individual within the history of his or her own lived context.

Schizophrenic Consciousness

lameson, through the discussion of the crisis in historicity, illustrated that the

individual no longer has the capacity to relate the past and füture within the context of

personal lived experience. The former comection of lived experience to historical

experience, which provides historicity, has become hgmented- In his discourse of this

hgrnentation, Jarneson employs the philosophy of Jacques ~ a c a n ~ ~ . It is fiom Lacan that

Jameson found the Ianguage of schizophrenia to descnie the way in which the past and

present conflate into the present. (Ibid, p. 26) This condition of present is the result of the

breakdown within the s i g n i m g chain. As discussed earlier, it is the interrelationship of the

series of signs and signifiers that produce r n e a n i x ~ ~ . ~ ~ When the interrelationship ceases to

exist, schizophrenia results ". ..in the form of a rubble of distinct and unrelated signifiers."

(Tbid. p. 26) These unrelated signifiers present unrelated presents in tirne. Without the

interrelationship with sign within the chain, there is no reference to past or friture, just pure

matenal signifiers that perpetually exist within the present.

Rise of the Hysterical Sublime

Jarneson's discussion of the sublime is in the context of the new cultural experience,

characterïzed by euphoria or intensity. (Ibid. p. 32) Through the technological innovations

which have saturated posûnodem society, images previousfy inconceivable, have become

common within cultural production. These images, the sirnulacrum of the discussion of

pastiche, provided the function of derealizationZ. (Ibid. p. 34) This derealization is the

incapacity of the individual to give referent to the sirnilacrum in terms of lived expenence.

Thus, the expenencing figure removes the perceived reality ttom the lived reality while still

" Jameson reference's Lacan's writing "D'Une Question Preliminaire a Tout Traitrnent Possible de la Psychose " in Ecrits, translated by Alan Sheridan.

'4 Lacan, however, does not consider the production of rneaning as a direct product, but rather it is derived from the space between the sign and signifier where there exists referent or concept.

'S Here Jameson borrows the term 'derealization' fiom John Paul Sartre.

comprehending the rneaning and desire within the perceived reality. This state of

irreconciliation within the individual gives rise to f i e sublime, or more appropriately, the

hystencal sublime26.

Technological advances have affected the cultural production within previous

societies without the derealization that is present im postrnodern culture. These previous

technological advancernents, however, have provided their own symbol of self-reference.

Jameson reminds us of the futurist Marinetti's cele%ration of the machine gun and the

motorcar. (bid. p. 36) Both were emblematic of the excitement of machinery. The machine

gun as an image presented a symbol of power and strength and, similarly, the motorcar was

viewed as a symbol of progress and man's dominamce over nature. Both symbols could be

used within cultural production without having to firther explain their importance- As

symbols, the meaning in their representation was self evident to society.

Postmodern technology does not provide the same capabiliw of representation- The

computer, the driving technology of postrnodemisrm, is a shell that contains the technology,

unlike the machine gun or the motorcar which is thze technology. Without the possibility of

reference to technology within cultural production, the postrnodern individual is alienated

fkom the impact of the technology. niere exists the second manner in which irreconciliation

between the individual and reality is realized. It is thus that the technology which drives the

globabilizing phenornenon of late capitalism, and i-tself supports the possibility of late

' 6 Jarneson3 belief that cultural production carries with it a sense of euphoria or htensity Ieads him to propose the tenn hysterical. It is a sençe of loss of control which is implied by hystencal which best descnies the postmodern culture. Hysterical is connected with the word sublime because the unconnectedness of the rnetropolitan individual from the technology that is dominant within society releases the individual into a state of sublime.

capitalism to have occurred, also produces a condition of euphoria or intensity within the

postmodem individual. This is the hysterical sublime.

Frederic Jameson Cultural Logic as Late Capitalism

The Disappearance of the Individual Subject Pastiche z:k -.-- J:.. a

Depthlessness (Discussion of Postmodern Art)

Crisis in History

-- "f,: Priva te Temporality

f (End of Histow and Time as "'0

a Schizophrenic Consciousness a

Alienation

Unconnectedness d [/ Rise of the Hysterical Sublime

1

Figure 1: A Graphic Representation of Jarneson's Mode1

The Appropriateness of Jameson within Landscape Architecture

Fredric Jameson's belief of postmodernism's connection to late capitalisrn is evident

within the title of his work Postmodernisrn, or. The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. It was

not Jarneson's attempt to produce a model that would be applicable to the understanding of

the transfomation of landscape architecture within postmodern society. The model was to be

indicative of the metropolitan sociev of postrnodemism, of which landscape architecture is a

part. Jameson's mode1 was to provide more than a historical account of postmodernism, a

fault he found in other discourses on the subject. He wanted to reconcile the culturaI aspect

of postmodernism with a dynamic conception of history. It was his position that through the

foundation of late capitalism that the cultural logic of postrnodemism wouId be elucidated.

Fredric Jameson's model is developed in the context of Emest Mandel's economic

model of late capitalismii and thus the common theme within the five elements of the mode1

stems fÏom the economic structure and practice of society. This third wave of capitalism is a

radical divergence which occurs within postmodem society, but it is not the single common

thread upon which al1 other change has been posited.

Jameson, distinguishing between the modem and postmodem periods, compares their

meanings and social functions. These meanings and social finctions are cIearly

differentiated by the ccposition of postrnodemism in the economic systern of late capitalism"

(Ibid. p. 5) , in addition to the change in the cultural sphere of contemporary society.

The philosophy of Late Capitalism inherently assumes a cultural aspect, to which

Fredric Jameson alludes. He proposes that the two tems cultural and economic "collapse

back into one another and Say the same thing". (Ibid. p. xxl) Other discourses on

postmodernism have generally agreed that Late Capitalism entails a cultural element within

its philosophy, yet the strength of this position, as viewed in its converse conception, has not

been as widely accepted. Economy and culture are stilI two distinct notions within

postmodemism, as they existed wîthin modemim. The Iinear modern sensibility, although

with a distinct economic market, tied the economy to society through the notion of progress.

Although late capitalism brhgs with it a social nature, it camot tie economy and society.

"The preconditions for economic growth, political f?eedom and individual happiness no

longer seem to us to be analogous and interdependent," (Touraine 1995, p. 185) Postmodern

culture is fûndamentally distinct and separate kom modem cultures in elernents which are

independent of the economic arena.

Jarneson's model, although not explicitly tied to the economics of late capitalism, is

not conceivable without the uiherent understanding of late capitalism. The five elements of

the mode1 first presuppose production within the late capitalistic systern. Although this can

be extended to include the cultural production of postrnodernism as well as the commodity

production, the model begins to break d o m .

The change in the psychology of the metropolitan individual within Jameson's model

is posited in relation to comrnodity production. n i e psychology of the metropolitan

individual in trrms of their social relationship within the metropolis and their condition

within the cultural Iogjc is not elucidated within Fredric Jameson's model. It is because

Jameson's model fails to recognize the social and cultural implications of the metropolitan

individual's psychology that it is not able to accurately evaluate landscape architecture.

Jameson's model, in focusing on cornrnodity production and the social and cultural

implications of commodity production, overlooks the psychology of the metropolitan

individual. Landscape architecture is a design process where the end physical product, the

park in this research, is intrinsically comected with the psychology of the metropolitan

individual as opposed to comrnodity production. Before the understanding of the social

transformation of landscape architecture can be made possible within the cultural logic of

postmodernism, the separation of comodi ty production and the psychology of the

metropolitan individual must be reintegrated into a mode1 which recognizes late capitalism as

an element rather than a defining force within the posûnodern metropolis.

The discussion of Iandscape architecture within postmodern society necessitates the

understanding of its distinction fiom modemism with the realization that the cultural and the

economic are not interchangeable. Superficially this is necessary since landscape

architecture in this study is not a design discipline which recognizes the link of the economic

to cultural production with a dominating emphasis on economic value. (That is to Say that

landscape architecture is not designed for the purpose of selling the park. Unlike other forms

of aesthetic production, prirnarily art, parks do not produce a product which itself realizes

capital gain27). Landscape architecture fiequently affects the capital gain of the property on

which it was built, but is itself rarely a source of profit in a market sense. Landscape

architecture's product, landscape, is considered a public entity within the metropolitan

envir~nrnent .~~ Thus, the aesthetic production of landscape architecture within the

metropolitan environment, b y the inherent nature of the production of landscape architecture,

resists the collapse of the cultural and the economic. Although Jarneson is adamant that

"What has happened is that aesthetic production today has becorne integrated into commodity

" Although there are many econornic incentives for landscape architectural production, as well as economic benefits for adjacent properties, the park itself is not a cornmodity. This is unlike architecture and art which rnay be collected for the sole purpose of selling the piece for a profit. The park's property and the components of the park have real value. Landscape architecture, however' is cornmonly sold for the expressed purpose of economic gain if it is not associated with other profit or capital venture.

" While sorne landscape architects produce residential designs, this is not a realization of landscape architecture that affects the psychology of the metropolitan individual. Residential design's sphere of influence is generally Lirnited to a srnail locality and does not play a significant role within the Iarger context of the metropolis. It is for this reason that the products of landscape architecture in this discussion do not reflect the discipline of residential design.

production generally.. ." (Jameson 199 1, p. 4) this is not possible within the consideration of

landscape architecture. Landscape architecture thus requires a greater cultural understanding

than that provided within Jameson's model which this research will provide.

Postmodernisrn as a Cultural Logic

The social transformation that has occurred in conjunction with the evolution fiom

modernism to postmodernisrn has produced a new cultural logic. Postmodemism as a

cultural logic is defined by the new relationship of the individual to the parametes of his or

her existence. The understanding of this cultural logic will provide the context required

within Jarneson's philosophy to develop a model which will be applicable to landscape

architectcre. This cultural logic will be presented in four categories which are indicative of

postmodernism in a metropolitan context. These categories are also reflective of the

dominant structure and themes of Jameson' model. The four categories are as follows:

History and Depthlessness, Present and Instantaneous Existence, Postmodem Hyperspace,

and Image and Media.

As in the social transformations of other cultural evolutions, such as the rnimehc" to

the "...productive paradigrn of the modem.. ." (Kearney 1988, p. 17), the new cultural logic

is representative of a new way in which people conceptualize the relationship between

Mhet ic existence is most often associated with biblical tirnes where an extenor authority was responsible for the cultural logic. In painting of this period, the subject was often a representation of a higher force that was 'hown' but not seen by the artist.

cultural productior?O and rea l ig '. The social transformation of landscape architecture, in a

metropolitan context, is reflective of the conceptualization by the metropolitan individual

within the contemporary cultural logic.

The following discourse of the contemporary metropolitan existence will explain the

interna1 and external changes that have occurred as society evolved into its postrnodern

condition. Although the visual transformation of the metropolis is understood consciously,

the fundamental changes were realied by the metropolitan individual on a psychological

level. It is the psychological change in the metropolitan individual that has provided the

foundation for the social transformation of metropolitan life.

Landscape architecture, as being part of the fabric of metropolitan existence, has been

subject to the social transformation that has coincided with the evolution of contemporary

society. The defining elements of this social transformation have exhibited themselves in the

context of the various elements of the metropolis in a similar context to the way in which

they are manifested within the landscape. The literary review of the rnetropolitan context

provides a platform for the distillation of these elements while providing the foundation of

the cultural logic of postmodem society. The examination of postrnodemism as a cultural

logic now tums to the understanding of the social transformation of landscape architecture.

30 Cultural production is to be recognked as the progress, development and production of society. which is not a precondition to survival, but rather a product of the imaginative and creative capacity of society.

j' in this cultural Iogic there is Iittie separation between the projected life style (through media) and the life style which the metropolitan individuai is attempting to pursue. The proscn'bed reality of the advertisement (cultural production) becornes the desired rea1ity of the consumer. This is, however, deeper than the desires of the individual, the image of life style becomes a standard which 'should be' achievable by the consumer. This may not be feasible for the consumer in reality.

History and Depthlessness

History in postmodern society does not provide the same linear and chronological

benchmark as within modern society. The implications of this within the landscape

architecture of postmodernisrn are twofold. The idea of linear history within landscape

architecture was demonstrated both within a physical as well as a conceptual sense.

Landscapes provided a beginning and an end. Within the Iandscape architecture indicative of

the modem era, there was historically a succinct point of entry which began the experience of

the landscape, or a focus point to culminate the experience of the space. In addition, the

modernist landscape architectural experience often reflected upon the histoncal condition of

the site or provided a narration within the site. These histoncal allusions and manifestations

within the modernist landscape are not a relevant component within postmodern landscape

architecture.

The use of history within the cultural production of postmodern landscape

architecture is dissirnilar to that of modernity's because of the departure Eom the allusions

and manifestations of history within postmodern society. Because history is no longer a

linear or a chronological process, the evolving and unfolding nature of landscape expenence

is conflated to the distinct existence ofevent.

Realizing the conflation of experience of event within landscape architecture also

necessitates the recognition of the depthlessness of art and the parallel of the dissolution of

the dialectical relationship of the observer to the subject. The art of the modernist could be

described as hermeneutical, as something which itself is representative of a greater reality- In

modem art, the larger, lived context is the referent for the 'tnith' that is represented within

the work of art. Modem art strove for this ultimate underlying and universal 'truth' or 'idea'.

The art within the project of modernity was dedicated to moving towards an ultimate reality.

Aesthetic expression moved towards this realiq through theme, forrn, content, and art for

art's ~ake.'~ High modemism is dorninated by thernes of isolation, alienation, social

fragmentation, anornie and private revolt. (Jameson 1991, p. 11) These are some of the

realities of the modem individual experience. This conception of persona1 experience is no

longer recognizable in postmodern art. Postmodernism does not eliminate the previously

recognized anomie, but rather depersonalizes them. The feelings and anxieties of the

modernist subject are "£i-ee-floating" and "dominated by a peculiar kind of euphona" in

postmodem society. (Jameson 1991, p- 16)

What has becorne increasingly clear is the depthlessness in postmodern art that has

replaced the metaphysics of the modern subject. (Ibid. p. 9) The modern gesture of cry "as

desperate communication and the outward dramatization of inward fèeling" (Ibid. p. 12) is no

longer a genuine hemeneutical mode1 within postmodernism's artistic domain. This

depthlessness, although symptomatic of the dissoIution of the complex metaphysics of the

subject of art, also responds to "...the postmodern experience of art appears as the way in

which art occurs in the era at the end of metaphysics." (Vattirno 1988, p. 106) The

depthlessness of art is thus representational of not only the transfomation of the subject, but it

is also a realization of the cultural conception of art's role within society. Recognizing the

previous axiorn of tnith within art, it is recongnizable that ". . .in order to be lived experience

of truth, the encounter with the work of art rnust be set in the dialectical continuity of the

subject within art and without the conception of Being as having a comection with history,

31 Art for art's sake was suggested by the critic Clement Greenberg when refenïng to artists such as Jackson PolIock who were more interested in the act of painting as opposed to the visuaI appearance of the final piece of art.

the relationship of the observer and the object break d o m within postrnodemism." (Ibid. p.

124)

For the utilization of history within landscape architecture in the modem era, the

understanding of the significance of the design was realized through the dialectical

relationship between the individual and the landscape. As within the evolution of art to a

'depthless' aesthetic, landscape architecture within the metropolitan environment becomes

predicated by the psychological condition of the individual. The psychology of the

metropolitan individual removes the personal connectiori and self realization which occurred

within the cultural production of modemit.. To fbrther explicate the nature of history, and

the depthlessness of a nondialectical relationship presented by the cultural logic of

contemporary society, the reference to traditional landscape architectural design becomes

usefiil.

Traditional landscape architectural design references the concepts of symbol and

narrative. Narrative, and to a lesser extent symb01,~~ necessitate the existence of

chronological time. This necessity builds from the dialectical relationship between the

observer and the object in order to comprehend the meaning of either symbol or narrative.

As in Jarneson's discussion of the disappearance of the individual subject and the

depthlessness of postmodem art, the observer no longer participates in the outward

expression of inward subject. Narrative and syrnbol in landscape architecture no longer have

the ability to realize the precondition of a dialectical relationship. Without the movement

33 Symbol \vithout a chronologica1 referent is here to be thought of as image.

between the narrative or symbolic nature of landscape architecture and the metropolitan

individual, the meaning within the use of these elements cannot be completely conceived.

This static reIationship of the observer to the narrative or syrnbol is a result of the

ernotional detachent on the part of the metropolitan individuaI. Narrative and symbol are a

component of the experience of landscape architecture that is conceived of on a persona1

level. The individual's engagement, as within art, occurs in a manner where the experiences

of the narrative or symbol are reflected within the ernotional and cultural composition of the

individual. As with the themes of art, narrative and syrnbol form a relztionship with the

observer through the expression of their intent and meaning. This relationship cari only be

realized through the dialectical exchange occurring between the individual and the landscape.

Without the ability to dialectically comrnunicate with the metropolitan individual,

landscape architecture in contemporary culture is separated fiom the participants of the

sociew. Although physical use may still occur, the relationship to landscape architecture that

employs narrative and syrnbol is analogous to Robert Hughs' description of society and

modernism; narrative within postmodem landscape is without dynamic and archeological.

(Kearney 1988, p. 24)

Present and Instantaneous Existence

Activity within landscape architecture is the response of action within place. The

nature of this action is a reflection of the social awareness of the rnetropolitan individual in

regards to the cultural condition in which the landscape exists. Both within the discussion of

the postmodem individual and within the discussion of history, the idea of event (present and

instantaneous existence) is brought into a social context. The primary consideration for

landscape architecture and the changing nature of time within the posmodern metropolitan

environment is the idea of the event. Event is more than a temporal phenomenon. Event is

also the condition of Being, the current state of history and reiationship of the metropolitan

individua1 with the extemal environment. This is because of the implications that the

evolving society has had on metaphysical existence. Nineteenth century metaphysics negated

the stable structures of Being. vattimo 1988, p. 3) Being was not conceived of as being, but

rather becoming. The introduction of the philosophies of Nietzsche and Heidegger (Ibid.)

brought about the conception of Being as an evenp. Being is its ment ".. .which occurs

when it historicizes itself and when we historicize o~rselves~" (Ibid, p. 3) However, within

postrnodem culture, the traditional relationship between time and history has either been

suspended, or eliminated. "There is today a reduction of time and place compacted into a

condition of event. What formerly contained and delimited conditions of reality - that is,

presence, essence, objects, imprints - have been reduced to conditions of event." (Eisenman

1986, p. 58)

The landscape, which is created by the design of Iandscape architecture, contains

several spheres of the potential of interaction within its environment. GeneralIy these spheres

include the interaction between the landscape and its direct physical surroundings, landscape

architecture and the occupants of its space and the immediate vicinity, and the interactions of

individuals with other individuals within the landscape itself. (See figure 2 next page) As

the horizon of time within landscape architecture is reduced to an instantaneous point that

continues to exist within the present, the three spheres of interaction within landscape

34 Although neither Nietzsche or Heidegger are postmodem philosophers, their writings were arnongst the fïrst which consider the metaphysical differences in contemporary culture.

architecture becorne reduced to events3' Without the determining factor of time açsociated

with the spheres of interaction, the events wirhin landscape architecture are anonyrnous

occurrences with no historical or emotional implications. Landscape is thus conceived of as

a pladorm for event.

The Landscape of Landsca~e Architecture

Landscape to People ln te ra ction Ph ysical Surro un dhgs

to Metropolis Interaction

People Metropolis

People to People Interaction

Figure 2: Landscape Architecture's Potential Action within its Environment

The existence of landscape architecture as a platform is not the reduction of the

funchon of landscape as being arbitrary and negligible in and of itself, and in itself as a

constituting elernent of the metropolitan environment. Landscape architecture as a platform

for event is rather the expression of the reintegration of the space of landscape architecture

35 Event is not to be construed as an event which is synonymous with a planned gathering, but rather as action without the predication of t h e .

within the postrnodem metropolis. Landscape architecture continues to be psychologically

engaged by the rnetropolitan individual event within the unpredicted interaction of event.

The realization ofthe conditions of the engagement within the context of event provides the

foundation upon which Iandscape architecture exists within the psychology of the

metropolitan individual,

Postrnodern landscape architecture is not an arbitrary element within the metropolis,

but rather the possibility of a different scale of intensity of stimuli. The nature of the stimuli,

however, is not to be conceived of as being distinct fiom that experienced within the

metropolitan environment. The metropolitan individual utilizes landscape in conjunction

with the social existence of his or her metropolitan life. It is the platform for uncontained

social existence without a separation kom the understanding of the metropolitan context.

Where architecture and media situate themselves as outward projections of postrnodernism,

landscape architecture is the unobtmsive and 'fiee f l ~ a t i n ~ ' ? ~ or, inward projections of

postmodemism. With the smaller scale of intensity of stimuli, while the rnetropolitan

individual continues to be disconnected emotionally fiom metropolitan existence, a sense of

'silencey3' results kom the change in scale.

Postmodern Hyperspace

Landscape architecture invites one to occupy or rnove through the landscape to

appreciate the full aspect of its use effecting the psychological changes of the metropolitan

individual. The cultural logic of the postrnodem metropolis presents the individual of the

36 Here referencing the language of Fredric Jarneson.

'' Psychological silence and not audible silence.

urban fabric with an increasingly different foundation ofspace. Space and time were

previously conceived of as intercomected and CO-dependant. Their intercomectedness was a

linear existence providing a leveI of predictability for the experiencing figure of the

metropolis. The dissolution of this interconnectedness, or conversely, the inability of the

expenencing figure to move in anything but an apparently random nature has been realized

within the hyperspace of postrnodernism,

Hyperspace within postmodern architecture is not a reflection of the immediate

aesthetic of a contemporary piece. The architecture of contemporary Society was originaIIy

conceived of as postmodern for it presented an aesthetic which was distinct £iom the values

of modemism. TmIy modem architecture sought a universal character which would be

applicable in a global context. The international style of architecture, the universal

architecture, was also present within landscape architecture. Projects such as Nathan Phillips

Square in ~oronto~*, or the Christian Science Center in ost ton^^ project the same transferable

qualities as the buildings of Mies van der Rohe or Le Corbusier during this period. This

architecture was produced in the cultural context of the progression of the modemity project.

Architecture responded to the culture in this fkamework, that architecture was a symbol of

modemity, a universal representation of development, progress and the value of the new.

"From architecture to the novel to poetry to the figurative arts, the post-modern displays, as

its most imposing trait, an effort to free itself fiom the logic of overcoming, development,

and innovation." (Vattirno 1988, p. 105)

j8 Designed by ViIjo Reveil

39 Designed by 1. M. Pei

Postmodern architecture is practiced within a different space than that occupied by

the buildings of modemism. Architecture, which truly represents the cultural logic of

contemporary society, breaks down the ability of the experiencing subject to understand their

perceived relationship to the world around them. The ability to cognitively map existence is

now in relation to a global context that is unrepresentational. (Jarneson 199 1, p. 53)

Although this level of self-reference has become abstracted for the postmodern individual, it

has not completely eliminated self-reference in today7s society for as Jameson concedes " the

global system is knowable even if it is not itself representational.

The transformation of built space in postmodem architecture becomes fürther

abstrac ted when the dissolution of space is without referent. Several philosophers, including

Fredric Jameson, refer to the Bonaventure Hotel in Los hgeles4' to illustrate this trait of

postrnodern architecture. This piece of architecture is a clear example of the capability of the

postmodern built environment to realize a true mutation of space. (fiid. p. 38) The

metropolitan individual does not have the perceptual capabilities to cognitively relate to this

mutation of space to the extent that it becomes 'hyperspace'. (Ibid. p. 38) Hyperspace, or

postmodem architecture's process of questioning the relationship between the container of

space, the reference of the container to the intended meaning of space, and the occupation of

space by the individual, does not consider traditional signifiers of space within the design

process. Within the Bonaventure Hotel, the relationship of the occupant to the building

begins to dissolve immediately upon entry. The entrance no longer exists to transport the

individual to the begiming of the building in an expenential sense, but rather performs only

JO Sighting Ernst Mandel's knowledge of the global system.

4 1 The architect of this building is John Portman.

the function of providing access to the building." The metropolitan individual's social

referents of location are thus incapable of cognitively mapping the experience of the space of

the building.

Figure 3: The Bonaventure Hotel Left: Ariel view of building, Rrglrt: Lobby (Source: The Westin Hotel & Resort web site)

Consistent with the mutation of space in the postrnodern architecture within the

metropolis, landscape architecture's platform is also synonyrnous with the hyperspace of

postmodemism. Landscape architecture's continued connection with the stimuli of

metropolitan existence reduces the ability to determine a decisive point of entrante.

Landscape architecture and the surrounding context are two distinct phenomenona, but the

inherent continuation of psychological existence does not necessitate a sense of entry as a

determining factor within the experience of the landscape. Although it cannot be denied that

'' The beginnùig of the building, what is traditionally conceived of as the lobby, does exist within the Hotel, but is nor dkectly accessibIe by riny entry point. It is thus required that navel through the building is required to corne to tbe point which is conceived of as the beginning.

physical barriers can compete with the dissolution of entry, such an event iintempts the flow

of the metropolitan psychology.

The intensity of the stimuli within the metropolitan environment, as discussed earlier,

has precluded the emotional existence of the metropolitan individual with a rational

subsistence. Within the hyperspace of the postmodem cultural logic the signs and signifiers

of landscape architecture present points within the experience which are n o longer logically

comected by the participant in landscape architecture. Hyperspace within landscape

architecture breaks down the flow of the landscape experience- As with t h e

interconnectedness of t h e and space with the experiencing figure moving within a

predictable manner, the experiential predictability of landscape experience also regards the

experiencing figure in a seemingly random fashion.

The rnetropolitan individual still occupies landscape architecture i n a similar fashion

on a physical level. There is still presence within landscape architecture amd experience of

landscape architecture. What is different within the landscape architecture of hyperspace is

the inability of orienting the occupant of the landscape architecture within the conceived

direction of experience. This orientation of experience reflects upon the continued

dissociation of program and continuiiy within landscape architecture. As the rnetropolitan

individual is imrnersed fùrther into the cultural logic of postmodemism, the program

elements of landscape architecture will continue to be apparent, however, anly in as much as

they enjoy self explanatory functional use. The relationship between the totality of the space,

and the program elements which are functionally conceived o c rnoves towards a coexistence

similar to that of a warehouse and its contents. Landscape architecture in Che current cuItural

logic houses program elements but the connection of the elements to the greater space of

landscape architecture is at a point of disjunction.

The postmodern figure reintegrates their metropolitan existence within landscape

architecture in an uncomected and rational manner. The rationality necessary to navigate the

hyperspace of the postmodem landscape architecture, or any other element of the postrnodern

metropolis, exists. What is distinctive with this manner of navigation is the breakdown of

sequence and thus the perceived fkagmentation or atornization of space. These are only

pulled back together in postrnodernism's hyperspace, a space where the ability to cognitively

understand location is no longer a defining characteristic in the space's design. Landscape

architecture within the current cultural logic is psychologically perceived of as hyperspace

without the appropriate dialectical relationship of the experiencer to understand the subtleties

of the design still based in history and narrative.

Image and Media

The cultural logic of postrnodern Society is heavily influenced by the presence of

image and media within the metropolis. Although the fundamental understanding of the

distinction between the image and media of the modernist cultural production and that of

postmodemism is defined by the concepts of reality, tnith and rneaning, these concepts

appear to be less applicable to landscape architecture. Landscape architecture is, however, a

part of the conception ofaestheticization within postmodern culture and thus subject to the

influence of image and the media on the rnetropolitan individual; the experiencer of the

landscape.

Aesthetic production is becoming increasingly inseparable fiom the economic

production of postmodernism43. As landscape architecture is inherently conceived of as

being, at Ieast in part, aesthetic production, then its comection to the economic production of

postrnodernism is a necessary consideration. The saturation of media penetration within

society has presented a foundation through which information (reflective of the consumerist

values of the economics of postmodernism) can be distrïbuted. (Vattimo 1988, p. 55) This

distriiution also assumes the authority of providing the criteria of beauty to society. Thus the

idea of beauty and the role of beauty are assumed by the sphere of media, or more rightly,

mass media.

Landscape architecture, although firnctional, also aspires to the position of an

aesthetic; to the production of beauty. The rnetropolitan individual, the user of landscape

architecture, has previously enjoyed a harmony of fimctionalism and beauty within

landscape. Within the cu1tural logic in which landscape expenence occurs today, there is a

separation of the spheres of influence goveming the fiinctional and the aesthetic aspect of

Iandscape architecture. Landscape architecture's hnctional elements are engaged at the level

of the individual. What becomes obvious within the aesthetic conception of landscape

43 Beyond the metaphysical conditions that have disappeared in the postmodem era, the penetration of media in contemporary culture has reinforced the cessation of artistic production in traditional terrns. Postmodern culture can be descnibed as a rnass culture which has been greatly influenced by the extent of media saturation. The cultural conception of aestheticization is an extension of the sphere of this media penetration. (Vattimo 1988, p- 56) In postmodern society this general aestheticization was possible ". -.because the mass media - who, to be sure, dismiute information, culture, and entertainment, but always according to the general criteria of the 'beautifùl', that is, the forma1 attractiveness of products - have assumed in the life of the individual an infinitely more important role than in any other era of the past." (Ibid. p. 55) As what is valued as aesthetic expression becomes increasingly inseparable fiom the economic production of postrnodernism, the infiuence of the mass media has placed cultural critics in a position where either art is redebed so that it can be reintegrated into postmodern culhxe tvith the necessary dialectical relationship to the observer to separate itself fiom media, or art as a discipline will be repIaced with other f o m of aesthetic expression.

architecture, however, is that the penetration of mass media within posûnodern society has

necessarily affected the perception of beauty as it applies to a11 aspects of metropolitan

existence including landscape architecture.

Landscape architecture is not presented as both functional and aesthetic, but rather as

a synchronie existence of both qualities. The cultural logic of postmodernisrn, however,

presents a foundation of perception that demands the disengagement of the two elements.

Through this disengagement the aesthetic quality of landscape architecture can be conceived

of as image, in the postmodem use of the word. Without the comection of the fùnction, or

the experience, of Iandscape architecture to the aesthetic quality, the appearance of landscape

architecture is reduced to image. The aesthetic consideration of landscape architecture

becomes two dimensional through the codat ion of time in its severed experience. This two

dimensional premise of landscape architecture is paralleled to the presence of image within

society. The dissociated experience of landscape architecture combines the image of

landscape with the image of the metropolis. Et is through this combination of landscape

architecture with the setting that was previously the referent of background which presents

the way in which media has problematized the reality of landscape architecture.

The problem ofreality within the 'image' of landscape architecture is due to the

perceptual connotation of the parameters of what is natural or aesthetic as proposed by mass

media. Media has given us an image of what the reality of landscape architecture should be

and the characteristics that should define this existence. As was previously discussed in the

context of media, reality and the image are becoming increasingly inseparable. (Kearney

1988, p. 70) In the case of landscape architecture, the media is presenting the parameters of

the definitions of natural, urban or other terminology utiIized to describe Iandscape

architecture. Thus, the observation of the aesthebc quality of landscape architecture is an

image that is measured against the conceptual images previously presented through the

media. It is this occurrence of events that recognizes the existence of the image as taking

precedence over reality.

Landscape architecture within the metropolis, although part of the urban reality, is

conceived of as a portion of a predefined image of postmodern society. Without the physical

engagement of the metropolitan individual with the landscape, the previously enjoyed three-

dimensional aspect of landscape architecture collapses into an image of metropolitan

landscape. The distinction of the merits of its reality, and the reality assumed by the

observer, become negligible through the continued embrace of media within the current

cultural Iogic,

Three: A Model of Postmodernism as Cultural Logic for the Evaluation of

Metropolitan Landscape architecture

This discourse on the social transformation of landscape architecture began with a

review of Fredric Jameson's model and the vanous elements of the postmodern metropolis.

it was through this review that an understanding of the defining characteristics of the current

cultural logic was to be ascertained. The context which has been presented within this

discourse, one Sased on several authonties of the postrnodem condition, proposes that

postmodemism is a cultural shift which is not based in economics alone, but rather in a

change in psychology which was initiated by the evolving rnetropolitan condition- This

endeavor, although it breaks fkom Jameson's project of linking late capitalism and the current

cultural logic, does not discard Jameson's intention of providing a social understanding of the

evolution of postmodemism~. Jarneson concedes ". . . what happened to culture may well be

one of the more important clues for tracking the postmodem." (Jarneson 1991, p. x) Where

Jameson's project breaks fiom the possibility of conceiving the social transformation for

landscape architecture is where he feeIs what has happened to culture has been integrated into

the theory of Iate capitalism.

The current cultural logic, although it possesses the elements which Jameson's mode1

refers to, is inherently more social. The late capitalistic system has greatly affected the

production, or rather reproduction, of postrnodem society. Late capitalism is also the

JJ It is important to realize that although Jarneson intends to provide an understanding of the postmodem social context, he does not fully realize this within his book Posmoderrzisnr, or. the Cztltrrral Logic of Lare Capitalism. The lack of social understanding of the evolution of postmodernism is the reason that this research needed to develop a new model through which Iandscape codd be evaluated.

dominant force that has made the technology o f postmodern society available, thus giving

nse to the image and media saturation as well as the aesthetic production that is most

reflective of artistic production- Thus, Iate capitalism plays an important role within the

definition of current cultural logic.

Landscape architecture, however, presents a mode of aesthetic production that,

although similar to architecture, is also tùnctional, Since both landscape architecture and

architecture must integrate fiinction within aesthetic design, they provide a leveI of

complexity in the understanding of the current cultural logic that is not presented solely

within the visual, or aesthetic comprehension.

The defining characteristic of the current cultural logic of the postmodern

metropolitan can be distilled fiorn the discussion of the psychology, the existence, and

experience of the metropolitan individual provided within the social and cultural contextJ5.

Al1 three of these aspects of the metropolitan individual are inherent in the understanding of

landscape architecture within the current cultural logic. These e1ements were elucidated

within the context of the postmodem metropolis, and are necessary for understanding the

social transformation of landscape architecture. They provide the foundation for the

presentation of a mode1 that addresses the totality of the cuItural logic of postmodemisrn.

Through the discussions of al1 aspects of postmodern society, the unconnectedness of

the metropolitan individual fiom their surrounding physical environment was elucidated.

This unconnectedness occurred perceptually within the discussion of art and, to an extent,

within the greater context of the metropolis. Conceptually, this unconnectedness was

In this research the book The Human Condition by Hannah Arendt was used to understand the parameters of social and cultural existence within the me~opolis.

manifested to the greatest extent within the media saturation evident within society, and,

secondly, within the discussion of art and the history of contemporary existence, The

physical unconnectedness of the metropolitan individual is mainly in connection with the

hyperspace of posûnodern architecture and the greater context of architecture as one of the

signifiers necessary for the postmo~dem individual to locate him or herseIf within the

metropolis.

This uncomectedaess, as iTt appears as a main defining point of the postmodem

condition of the metropolitan indiwidual, is multidimensional. Although unco~ectedness is

regarded as perceptual, conceptual and physical, the multidimensional aspect of its

conception is in the qualifications cof existence which it affects. An existence that is affected

perceptually, conceptually, and physically is influenced in a spectmm of hurnan experiences.

As Hannah Arendt explains, the human condition and human nature are not interchangeable

terrns. (Arendt 1958, p. 9) The understanding of unconnectedness as a defining characteristic

of postmodemism deals with the hruman condition of postmodernism. The human condition

is created by the dominant spheres of influence over the individual.

The most apparent spheres. of influence on the human condition of postmodernisrn

are those of space and rime. Both :space and time provide the structure for the parameters of

existence. Space and rime are the skeleton of phenornenalJ%exprience and thus the

parameters of existence within a physical world.

j6 The use of phenomenal is to negate the discussion of the noumenal and hence a dualistic conception of reaiity which philosophers such as Kant rnay propose. Nournenal refers to either 'things-in-themselves' or the 'world-in-itself. This is opposed to, the phenomenal thing or worId which is the physical existence which Ive perceive,

Space and time also provide the structure for experience within the physical world.

Existence within the physical world irnplies the occupation of part of that physicality. This

sphere of existence within the world is the action of the individual. It is reflective of not only

the occupation of the physical world, but the interaction with its physicality and al1 other

entities (including human) manifested within its physicality.

The last sphere of human condition as it applies to the existence within the physical

world is the perception of the world made by the individual occupying it. As rational beings,

hurnans make judgements about the nature of their surroundings. These judgments are in

regards to the tmth and reality of their existence within the physical parameters of being.

These four spheres of the human condition, time, space, action, and tmlh or reality

provide the characteristic aspects of the postmodern cultural logic needed for an

understanding of the social transformations that have taken place within the metropolis,

namely landscape architecture. The mode1 is proposed in the context of the defining

characteristic of unconnectedness as being the dominant feature of the psychology of the

metropolitan individual in the society, and more specifically, in the landscape architecture of

the postmodern society.

Unconectedness

Hyperspace - Lost Atomized, Random ... No Cognitive Mapping Event as opposed to

coniinuous or chronological Time

Space Time

Relationships of signs and

signifiers Broken

Being as Event

Space and Time as the structure for the Physical World l.4 3;5-, + >';t , - _-iXI-I_

*A&

The physicality of Ra fional and Perceptual space and tirne Judgements

Action Truth and Reality 3 Dissociated from 'Image ' of Landscape space and fime in V.S. Landscape postrnodernisrn

Figure 4: Development of the Mode1 for this Research

Time

Time within the cultural logic ~Epostmodernism is no longer the linear and

chronological measurement that existed within modern society. Postmodern time collapses

its relationship with space and no longer necessitates a sequential understanding.

"Chronological and historical time, time that passes, is replaced by a time that exposes itself

instantaneously." (Virïlio 1997, p. 162)

The modern conception of time necessarily irnplies a continuality, or a transversing

within the very nature of existence. The individual utilized tirne as a measurernent where

tirne elapsed and was recorded.

Time in the postmodern cultural logic exists as a point- It has no reference to the

--- past, nor does it continue to evolve into the future."' The social transformation of the

understanding of history and Being as event resulted in a new understanding of time which

posited time as random events, as opposed to chronological, which subsequently resulted in

the inability of the metropolitan individual to relate to time accurately as a measure of lived

experience.

This postrnodern mutation of tirne has found its preconditions in more than the

impact of the change in Being and history, or rather historicity. Technology has also

provided a defining force in the postmodern conception of time.

... the new technological time has no relation to any calendar of events nor to any collective memory. It is pure cornputer time, and as such helps constnict a permanent present, an unbounded, timeless intensity that is destroying the tempo of a progressively degraded society. (Ibid. p.384)

The influence of technology is fiom a radicalIy different sphere of influence than that

of the metaphysical conception of Being or historicity; however, the resulting implications

within time are the sarne. Time is instantaneous within postmodem society.

Time, as an indication of the social transformation of landscape architecture, wiIl

manifest its instantaneous nature within cultural production. The cultural production, more

speci fically landscape architecture, of postrnodern society will recognize the instantaneous

nature of time. The individual experiencing landscape architecture indicative of the current

cultural logic will engage the landscape with depthlessness reflective of the disconnection of

the postmodern existence. This depthlessness of experience is imminent because of the

instantaneous nature of time. Without the ability of Being to conceive of itself in an evolving

manner, the experience of postmodem landscape is Battened out and sensationalized. It is an

event of the present without the awareness of extension.

Space, as a social arena, is the hyperspace of postmodemism. It changes the

psychology of modem space, which has a linear relationship with time in its conception. The

hyperspace of postrnodernism has a lost sense of location. Similar to time, space no longer

realizes extension beyond the present.

Landscape architecture occupies physical space and so must be regarded spahally. In

understanding the social transformation of landscape architecture, the psychology of the

space of landscape architecture must be considered. Within the hyperspace of

postmodernism, the space that landscape architecture must eventually if not already occupy is

not conceived of as being extended to the surrounding space of landscape. Space becomes

like a mirrored fishbowl.

Postmodemism, as a globablizing force, psychologically embodies a larger

conceptual force than the conditions of previous existence. The postmodem metropolitan

individual, however, is only realized within the narrow sphere of their interactions. This

dichotomy of lived space and the global cultural space dissociated the individual fiom the

possibility of conceiving the spatial nature of their existence, and the existence of the space

that the individual embodies. Landscape architecture thus is not conceivable within both the

global context of the postmodern cultural condition and the narrow locality of occupied

space. Cultural production that proposes the ability for occupation, such as landscape

architecture, is reflective of a disconnected conception of space. Space is no longer

comected and consistent, but fragmented and random in the cultural logic of postmodemism.

Action

The interaction between humans has become possible in an abstract sense where the

modem notion of the individual is Iost. The unconnected condition of postrnodern existence

extends to the kdividual and the surrounding population. The end of the autonomous being

of the modern era, and the subsequent replacement with the postrnodern individual was also

the replacement of the q~iddity47 of the modem individual. The quiddity of the individual is

precisely what predicates that person's being as unique and distinct. Within postmodern

society this distinctness is lost and replaced by the prograrn of postmodern culture as

described through media saturation.

Action, or interaction, between individuals in the postrnodern metropolitan is the

interaction between individuals with the same program. Without the distinctness of

individuality, quiddity, which the media has replaced within the postmodem metropolitan,

the nature of the experience has also fundarnentally changed. Interaction becornes an

extension of the comrnon program as opposed to the elaboration of the individual's lived

experience. Achon is no longer the physical representation of cultural anomie and alienation.

Action has become the extension of the media's postrnodern program of the reiteration,

recombination and reproduction of the postmodem condition. The interaction, and action, of

the postmodem individual is, in essence, the pastiche and nostalgia of art and history

manifested in the event of the present.

47 Quiddity is a term used to refer to that which rnakes sornething what it is, or, the essence of that thing. It's 'whatness'.

Truth & Reality

The cultural logic of postmodemism has lost the perspectives of truth and reality.

The separation of image f?om reality, but also of tmth and the projected opinion of existence,

has brought about an unobjective understanding of truth and reality.

Truth no longer holds its reference to a greater and knowable end as it has through the

scientific discourse of the modern era. It is no longer a means through which the notion of

reality can be substantiated- Both reality and tmth have become separated and unobjective.

They are concepts that deal with the present as opposed to being an extension of the

understanding of the totality of existence. Postmodern tmth and reality are references to the

condition of rnetropolitan individual within a state of continua1 existence within the present.

Thus, a more subjective reading of tmth within contemporary culture has evolved.

Postmodern truth recognizes the link of itself to monument, social contract, or "the very

'substantiality' (in the Hegelian sense of the objective spirit) of histoncal transmission."

(Vattirno 1988, 12) Tmth is no longer to be conceived as an "object which can be

appropriated and transmitted, but as a horizon and a background upon which we may move

with care." (Ibid. p. 13)

Without the idea of 'absolute' inherent within the modem conception of tmth and

reality, the nahxe in which the postmodern metropolitan individual understands existence is

distinct frorn that of the modem individual. Reality and tmth are perceived and reintegrated

into the idea of existence. Thus, cultural production which embodies the perceived 'absolute'

is an artifact of that instantaneous event and not existence. The cultural representation of

existence can no longer be referred to as transcendental in nature for it is no longer based in a

transcendental reality, or dealing with tnrth.

Four: The Evaluation of Four Toronto Parks

The cultural context of postmodernism has provided the model of rime, space, action

and trrrth and reality. It is now is applied to four parks within Toronto to gain an

understanding of the lived context of landscape architecture. The methodology for the

application of the model within this research is explained beIow.

Methodology

Several methodologies were used within this research. Literature review was used to

co1Iect and analyze the information required for the development of the model. Case study

was used to select parks for the model to be applied to. Literature regarding the parks was

collected and, where information was not available, interviews in the fonn of a questionnaire,

were used. A content analysis was performed on the collected information and the results of

this were put into a matrix to present the findings.

Literature Review

The literature review performed for this thesis focused on the critique of

postmodernity and the philosophy of the postrnodem era. Although many authors were read

during this review, the Ziterature used to develop the model focused on the philosophy that

was consistent with Fredric Jameson's critique of postrnodernism. In that the research

focuses on the social nature of postmodernism, which Jameson did not sufficiently develop,

Hamah Arendt's work was used to provide the cultural construction of the human condition.

The themes of human nature and action within cultural construction (taken from Arendt's

work) were applied to Jameson's book Postmodernism. or, The Cultural Logic of Late

Capitalism(l99 1) to ultimately develop the model used wîthin this research.

The model of space, tirne, action, and t r ~ ~ t h and reality is captures the change in the

human condition that occur as society transfoxms. This transformation is within both private

and public space, as well as within the political and cultural bodies of s ~ c i e t ~ . ~ ' These

influences on the human condition were expressed in Jameson's literature, although not

developed. The literature review of Arendt's work along with other critics (namely Richard

Kearney, Gianni Vattirno and Paul Vinlio) provided the additional social and cultural aspects

of pcstrnodernism to integrate into Jameson's existing model of the disappearance of the

individual subject, pastiche, crisis in history, schizophrenic consciousness and the rise of the

hysterical sublime.

Case Studies

Case study research is traditionally linked to psychological research where the

detailed analysis of a particular case or cases is the objective of the research. (Rothe 1993, p.

83) This research is concemed with the psychology of the metropolitan individual, an area

where case study research has been traditionally utilized. In addition to the psychological

relevance of case study research, this methodology was also a relevant research method

because the problem statement of this research is dealing with a phenornenon

48 These transformations comprise one of the main subjects in Arendt's book The Hrrrnan Condition (1958). Although the book was published before the postmodem era, the social transformations that she observes are indicative of the human condition and therefore her work is still relevant withul a contemporary discussion.

(postmodeniism) that cannot be separated fiom its context (Toronto), and is a conternporary

event- (Yin 1984, p. 25) Given these conditions, Yin asserts that case study research will

provide the soundest data to be coIlected and analyzed.

There are several different types of case study research which can occur. This

research uses multiple-case studies. Yin refers to the work of Hersen and Barlow (1976) to

explain that the repetitious nature of multiple-case studies provides the ability to contrast

contrary results for predictable reasons. When observing the social transformation of

landscape architecture, the results of the analysis should not be similar, but rather predictably

different (reflecting the changes within society) and multiple-case studies are designed to

reveal such an occurrence.

Criteria were established so that only the examples that are most applicable to the

uderstanding of the current cultural condition of Zandscape architecture can be isoIated. The

case studies were chosen through the following criteria:

1. Exist within a rnetropolitan context, specz~cally rnetropolitan Toronto.

The Don Valley Parkway, Eglinton Avenue, and Dufferin Street are used in this

research to define the metropolitan area of Toronto. These streets form an area of built urban

environment where dwelling occurs but is not the primary function. These streets aIso reflect

previous and present political boundaries in the city of Toronto. Although these boundaries

were presented through the area bordered by Lake Ontario and a series of major roads, a

seemingly arbitrary boundary, the metropolitan area of Toronto is contained within these

bo~ndar ies~~. The density of urban built environment is highly cornpacted within these

boundaries, in addition to a high population density throughout the area. The eastern

boundary, Don Valley Parkway, reflects the former political boundary of East York, and

Eglinton Avenue as a northern boundary is often used by politicians to separate downtown

Toronto frorn the remainder of the c i g o . Dufferin Street begins the division between

Etobicoke and Toronto, while also providing a boundary beyond which the housing density

decreases rapidly.

Figure 5: Map of Toronto with Study Area Highlighted (Map by 6LToronto" MapArt Publishing,

1997)

49 This information is based on several resources provided by Statistics Canada including 1996 census information. Statistics Canada can be reached at i~zfostats@srarcan.ca

The City of Toronto website (www.citv.toronto.on.ca) provides sumrnaries of political debates which often discuss 'dovmtonm Toronto' or 'Metropolitan Toronto'. In such a format Eglinton Ave is ofien used as a northern boundary for the 'core' area of Toronto.

In addition to the political and demographic rational behind these boundaries, the

delineation of the study area through these roads and the lake will provide boundaries easily

identified by individuals who are not familiar with Toronto. Consistent with the definition of

rnetropolis in this discourse, these streets form an area of built urban environment where

dwelling occurs but is not the primary function.

2, The landscape was to have been a winning e n 0 in an urban park design competition.

The criterion of the Iandscape having been a wiming entry within an urban park

design competition in metropolitan Toronto was to provide an even foundation for the

evaluation of the landscape. By wiming a design competition, several assumptions can be

made about that landscape, the most important of which is that it is in part reflective of the

cultural pulse of Toronto at the hme of selection. Landscape architecture that is chosen by a

panel of experts and recommended as adhering to the criteria as presented by the C i v of

Toronto is more dependable as being indicative of the cultural logic of Toronto than

landscape that was built in isolation of the design competition process. The winning

landscape is understood as a supenor example of the cultural production of landscape

architecture at the tirne of the cornpetition.

3. The proposa1 for the Zandscape was following the year 1982.

In 1982 Brenard Tschumi's Parc de la Villette was the success£Ûl candidate for the

3 10 hectare (125 acre) urban park design competition in Paris. Tschumi's Parc de la Villette

was a deconstni~tionisi>~ piece in the written submission by Tschumi and the French

postmodernist philosopher Jaques Derrida, and postrnodern in a generic sense in its

adherence to a particular cultural logics2. It was the &t major landscape design cornpetition

that acknowledged the existence of postrnodernism within Iandscape architecture as a

preferable design approach, and indicative of the cultural logic of the timeiv. It also relied

heavily on the philosophy of Demda (and Tschurni), which deals with the psychology of the

rnetropolitan individual (Demda 1997, p. 325). By limiting the selection of landscape

architecture to the years following 1982, the social transformation of landscape architecture

will be limited to a penod when the production of 'postrnodern' landscape was conceivable.

Within Toronto there were very few parks that met the criteria outlined above. Two

parks that are not included within this research but were successful candidates in an urban

park design cornpetition after 1982 are Harbour Square and Downsview Park. The design

competition for Harbour Square was held as an "ideas cornpetition" and the landscape that

was built was not proposed within the competition. Thus the park does not conform to the

rationale that the park was a preferable design approach. Downsview Park, although within

the city Iimits of Toronto, is not within the metropolitan area as delineated by this research.

It is within the former city of North York (now Toronto) and is an area that has a very low

population density as compared to the study area and is very suburban in nature.

5 1 Deconstructionism is considered a movernent within postmodernism. Although it embodies many of the same principles as postmodernism, decons~c t i~n i s rn is more extreme in its ideology of unconnectedness.

Derrida rnakes the distinction between Parc de la villette as a w-ritten piece and the actual park in his essay "Point de Folie - maintenant l'architecture"

The following are the four Iandscapes that satisfied the criteria as presented above

(see figure 6 for a map of park locations within Toronto):

Cloud Gardens Consewatory

Designed by Baird Sampson Architects, Milus Bollengberghe Topps Watchom, Landscape Architects, and Margaret Priest, Artist.

Cumberland Park

Designed by Schwartz Smith Meyer Landscape Architects, and Oleson Worland Architects,

Court House Square

Designed by Janet Rosenberg and Associates Landscape Architects

Dundas Square

Designed by Brown and Storey Architects.

Figure 6 : Park Locations within Toronto (Map: "Toronto" by MapArt Publishing, 1997)

In this research, literature was used as the data collected fiom the case studies.

Where many case studies utilize the researcher7s observations of phenomena which are

people or places, this research focuses on the Iiterature that was produced in connection with

the design competition of the chosen parks. The Iiterature collected fiom the case studies is

not o d y representative of the concepts and intentions of the designer during the competition,

but also of the impressions of the cultural critics and the expectations of the city of Toronto-

An accurate application of the rnodel to the selected case studies requires several

Ievels of information, A successfil candidate in a design competition rnust both satisfj. the

parameters of the competition and present a superior design, and so it is necessary to

understand the landscape design through information which would convey bath these

elements. Thus it became critical that the competition brief, the outlines of the design

competition as proposed by the City of Toronto, be the foundational piece of information of

the landscape design. It is in the City of Toronto requirements for the competition that the

restraining factors of the design cornpetition (such as the need to use particular elements or

adhere to a chosen therne) are rnost apparent. it is also the document that provides the

greatest insight into the cultural condition of the rnetropolis as perceived by the City of

Toronto itself.

The second level of information, which is necessary in the application of the rnodel in

order to understand the social transformation of landscape architecture, is the written

component of the design. It is here that the designer explicates the intent of the design.

Understanding the design intent is important for it may convey ideologies which are

indicative of the social transformation, but rnay not have translated into the manifestation of

the design, or have been recognized by critics of the design.

The jurors' comments, provide a third Ievel of information that is especially crucial in

the discussion of the social transformation of Iandscape architecture. The jurors are cultural

experts as selected by the City of Toronto. They are representative of the perceived cultural

logic of Toronto and are charged with the responsibility of ascertaining which design both

meets the requirements of the competition and produces a superior piece of landscape

architecture. It is through the jurors' comments that the elements of the design that produced

a superior intent can be perceived.

Structured Interview

in the case of Dundas Square, where there was not a jury's report provided in the

competition process, the jurors were surveyed with the questionnaire attached in Appendix A.

The questionnaire was used to replace a plamed structured interview when the proximity and

the schedules of the participants made interviewing impossible. A stmctured interview is

used when the researcher is attempting to uncover a specific area of Zaiowledge. (Rothe

1993, p. 98) In this research the interviews were designed to replace the information that was

not available since a jury's report was not produced. The questionnaire was the interview

question which had been prepared ahead of time. These questions reflected specific aspects

of the key elements ofpostmodemism. To gain knowledge of the specific aspects of

poshnodernism, many open-ended questions were asked so that the respondent would have

the opportunity to relate a level of information and any persona1 judgments that they felt were

necessary. (Ibid. p. 103) It also required commentary about the preference of the selected

design approach. This preference was to replace the comments in the juror's report which

would nonnally lead to the park selection.

The last level of information, which is relevant within the understanding of the social

transformation of landscape architecture, is the cnhcism provided by cultural critics. The

criticism of the park provides an insight into the design which may not have been conveyed

through the previous levels of information. Published criticism, criticism which is found in

joumals and articles, is assumed to be presented by a cultural critic of landscape architecture

which is produced for the metropolis, specifically that of Toronto. The criticism brings the

insight of a cultural statement that is provided by experts in either the contemporary culture

of Toronto, or landscape architecture itself

N A - There was no jurour's report for the Dundas Square cornpetition

Figure 7: Literature Reviewed in Park EvaIuation

Content Analysis

Content analysis was used to examine the various levels of information that

were collected in the case studies. Content analysis is used extensively within research

concemed with changes in culture and society. As a forma1 research method, it was used

extensively by the militaiy intelligence to monitor public media so that trends and changes

could be noted and assumptions concerning the enemy's intentions could be ascertained.

(Simons, 1978, p. 212) It has continued to be used as a research method in examining

communications where the underlying perspectives and intentions of the source reflect the

cultural and social condition of the environment being studied-

The key elements of the rnodel used to express the cux-rent cultural logic (space, time,

action, truth and reality) were used as indicators to categorize the ideas and themes that exist

within the literature- (Rothe, 1993, p. 104) This type of content analysis of information is not

exarnining the rnanifest content, but rather the latent content within the literature. Manifest

content is the real content within the literature. A rnanifest content analysis rneasures the

fiequency that a word is used within a piece of literature. (Simon 1978, p. 2 12) In this

research manifest content analysis was not applicable. The content analysis perfonned was

concemed with the latent rnatenal within the literature.

Through the examination of the latent content of the literatures3, the more abstract

ideas of the model (space, time, action, and tmth and realiiy) will be observed. The latent

content refers to the ideas, themes and concepts that are obvious within the literature, but are

not specifically written. This method of content analysis is a usefül technique when

uncovering the latent meaning, that is the ideas and intents of the literature. To uncover the

latent content within a text, categones of interest are first developed. (Ibid. p. 212) This

research utilizes the model of space, time, action, tmth and realie-' as the categories of

interest. Using these elements of the model, the words and phrases within the text are

53 Content analysis can be applied to many sources of communication including media, spoken word, and literature, but for the purposes of this research, literature will be analyzed-

54 The literature \vas examined both within the context of Jarneson's mode1 and the philosophy of Hannah Arendt in her book The Human Condition. Isolathg the amiu tes of the psychology of the human condition provided in Arendt's work, the literature review was cornpleted, thus M e r isolating themes ~~~~~buhg to the contemporary cdtural condition of society and its inhabitants.

'coded', which is the separation of the text into the various categories of interest. (Ibid. p.

212)

Even using the coding process, it is difficult to measure the number of indicators

present? However, by examinhg the text in such a rnanner, trends implicit within the text

are revealed, These trends are ofien unmeasurable information, but a qualitative

understanding of the literature exarnined is representative of the changes within the

phenornenon being studied. (Ibid. p. 21 1) Because the understanding of the social

transformation of landscape architecture is not dependant on ascertainhg the specific degree

of transformation that has occurred at any specific point, the comprehension of the trend of

transformation is sufficient to rnake conclusive statements about the cument cultural

condition of landscape architecture within this particular discourse.

The content analysis is performed only on written rnaterial within this discourse. It is

believed that observation of the built design is not an accurate rnethod of comprehending the

intent of the landscape architect. The intent as expressed within written matenal is specific

and does not reflect any problems or unforeseen constraints which may have been

experienced dunng building. Observation is also unreliable because the distinction between

intent and design style is negligible within the built landscape. The application of the model,

however, to a l four of these sources of information will ascertain the existence of the key

elements of postrnodernism within the landscape architecture considered and the coherence

of the literature to the cultural logic ofpostmodernism,

55 An example of this wouId be the repetition of the indicator of time. Although rnany occurrences are clearly an exampIe of postmodem tirne, the idea of irnmediate experience and time are too close in meaning to qualm quantitatively. In order to deal with such instances, latent analysis Iooks at the trends of occurrences and does not attempt of quantifi concealed meanings.

It is the intent of the landscape architecture, as opposed to the fûnction of the built

landscape, which is of primary importance in this research, The intent of a landscape design

is directly connected to the cultural logic of society because it is the expression of the

designer's concept of the park, The concept is influenced by the contemporary culture that

the Iandscape architect exists in and so the intent of the park reff ects part of the lived

experience of the designer, Landscape architecture, as being partly psychological within its

intent, can be measured against this cultural logic in order tu understand the current cultural

condition of its design intent- As the coherence of the intent of the landscape architecture to

the cultural logic increase, the social transformation, whiçh has occurred within the design

intent, is elucidated. It is thus that an understanding of the social transformation of landscape

architecture within the cultural logic of postrnodernism can be achieved within the context of

the metropolis of Toronto.

Matrix Development

The results of the content analysis are presented in the form of a matrix. The

matrices presented within the analysis of each of the case studies are representative of the

trends that the content analysis revealed. As the latent content was categorized, the literature

presented 3 main trends mithin each of the categories (space, time, action, truth and reality).

These trends were postrnodern, between postmodern and modem, and not postrnodern. The

dominant trends of the presence of the categories within each piece of literature are presented

within the matrïx. This fom of data analysis and presentation is based on pattern matching.

(Yin 1984, p. 103)

The matrix that is presented at the end of the study is a cornpellation of the matrices

fiom each of the case studies. This matrix is a simple time-series analysis. In a simple time-

series analysis, there are many changes within one variable. (Ibid. p. 110) In this research

the variable of the cultural condition of the categories was represented by three separate

outcomes. The transformation of the variable is presented in a single assembly so that trends

concerning these changes in the variable can 5e anafyzed. To make evaluations of the

categories and their presence within each of the case studies, the cultural condition of the

elements of the mode1 nerded to be sumrnarized, The rnatrix presented one evahation that

represented the major trends of the park's cultural condition throughout the various levels of

the literature- This evaluation was based on the predominant trends observed within the

content analysis of al1 the literature where the specific categories were concerned.

Limits to the Case Studies

It is important to recognize that there were several limitations w i W this shidy which

may have affected the results. The most apparent of these is the availability of information

conceming the case studies. Although the various levels of written information were not

complete, there was sufficient information for judgments to be made. These judgrnents,

however, would have been more complete if it were possible to discuss them with the panel

of jurors so that the validity of the individual clairns can be understood and not perceived.

The jurors, however, were both difficult to locate and are not al1 citizens of Toronto. h the

cases where juror members were not residents of Canada it would have been both difficult

and expensive to produce a more in depth case study.

In addition, the responses from the jurors who were contacted were not a complete

set. One juror was unable to participate and a second questioned the study to the extent

where fiirther conversation with him would have revealed the scope of study, thus rendering

his conceptions potentially biased and unusable within the case study of Dundas Square.

Background Study: Cloud Gardens Conservatory

Figure 8: Cloud Gardens Conservatory (Photos: Author)

A discussion of the Bay Adelaide Park is important in the understanding of the social

transformation of landscape architecture within the metropolis of Toronto, although the scope

of information outlined as being necessary for a true analysis of the park was not available.

The winning cornpetition was also the recipient of a great deal of literary review because the

park was recognized for its architectural significance as the winner of the 1992 Award of

Excellence from The Canadian Architect magazine. Because of this recognition the omission

of the park from a discussion of the social transformation of landscape architecture in the

metropolis of Toronto would be a notable shortcoming. Thus, the mode1 is being applied to

the pieces of criticism that are avaiiable in order to gain an understanding of the role of the

park within the social transformation of landscape architecture.

SITE PLAN

1 monument 2 ierrcces 3 gorge/water pcol d waterfoll 5 service rwrn O conscrvatary 7 belvederc [above] 8 green 9 arbour 1 O wocdcd orca I 1 existing buildings I 2 new Bay/Addaide buildings

I l i f 1 Temperance Street

Figure 9: Base Plan of Cloud Gardens Park (Source: Canadian Architect)

The Context

The cornpetition for the park at Bay and Adelaide in the Ci& of Toronto was the

result of failed business ventures in the 1980's. The developers who had agreed to provide a

portion of money and property fiom the Bay Adelaide towers that were to be erected were

still responsible for the green space. This was true even when their buildings became

financially impossible to build. The City of Toronto used the opportunity to hold a design

cornpetition to fil1 the space- (Fulford 1995, p. 45) The team headed by Baird Sampson

Architects, who were later honoured by the 1992 Award of Excellence in Architecture, won

the cornpetition. This honour was bestowed upon them for several unique qualities which the

park embodies. The review of the 1992 Awards of Excellence provided convnentary by

several affiliates of the magazine that discuss the complexity of the design. Although much

of the language used to describe the attributes of the park was reflechve of rnodernity, clear

ideals presented in the mode1 of the cultural logic of postrnodernism were also referenced

within the dc les6 . This is the primary source of criticism to which the mode1 is being

applied, but that application is not to the exclusion of other written pieces-

Relevant Criticism

Spatially, the design embodies characteristics that are consistent with the hyperspace

of postrnodemism. Primarily, one of these is the convoluted manner through which the park

is entered, The entrances to the park are not related to the streets for which the park is

commonly named (Bay Adelaide Park)- There is the neglect of the signs and signifiers which

orient the individual to the finctional aspect of the space. The article within The Canadian

Architect referred to the entrance of the park by pedestrians as being "...a hazardous, even

illegal, journey." (Canadian Architect 1992, p. 18) This comment was not provided as a

negative point to the park, but rather the curious response to a unique space which was not

determined by traditional urban design considerationss7.

The instantaneous nature of time within the culturaI Iogic of postmodernism is

recognized within the design of the Cloud Garden Park. The park's pladorm of design is

descnbed as having ". . .an overabundance of elements.. ." however, it is preciseiy fkom this

overabundance that the "vitality" and "excitement" (Canadian Architect 1992, p. 18) of the

park are produced. The complexity of the psychological interactions of the metropolitan

56 An example of postmodern references wiehin the article was comrnentary on the concept of the ruin that motivated the park design. Toronto does not have any niins and so it was the design's intent to create a modern day min. The article cornmented on the ability of the Iandscape to produce a spatial feeling of min while not appearing as a min displaced fiom motber culture.

57 For example, a traditional entrance would feeI safe and welcoming as opposed to hcizardous. This is 'cornrnon sense' in most urban park design guidelines.

individual with an overabundance of stimuli resuIts in the emotional detachment of the

individual fiom the stimuli- This detachrnent leads to the characteristic trait of instantaneous

time within the postmodem metropolis. The article builds on the idea of the instantaneous

nature of tirne within the park by referring to its contents as 'its many events' . The language

of postrnodernism as a cultural logic speaks to the conception of the event as a replacement

of the modernist use of 'elernent', This replacement of element for event is clear for the

expenences of the various 'elements' of the park; the Glass House, The Gorge, The Waterfall

and so on are referred to as 'events'.

The relationship of the park to the cultural logic of postrnodernism is not complete

within the criticism of the park. Although the article in The Canadian Architect clearly

redized the conception of time and space as being indicative of the traits of time and space

within the model, the modernist language of design continued to be present within the

examination of the park. The idea of the design's intent being reflective of the symbolism

that the context of the site creates is among the clearest of examples of the use of modernist

language.j8

The use of modernist language continues wïthin the article "A Modem-Day Ruin"

where the park is said to have ". . .emerged out of a highly self-conscious view of cultural

history." (Fulford 1995, p. 45) The mode1 of the cultural logic of postmodernisrn clearly

does not respond to the promotion of the histoncity of the site in which the landscape

architecture is produced. The connection between the lived time and the individual as being

58 This is the article's reference to the neighboring building's being symbolic of ravines and the park itself being a " ... a tnbute to the dialectical agents of erosion and transformation at work in the city.. ." Award of Excellence, in The Canadiun Architect, December 1992, p. 18.

unconnected is integral within the element of time within the model. The psychology of the

metropolitan individual is not capable of this self-conscious gesture within design.

The article does acknowledge the instantaneous nature of time when it references the

park's idea of the metropolis as a work in progress, (Fulford 1995, p. 46) but the significance

of this statement is fùrther dissolved with the continuation of the modernist language. The

language of modemism occurs clearly in the staternent that the ". . . park is the architectural

equivalent of a poern. .." (Fulford 1995, p. 46). Poem within landscape implies a dialectical

relationship between the individual and the landscape. This is not possible without the

understanding of historicity that is temporally connected and has meaning.

Cultural Logic of Postmodernism

It is important to recognize that without the appropriate level of information for the

Cloud Gardens Park the validity of the application of the model may be hindered. The

cnticism available presented a relationship to the language of modernity that was undeniable.

Although the model distilled elements of the cultural logic of postmodemism, the context in

which the elements were found was undeniable. The article within The Canndian Architect

did provide a discussion that was predominantly postmodem, but failed to recognize al1 of

the deterrnining elements of the model.

What is important within the discussion provided by The Canadian Architect. which 1

have already cited as the primary piece of criticism for this park, is that it recognizes the first

two elements of the model. In the presentation of the model time and space were presented

as the two elements that provided the physical context for the human condition.

Understanding that they are present within the design of the Cloud Gardens Park is integral to

the discussion of the social transformation of landscape architecture. The presence of these

elements allows the inference that the social transformation of landscape architecture has

begun in that it has recognized the elements within the cultural logic of postmodern which

ultimately provide t!ïe foundation for the subsequent elements.

There is evidence of the social transformation of landscape architecture that is clear

within the cursory exarnination of the Cloud Gardens Park. It is aIso clear that the hl1

realization of the cultural logic of postrnodernisrn is not recognized and so the social

transformation is not hlly realized. An extension of these statements is not appropriate

without fùrther sources of information.

Key for Chart: Not Postmodem Between Modern and Postmodern Postmodern

Figure 10: Cloud Garden Conservatory Analysis

Case Studyl : Cumberland Park

The Cumberland Park design cornpetition occurred in 199 1, It was for a park that

was erected within the Yorkville area of Toronto, specifically Cumberland Street, to replace

an existing parking lot. The winning submission was by Schwartz Smith Meyer Landscape

Architects in combination with Oleson Worland Architects-

Figure 11: Cumberland Park (Photos: Author)

The City of Toronto Design Brief

The design cornpetition, as set by the City of Toronto, oi

Figure 12: Base Plan of Cumberland Park (Source: Landscape Architecture April1993)

es several areas of

consideration for the entrants. Early within the literature provided by the city there is

reference to the creation of a 'natural oasis' within the city. The language of oasis is both a

metaphor of green space and a term that implies an unconnectedness of the space and its

context. Although this spatial reference, which is consistent with the cultural logic of

postrnodernism, cannot be overlooked it must be acknowledged that the brief continues to

talk about the importance of mature trees and parks within the core of Toronto. Thus the

spatial reference is not as substanhal if taken out of context.

Although the design brief that was available from the Ciiy of Toronto was not

complete, it was made clear that the submissions would have to acknowledge the historicity

of the site. This was to be completed within the context of the surrounding historical

buildings and the Village of Yorkville. The mandate of a historical connection within the

Iandscape architecture is consistent with the temporal understanding of modemism. it is an

allusion to Iived history that is aot relevant in the cultural logic of postmodemism.

It must be first stated that the level of information fkom the City of Toronto is not

sufficient to make emphatic statements about the applicability of the City's program to the

cuItural logic. It is, however, sufficient to make a statement about the trends that were

observed within the information provided. The City of Toronto's cornpetition brief was not

corisistent with the cultural logic of postmodernism. It is a document in which the

relationship to the language of modernism is clear. The emphasis of the cornpetition was

histoncal and environmental, both modernist ideals, although environmentalism to a much

lesser extent.

The cornpetition, as set by the City of Toronto, continued the beIief in the dynamic

nature of the individual expenence within a landscape of narrative, or historical allusion. It

requires the dialectical engagement of the occupant with the surrounding landscape and

context. Within the cultural logic of postmodernisrn this dialectical relationship is not

possible due to the instantaneous nature oftime and existence.

Jury's Report

The jurors commented on the random and fragmented nature of the park as severed

by the lot lines. Although the severing occurred to respond to the historicity of the site, the

resulting spatial presentation that presents some elements consistent with the psychological

understanding of space in the cultural logic of postmodernisrn. These Eagments of the

design were descnbed as ". . .rooms of discovery and fantasy.. ." on page six of the Jury's

Report that continues to support the random nature of the space. It aIso begins to reference

the elements of action, and truth and reality, although the reference is not complete enough to

expand the understanding of these elements.

The majority of the remaining comments as provided in the Jury's Report deal with

modern design language, There are several mentions of the understanding of history within

the landscape design that are modernist in their references. The specific use of the word

'heritageYs9 irnplies cultural and historical connections of the lived experience of the site to

the currrnt experience of the site. This is not compatible with the use of history and time

within the cultural !ogic of postmodernism.

In both the extension of the design beyond the site delineated within the City of

Toronto competition guidelines, and the direct comection of the site to the historic buildings

across the Street, this design continues to reference a modem conception of space. Although

the interior of the site provides a spatial conception that is consistent with the cultural Iogic of

postmodernism, the edge of the park fails to continue this spatial use?'

The design of the site presents events that are consistent within the sphere of action in

the cultural logic of postmodernism. These elements of event, however, have been arranged

within the design in a north-south axis, thus removing the spontaneous and unconnected

nature irnplicit within the events of the postmodem landscape. The organizing imperative of

modem design occupies the organizational intent of the events of the site.

Written Submission

59 The use of the word 'heritage' occurs on pages 5 and 7 of the Juror's Report.

it is interesthg to note, however, that the edge of the site was referred to as an area of weahess within the design.

The Cumberland Park design provides a foundation for expenences which are

consistent with action as an element of the mode1 of cultural logic of postmodernism. The

types of events that the design considered would be ". ..open to a considerable diversity of

interpretation and experience." (Swartz Smith Meyer 199 1) The important element within

this statement is the ability of the experience to be understood as a product of the

instantaneous occupation within the park as opposed to the predefined occupation. This is

the strongest place where the cultural logic of postmodernism c m be found within the written

subrnission,

Throughout both the goals of the park and the design concept there is a strong

dependence on the ideals of the cultural production of modemism. There is the explicit

desire to reflect the history of the site. The buildings across the street are Victonan and so

the design not only references the physical history of the buildings through the fragmentation

of the site through the lot lines, but also to the cultural practices of the Victorian era.

Victorian scale, planting practices, character, and most importantly, collechbles, are the

references that are rnost clear within the goal and concept statements in the written

subrnission.

The design brief reiterates the previous discussion of the rnodernist organizational

influence of the park's elements. They are descnbed as ". . .discrete elements, arranged for

the pleasure and instruction of park users." (Swartz Smith Meyer) Although the east-west

axis used to arrange the elements is indicative of the modernist organizational philosophy, the

park's use continues to reinforce the modem aspect of the placement of the elements.

It is also important to note that the written submission deals with the organization of

the site as a structuring force of the literature. The various fragments of the site are presented

as discrete eIements that are both differentiated and are sequenced by numbers. The

organization of this numeric progression, although most obvious in the explanation of the

fragments, continues to manifest in the orderly and progressive nature of the components of

the w-ritten submission.

Within the written submission there is a curious statement that parks is "...for this

place at this time." (Swartz Smith Meyer 1991) AIthough the initial reading may suggest a

coherence with the instantaneous nature of time, the perpetual present, the degree to which

the park is contained within a particular present and not the continually reintegration of the

present as the past and friture as present. The statement, however, alludes to the impending

disconnection of time ftom itself. It recognizes the static naturc of time as it is no longer

dynarnic, but is not able to remove itself fiom the artifice presented by the modern cultural

production within postmodern culture,

Relevant Criticism

The discussion of Cumberland Park in Landscape Architecture's 1996 ASLA Awards

in Landscape Architecttrre Magazine reiterates many of the concepts presented within the

written submission, This reiteration reinforces the influence of modemism within the

Cumberland Park design. The article does not present the conception of action that was

consistent with the cultural logic of postmodernism, and so eliminates the strongest

indication of a break Erom the modem tradition within the landscape. It is true that the article

describes the peculiar combination of several matenah such as the concrete seating rings

around the pines within the pine grove, but it does not promote these combinations as being a

strong deterrnining force in the design. It is thus that the design conception of

postrnodemism as a specific type of style combination is often used to promote the design as

postmodem although its social and organizational influences are entrenched within the linear

modem era,

The Cumberland Park design is a Iandscape rich in symbolism, a design technique

not transferable to landscape architecture of the posûnodern sociev. In Landscape

Architecture's article "Box Set: Cumberland Park" this syrnbolic cornponent of the design is

presented as an important element of the landscape. (Gdswold 1993, p. 68) Symbolisrn

necessitates the ability to make historical references that are perceivable by the occupants of

the landscape. The metropolitan individual, however, i s no longer capable of such a

perception as a result of the uncomected nature of mettopolitan existence in posûnodem

society.

Cultural Logic of Postmodernisrn

lcity of Toronto 1

Relevant Criticism

Not Postmodern Key for Chart: Between Modem and Postmodern

Postmodern

Figure 13: Cumberland Park Analysis

Although Cumberland Park recognizes the instantaneous action that is indicative of

the current metropolitan cultural logic, and thus implies a certain understanding of space and

time within the definitions presented by the model, this is not a strong element in the

Cumberland Park design. The influence of the organizational practices, symbolic reference,

and concem with history overshadows the presence of the element of action within

Cumberland Park.

Even with the presence of the undeniable rnodernist influence, Cumberland Park

attempts to speak to a Ianguage that is not completely modem. The perceived Eragrnentation

and randornness of the compartmenta~ization of the site, although clearly delineated by the

historical lot lines, embodies the space of the cultural logic as postmodernism. The

organization of the landscape prevents the space nom realizing the definition of space within

the model of postmodernisrn, but conversely, the apparent randomness is a departure fiom

structured modernism,

The park, postmodern as an example of Jameson's pastiche, does not complete a

psychological foundation that is consistent with the social nature of the metropolis's cultural

logic as postmodernism. It is clear that the park is an example of landscape architecture

which is no longer observing the project of modernity, but the social transformation of

Iandscape architecture as the cultural product of this discourse's conception of

postmodemism is not completely reaIized. CumberIand Park is not able to translate the

unconnected nature of the postrnodern individual into the design intent of the park

Case Study 2: Court House Square

Figure 14: Court House Park (Photos: Author)

Janet Rosenberg and Associates were the landscape architects who submitted the

wiming submission for the Courthouse Square design cornpetition. The City of Toronto held

the cornpetition in 1995 as an oppominity to develop a piece of land which existed at 10

Court Street near the intersection of Kings Street West and Church Street. The land known

as Court House Square was to be 'upgraded' in exchange for a higher density development

surrounding the square.

Figure 15: Base Plan of Court House Park (Source: City of Toronto Design Brief and Author)

The City of Toronto Brief

It is clear that the City of Toronto wished the design of Court House Square to be

reflective of the historicity of the site. "The competition site is given shape, character and

historical connection by the buildings which surround it."" The design bnef explains the

history of both the buildings and the site history thus reinforcing not only the historical nature

of the site, but also the specific lived context of the history which the site should ulhmately

project as detemined by the City of Toronto.

The competition brief is also very specific about the inclusion of a number of

elements within the park. These elements are reflective of a cornmunity meeting process, and

'' City of Toronto Court House Square Design Cornpetition Design Bnef, p. 15.

hence a perceived current desire for such elements, although 1 would negate the significance

of such a process as an accurate reaection of the desires of the metrcpolitan individual. The

metropolitan individual continues to have a relationship with the language of modemism for,

without the resources to develop a new language of landscape architecture, which would be

reflective of the conternporary cultural logic, the reiteration of modernist desires is imminent.

It is thus that the parameters of the design competition as they relate to the elements required

are not to be considered as important to the understanding of this park within the social

transformation of landscape architecture.

With the Cornpetition Brief s dependence on the concept of the historicity of the site

and the parameters of the elements desired by the community, Court House Square's design

guidelines do not present conceptions that are consistent with the cultural logic es

postrnodem.

Jury's Report

The jury report for Court House Square has an underlying dependence on the

hgmented nature of the design. There were 5 distinct 'landscape spaces' within the park

that were not reflective of an organizational irnperative of order or progression. They are

elements that, although visually held together, are not intellectually connected. The inclusion

of these distinct eIements appeared to affect the nature of the juror's cornrnents. Unlike the

comments regarding the other submissions to the competition, there was a distinct absence of

thematic commentary- It was acknowledged that Janet Rosenberg's submission included a

historical treatment of the site, but this was more of a technical requirement after the degree

of emphasis which the historicity of the site received.

The juror's comments dealt in most part with the evaluation of particular elements

within the Iandscape. Several cornrnents refer to suggestions of how the park may alter a

specific element within its final realization of the design, as opposed to the significance of the

element within the design.

The juror's report for Court House Park made a distinct break from the modern style

of oîher juror's commentary. This break is clear within the discussion of Janet Rosenberg's

piece. Although there is no clear reference to the cultural logic as postmodernisrn, ches to

the unconnected nature of postmodem existence can be interpreted fiom the method of

commentary. The elements of the Court House Square project achieve an existence doser to

the conception of event as realized within the current cultural logic. The element's

independence of the park demonstrated by the removal of the element £iom the intent of the

park by the jury is consistent with the understanding of the context of event.

The Written ~ubrn iss ion~~

Many of the design decisions for the Court House Park reflect the City of Toronto's

desire to explore the history of the site. The manner in which the design chooses to ernulate

the history of Court House Square, Iiowever, begins to respond to a more postmodem design

style. The most obvious historical reference within Court House Park is the park's physical

arrangement that is based on the foundations of buildings which previously existed on the

site. The park constructs an "imaginary foundation ruin of the original fire hall and other

6' The written submission for Court House Park was not available from Janet Rosenberg and Associates or the City of Toronto. In its place, a document written for the Canadian Society of Landscape Architects Awards Submission was used. The fmt portion of this document is a staternent about the purpose of the project and its design intent. This section provided the information necessary to apply the model.

historical significant buildings." (Rosenberg: 1998) The use of the word imaginary is

consistent with the conception of û-uth and reality within the model. Although the historical

reference of the imaginary ruin is still a modernist influence, the decision to represent history

in an 'imaginary' design is the creation of a new reality, This is consistent with the idea of

simu~acra!~

There are other phrases within the written submission which also have a postrnodern

interpretation, The reference to the lights in the obelisks as beacons also stands out within

the document. 'Beacons' as a specific choice of word to describe lights deliberately implies

that the lights provide a function beyond lighting the park. They are also providing a

different spatial affect. In night the park extends the space that it once occupied to an

unknowable larger space through the light of the beacon. The beacons are also not used to

direct people to a particular spot (as far as their description within the written rnaterial has

divulged) but rather extend the presence of the park. The rational for this extension does not

become clear within the description, beyond the idea of altering the space of the park.

Cultural Logic as Postmodernism

63 Jameson discussed sirnulacra ~vithin The Crisis in History, however, it is used within truth and reality tvithin this model. An imaginary min of something which was not ruined, but was demolished is an identical copy of something for which no original ever existed. Truth and Reality of the frre are convoluted through the imaginary ruin, They present a new truth \vhich is not a syrnbol of reality but rather the creation of an alternate reality.

Both the design and the jurors' comments respond to elements of the cultural Iogic as

postrnodernism, specifically time (event) and space within the model. The temporal and

spatial understanding of the landscape within the w-ritten submission of the landscape

architecture was not made accessible during the course of this discourse. It is clear, however,

£kom the jurors' comments that the cohesion between the elements of the mode1 and the

intent of the design began.

NO^ Postrnodern Key for Chart: Between Modern and Postmodern

Postmodern

Figure 16: Court House Park Analysis

Court House Square presents the first instance where the cultural logic as

posmiodernism is manifested within both a portion of the design intent as well as the manner

in which that intent was later discussed. It is through this occurrence that Court House

Square provides an important contribution to the understanding of the social transformation

of landscape architecture. It still cannot be realized within the design of Court House Square

that Iandscape architecture is indicative of the cultural logic as previously presented, but the

sphere of cultural production and criticism representative of a postmodem influence has

continued to expand.

Case Study 3: Dundas Square

Figure 17: Model of Dundas Square (Source: The City of Toronto's web site)

Dundas St E

r

.- - 4

Dundas Square P b n

Figure 18: Base Plan of Dundas Square (Source: Brown and Storey Written Submissions)

The design competihon for Dundas Square was proposed for the area which most

people in Toronto consider the heaa of the City; the intersection of Yonge and Dundas. This

competition was held in 1998 in anticipation of the 2008 Olyrnpic bid, and was successfully

won by Brown and Storey Architects.

There was no formal jurors' report for the Dundas Square competition. Without the

jurors' report, however, an understanding of the judges' decision is not possible. The judges

for the Dundas Square cornpetition were presented with surveys designed to provide a

foundation for the comprehension of the expenence of the individual and the extent to which

the experience is reflective of the mode of the cultural logic as postrnodemism.

The City of Toronto Design Brief

The design bnef ciiffers greatly firom those of previous cornpetitions for it presents the

'opportunities' of the site as components that should be considered, as opposed to the

emphatic pronouncement of their existence within the site. Further, these cornponents are

reflective of the possibilities of experience within the site and not designed components of

the site. It is thus clear that the understanding of action within Dundas Square is consistent

with the model. As depicted within the model, preconditions that are implemented to guide

the metropolitan individual within the site are not reflected in the physical and psychological

interaction of the individual within the site.'

The instantaneous nature of time as event and the unpredicated nature of action, both

key elements of the rnodel, were further recognized within the section of the brief labeled

"Activities in the Square". The notion that activities are to be flexible disregards the

modernist ideal of providing a perceptual program for the space. Dundas Square is required

to accommodate a list of possibilities that cannot a11 simultaneously manifest a sign or

signifier of that possibility within the square. The City of Toronto recognizes the

unpredictable nature of interaction and event within the cultural logic as postmodernism.

This design brief provides a little discussion of modem ideas and reduces their impact

through the extent to which the city's ideology is consistent with the cultural logic of

postrnodernism. The movernent from elements to be included within the landscape to

opportunities that could be realized in the landscape not only allows a greater eeedorn within

the design process, but also responds to the inability to provide guidelines for the experiences

of the metropolitan individual.

The clear understanding of action, or interaction, consistent with action presented in

the mode1 exists to a degree that implies the understanding of space and t h e , at least at a

cursory Ievel. FIexibility and unpredictability categorize the design parameters of the

landscape, neither of which presents a lirniting factor to the concepts of space or time. The

foundation provided within the cornpetition brief realizes the possibility of landscape design

within a context other than modemism. It realizes the elements of cultural logic as

postmodemisrn even if it is not clearly stated within the specific desires of the brief.

The Written Submission

The written submission is consistent in realizing the various elements of the cultural

logic as postmodemisrn; however, it does fail to ,make a clean break fiom the idluence of

the project of modemity. This failure is not complete, for there is no clear understanding of

time appliec! to the landscape which is solely consistent with the modem conception.

Tirne within Dundas Square is allowed to evolve instantaneously and without

precondition. The Square is a pause, a moment in time, and no longer an extension of the

individual's lived experience. This is achieved on many levels, most notably by the

unpredictable nature of experience within the square. Thus the notion of existence within the

square as event is propelled through the instantaneous capability of the square to transfom.

The transformation of the square also aliudes to the spatial language of the design.

The grid shift of the urban context at Yonge and Dundas provided a space that exists as an

urban ' a n ~ r n a l ~ ' . ~ ~ Although the grid may appear to be an organizational element of the

modern era, Dundas Square introduces the grid in that it produces a shift as opposed to an

organizational element. The shift is a break from the regular space of the modern conception

of metropolitan regularity and produces the opportunity for further breaks korn the context of

the metropolis.

The space, although not convincingly presented as hyperspace, recognizes the

postmodern reluctance for a clear definition. The change in the spatial language, through the

use of the Iights and fountains within the space, prevents the ability of classic signifiers of

space to be considered. Through the change in spatial structure brought about by the lights,

the space reinvents the perceived scale of the landscape. This dramatic transformation of the

square's spatial language is instantaneous and provides the possibility for the

uncomectedness of that space with the previous manifestation of the park, thus propelling the

posûnodem aspect of the space.

In addition to the action that was mandated within the City of Toronto design brief,

Brown and Storey acknowledge both routine and singular events within the square, thus

providing a foundation for action and interaction that are consistent with the cultural logic as

postrnodernism. The threshold for this action is multidirectional, for the space of the

Iandscape does not provide a guide for the experience of the square. The action is thus

capable of being self-organizational in its manifestation within the design.

The written subrnission by Brown and Storey alludes to the understanding of truth

and reality as they are explained within the rnodel. The limits of elements within the park are

pushed to present a degree of reality that no longer is wholly representative of the practical

64 Brown and Storey written submission "Dundas Square Stage 2"

fiinction of that element within the landscape. Lights which are too bright are no longer

conceived of as providing light, an unconnected idea of the reality of the existence of the

light. The light then presents a problem within truth, for the finction of providing light is

still clearly understood, but it is no longer in a rnanner which projects the concise

understanding of light- Its truth is bent within the seerningly absurd use of its fùnction while

only providing its fiinction- m i l e being bright while being nothing but something which is

bright.)

Brown and Storey's design, while a clear departure fkom modemism, continues to

recognize modernist imperatives such as the relevance of history within landscape

architecture, action on a stage, and fomal entrance to the site? These are completely

overshadowed by the degree to which the written submission is able to present the four

elements of the model. It is clear that the cultural logic as postmodernism has provided the

theoretical and social fiamework in which the design was realized.

Jury's Report

The jurors for the Dundas Square cornpetition did not submit a forma1 Jury's Report,

Bellow is the result of the application of the rnodel to the jury's r e ~ ~ o n s e s ~ ~ . Since the

responses fkom the various jurors varied, each response was analyzed individually and

general conclusions were made about the collection of the responses.

65 Aithough Dundas Square rnay not at f3st appear ro provide a formal entrance, one is referred to in their written submission.

The questionnaire can be found in Appenduc A.

Juror 1 Survey Response

Juror 1's survey response was the most indicative of the cultural Iogic as

postmodernism within the responses received by the jurors. Juror 1's comrnents of the

experience possible within Dundas Square recognized various aspects of experience as

opposed to the programmed elements dominant within modem landscape architecture. Many

of the words that Juror I employed within his/her responses present an instantaneous

recognition of this existence. Delight, serendipity, and surprise are al1 experiences which

cannot be programmed for, but rather occur within the rnetropolis, specifically metropolitan

landscapes.

Many elements that are regarded as successful within modem landscape design were

referenced in combination with the ideals of postmodernism. The idea of providing links to

transportation are necessary within the practical irnplementation of a design within a

metropolitan setting, regardless of its cultural condition. These elements, however, were the

elements which the City of Toronto design bnef outlined as being necessary for the park to

realize. A successful candidate of the cornpetition had no choice but to recognize their

existence within the design.

Juror 2 Survey Response

The response received fiom Juror 2 regarded the design in a slightly less consistent

manifestation of postmodernism. Juror 2 continues to understand action as a modernist

structure within the landscape. The participation of the individual in available activities

negates the fiee floating sphere of interaction within the cultural logic as postmodernism.

Juror 2 does recognize the flexibility of activities within the design, but does not distinguish

between prograrnmed activities and instantaneous action if he/she believes the park projects

both.

There is very little reference to greater understanding of the cultural logic as

postmodemism within Juror 2's suwey response. Juror 2 instead continues to express

experiences of Dundas Square within the tanguage of modemism. Juror 2 alludes to the

symbolic, a design conception of modemism which is not tramferable to the postmodern

metropolitan individual. It is thus that his/her response does not add to the conception of

Dundas Square as being reflective of the current cultural logic.

Juror 3 Survey Response

The uncomected nature of Dundas Square to its surroundings is clear within the

response of Juror 3. Juror 3 makes several allusions to a change in the time of the design.

The square provides a pause for the metropolitan individual where the chaos of instantaneous

spatial presence is replaced by the event of time as present, a nonthreatening conception of

time that allows the 'unburdening' which Juror 3 refers to Juror 3 does not recognize the

other elements of the model within hisher answer. Juror 3 remains mainly within the

boundaries of the temporal shifi provided by the Dundas Square design.

Cultural Logic as Postrnodernisrn

Dundas Square embodies a consistency within the theoretical application of the

model and the Ievels of information of the design. It is not cornpletely indicative of the

elements of the model for it still presents a degree of modern values. It is indicative of the

continued realization of the social transfomation of landscape architecture within the

metropolis of Toronto. Within this design cornpetition, al1 levels of information responded to

the culhiral logical as postmodernism, thus presenting an extensive degree of saturation

withui cultural production of the model.

The design is reflective of the elements of the mode1 both within its written intent and

its portrayal of the physical landscape. Both the intent and the portrayal of the landscape are

reflective of the psychology of the metropolitan individual and provide the social foundation

in which metropolitan existence can occur in a postrnodem city such as Toronto.

Not Postmodem Key for Chart: Between Modem and Postmodern

Postmodern

Figure 19: Dundas Square Analysis

Five: Conclusions

The application of the model to the case studies has provided the analysis necessary

to understand the social transformation of landscape architecture within metropolitan

Toronto. It also provîdes the foundation for a discussion of the current cultural logic, as it

exists in Toronto. The application of the model, however, also provided insight into the

larger discussion of metropolitan landscape architecture in contemporary culture.

The Social Transformation of Landscape Architecture in Toronto

~ o t Postmodern Key for Chart: Between Modem and Postmodem

Postrnodem

Figure 20: Summary of Park Analysis

When the parks are examined in a chronological order, they delineate several points

in the evolution of landscape architecture. Although this relation between time and the social

transformation of landscape architecture was not expect, such a result is indicative of an

evolutionary process within deign and culture. Although the philosophical foundation for the

cultural logic existed in the context of the metropolis before the realization of postrnodem

metropolitan Iandscape architecture, landscape architecture had not developed the language

necessary to express the new cultural logic. Each of the parks within the case studies

demonstrates the progression o f the development of such a language and its use within

landscape. This language, however, cannot be conceived of as cornplete until the archaic

language of modemism and its relationship to the cultural production of modernism is

compIete1y surpassed within contemporary sociew. Thus, the Iandscape architecture within

Toronto appears to be following the trends of the other areas of cultural production as

opposed to being engaged within postrnodernism itself. Landscape architecture becomes

more representative of the current social condition of Toronto, as opposed to the cultural

production within the city.

Postrnodemism expressed as a cultural logic within the mode1 utilizes tirne, space,

action, and tmth and reality to provide a structure for the understanding of the language of

postmodernisrn. The social transformation of landscape architecture is represented within the

model through the gradua1 coherence of the case studies and the language of postmodernism

that the model presents. As landscape architecture transforms follaws the evolution of the

metropolis fiom the social parameters of modem society to those of postrnodemism, the

language ofpostrnodernisrn as a cultural logic will become increasingly evident within the

creation of landscape architecture- To achieve an understanding of the transformation of

landscape architecture and its current manifestation within the cultural logic of

postmodernism, the case studies should be considered not only individually, but also as a

cornplete and unfolding se t Through examining the design cornpetitions in chronological

order, the transformation of postmodem landscape architectural language is understood as an

evolving progression of coherence with the cultural condition of postmodernism, as opposed

to the presentation of a language based on a single assumption of a representative tirne of

postrnodemism. Such an assumption is not consistent with the development of a complete

language and, subsequently, with the study of landscape architecture as a social

transformation,

Within Toronto, a gradua1 increase in coherence with the model was clear. Through

each of the pieces of landscape architecture, the manifestation of tirne, space, action, and

truth and reality became more dominant than in the preceding examination. This dorninance

was realized in the degree of coherence with the model, in the language, and in a greater

reflection of the model in the information examined. Through this increasing dorninance,

many concIusions about the social transformation about landscape architecture c m be

posited; however, the purpose of this study is to understand postmodernism as cultural logic

through the examination of the social transformation of landscape architecture within the

metropolis of Toronto.

This transformation occurred incrementally and predictably- As the cultural logic of

postmodernism was realized in each successive design competition, the Ianguage of

postmodernism was further developed, At the advent of the Dundas Square design

competition, the social transformation of landscape architecture in the conception of time and

space was realized not only within the design brief, but also within the jurors' cornments.

The transcendence of such cornrnents indicates that the language of posbriodernism had

become part of the cultural logic of the metropolis and, more specifically, landscape

architecture. Landscape architecture has realized the completion of the prirnary language6' of

postmodemism within the Dundas Square competition, although the containment

characterization of the design using that language was not absolute. A completion of the

67 The primary language of postmodemism refers to the potential of the language to continue to grow and develop, while at the same tirne realizing that the language has developed to an extent that it is a full and working dialogue.

primary Ianguage, however, can be accessed through the various levels of information

regarding Dundas Square. Dundas Square is thus the culmination point in the development

of postrnodern language, the point where the prïmary language is realized and M e r

development of the language will be in degree of complexity as opposed to completion.

Dundas Square, however, is not the cultural realization of the social transformation of

landscape architecture.

The language that exists within the sources of information closest to the park, the

City of Toronto design brief, and the written submission by Brown and Storey, clearly

indicate a more complex use of the language than the other levels of information. T 'us , the

language of postmodern landscape architecture (as detennined by the coherence with the

model) is not readily understood within postmodern Toronto. The metropolitan individual

within Toronto is not yet able to read the text6* of landscape to provide an understanding of

the intent and parameters of design. The Ianguage that provides access to the theory of

landscape architecture, and its social transformation, must reintegrate itself within the

rnetropolitan existence. This reintegration will alIow the vocabulary of landscape to be

infùsed within the greater language of postrnodernism, and thus reopen the access of the

cultural products of postmodern society to the understanding of al1 cultural experiences by

the metropolitan individual.

The metropolis of Toronto is consequently at a curious position for providing an

understanding of the social transformation of landscape architecture. Landscape

architecture's social transformation is realized, but not conceivable by those who do not

68 This use of the word text is in reference to the use of the language of posûnodernism and is different from the text of literature.

already possess a language of the postmodem as it was developed within other areas of

cultural production69. The social transformation of landscape architecture is thus still

separable frorn the totality of the metropolis's cultural logic. This is because of the failure of

Toronto's landscape architecture to reintegrate postmodemist language into the greater

cultural logic of the rnetropolis at the point in time of this paper.

The proposed mode1 was intended to provide the foundation for the complete

realization of the social transformation within the complete cultural logic of postmodernism.

Ahhough the rnodel allowed the cornmentary necessary to understand the social

transformation of landscape architecture, it could not complete the goal of presenting a

metropolis with the consistent social conception of postmodernism as a cultural logic.

Cultural Logic of Landscape Architecture

The social transformation of landscape architecture in Toronto begins to complete the

cultural logic of postrnodernism for it provides the begiming of what is conceivably the final

stage within the developrnent of the language of postrnodernism. Within the North Amencan

context, an awareness of this language by the metropolitan individual is undeniable. The

language, to the extent that it can explain the psychological transformation of the

metropolitan individual, is complete and perceived by the metropolitan individual and

manifested within the shift in experience within the postrnodem city. This shift in experience

is the intellectual access to the language that makes the social and cultural production

occumng today fundamentally unique and different f?om the evolution of the metropolis

69 As seen in the results of the comrnunity meeting within the Court House Square Park.

during modem times- Consequently, the failure to discuss landscape architecture within the

contemporary language of postmodernisrn is also the subsequent failure to recognize that

landscape architecture exists in a hndarnentally different way than in modernism.

It is the continued connection to rnodemism, however, which appears to be

responsïble for Iandscape architecture's incomplete evolution into a postmodem cuItural

production, Landscape architecture, in academia, focuses on rnodemism to a present the

contemporary icons within the design profession. It is this hornage to modem times which

continues to hamper the transformation of landscape architecture into a postmodem form of

cultural production. An understanding of the existing metropolitan condition will provide a

context within education for students to integrate postrnodern into their design own culture.

With so many professors having practiced during the modern era, however, a complete

understanding of postmodernisrn within education becomes difficult. Landscape Architects

who still consider their design as modem do not represent the contemporary situation within

academia to an extent that the student c m adequately comprehend the current cultural

condition of the metropolis.

It is important to recognize Iandscape architecture's social differences within the

postmodem era because the influence of this understanding is directly reflected in the

practices of the designer. Recognizing that the sphere of human condition that is understood

through a postmodern definition of space, tirne, action, and tmth and reality, responds to a

dominating psychology that has cornpletely transformed the metropolitan individual is

fùndamental and should be addressed within the education of landscape architects. As

presented earlier, this is the defining characteristic of the state of unconnectedness of the

metropolitan individual. This unconnectedness provides the foundation for a tenuous

relationship between the metropoiitan individual and the metropolis.

The contemporary connection of the metropolitan individual and the metropolis is

complex but necessary within both the discussion of postmodernisrn and the design of

cultural production. One of the dominatîng critiques of Jarneson's work was the inability to

recognize the connection of the social aspect of the posûnodern city and the production

within the metropolis. The use of Hannah Arendt's work in elucidating the theme of

unconnectedness and reintegrating the social aspect of postmodernisrn into Jarneson's mode1

provides the clues of the contemporary cultural condition which education lacks. Both

Jameson and acadernia try to provide a scientific explanation of postmodernisrn and fail

because it over simplifies the concept and removes the integral understanding of the social

evolution. Although a social understanding of the contemporary condition is difficult for

postmodernisrn continues to evolve, both academics and professors need to regard the

inherent cultural connection of landscape architecture to the social reaIrn to avoid Jarneson's

downfall. As sophisticated as his critique of society was, Jarneson's work did not allow for

the unique social situation of landscape architecture.

Landscape Architecture and the Metropolis

The conternporary metropolis has lost its essential features of urban life because the

metropolitan individual ". . .no longer succeeds in getting an overview of the ever more

complicated Iife of the city as a whole." (Habermas 199 1, p. 1 59) Although the language of

postmodernisrn wiZ1 provide the intellectual tools for the overview of the cuhral production

of the rnetropoIis, it is not sufficient to uni3 the elements of the metropolis in a coherent

manner. The postmodern metropolitan individual's unconnectedness to the greater context is

perpetuated through the language of postmodernisrn. It will provide the vocabulary, but not

the conceptual sphere for the use of the language in a holistic manner. The language itself is

hgmented by the relationship of truth and reality within the postrnodern existence, This is

the inescapable paradox of the current cultural logic, that the tnrth and reality of the Ianguage

fùrther perpetuate the removal of the imperatives of truth and realiw in favor of the

instantaneous and fluid context in which tmth and reality now exist. The conflation between

the absolute and the perceived within postmodern culture ". . mark the emergence of a

postmodemist aesthetic of undecipability where in it becomes increasingly difficult to

distinguish between art and artificiality, culture and comrnodity, imagination and reality."

(Kearney 1988, p. 300)

As the paradoxical relationship of the postmodern condition and its language

continues to perpetuate, the rnetropolitan individual continues to psychologically reintegrate

the language into rnetropolitan existence. This reintegration, however, does not provide

fùrther definition to the metropolitan individuaI, but rather produces homogeneity of

perception and conception. This homogeneity lives within ". . .the fallen body of the

Cpostmodern] city-dweller - with clogged and diminished senses, therapeutically lowered and

adjusted fee1ers and organs of perception, maimed Ianguage and shoddy, standardized mass-

produced feelings ..." (Jarneson 1997, p. 267) and projected in the distopias of the utopian

media image.

Landscape architecture, if it is to escape the artifice of the media's utopia, must

realize how to utilize the Ianguage of postrnodemism to develop discourse within the current

cultural logic. The unconnectedness of the metropolitan individual permits the ability to

psychologically relate to the language of the postrnodern rnetropolis, including postmodern

Iandscape architecture, but does not provide the foundation of being psychologically

engaged. TIiroughout the social transformation of landscape architecture, the rnetropolitan

individual has become increasingly unconnected and psychologically detached £kom

landscape. Landscape architecture desigris space and provides a truth and reality distinct

kom that which had previously existed, and so it is a part of the cultural production of

society. For the postmodern metropolitan individual to identify with this form of social

production, the paradox of the bruth and reality of the language fùrther removing the

imperatives of truth and reaIity, must be reconciled to the extent that the tmth and reality of

the design be accessible to psychology of the metropolitan individual. The social

transformation of Iandscape architecture has thus created the necessity not only to

comprehend the evolving language of the cultural logic of postmodernism and its ability to

provide the vocabulary of postmodern Iandscape architecture, but also the necessity to

recognize the ability to design landscape architecture which the metropolitan individual can

psychologically engage.

Postrnodern landscape architecture which can be engaged, which overcomes the

unconnectedness of the metropolitan individual to the landscape architecture except within a

depthless and flattened experience recognizes the full vocabulary of cultural logic. It is

apparent that, as the postmodern tnith and reality create conditions that fùrther removes the

metropolitan individual fiom tmth and reality, the subsequent manipulation of the parameters

of the physical manifestation of that truth and reaIity is increasingly alienated from reality

and hrther contained within the sphere of image and artifice. Cultural production, which

would fail without the metropolitan individual engaging in the presented reality, provides the

desired products of engagement within the production itselfi7' Landscape architecture must

also provide an alternative conception of design culture to engage the metropolitan individual

70 This is clear when regarding the use of music and imagery in movies to provide the emotions that propel the movie fom~ard. Movies within contemporary culture do provide the text that previously existed between the lines so that the engagement of the individual to the level that this unwrïtten text could be perceived is no longer necessary.

within the intent of the landscape architecture. Tkis alternative conception, however, must

necessarily recognize the hazards of emotional manipulation through the vehicles of

nostalgia, pastiche and fetish so cornmonly found withui postrnodern society. Landscape

architecture within postmodem society, to stay true to the ability of providing an alternative

reality that is dynamic and dimensional must reintegrate emotions through design product to

provide a story for the postmodem rnetropolitan individual. It is then that the metropolitan

individual will realize how to psychologically engage the landscape architecture of the

current cultural logic, postmodernism.

Landscape architecture and the metropolitan individual wili not be able to becorne

psychologically engaged before the relationship with modemisrn in society is cornpletely

dismissed as nothing more than artifice. The relationship of the metropolitan individual to

rnodemist design is archeological by nature but still present within society. It is possible that

the condition of unco~ectedness is being fùrther exacerbated in that many landscape

architects are still consumed by the modernity project. The project of rnodernity had not

achieved its goal of the universal 'tmth' or 'idea' when postmodemism began to influence

the cultural production of society. Without the realization of the end of modemity, a decisive

point of departure, many remnants of modem design ideals continue to manifest themselves

within landscape architecture. Landscape architecture students are presented with a

predominantly modemist education that deals with postmodernism as a design swle7'. When

it is realized that the space and time occupied by landscape architecture are no longer

modem, then the language of postmodemisrn will begin to be integrated into the academia of

7 1 A main influencing factor on this research was that postmodern cultural production is far more than a design style.

Iandscape design. This may not occur unti1 the last of the modernists are no Ionger

practicing, but psychoIogically the need for the understanding of the current cultural logic is

increasing rapidly. Postrnodernism and landscape architecture may never be able to restore

the connection of the modem individual with society and cultural production, but the

psychology ofthe metropolitan individual will continue to subconsciously dernand this

recomection.

Bibliography

Arendt, Hannah, me Hzrman Condition, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 19%.

D e ~ n , Norman K., & Lincoln, Yvonna S., The Landscape of Qualitative Research: Theorïes and Issues, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, 1998.

Demda, Jaques, "Point de Folie - maintenant I'architecture", in Rerhinking Architectrrre: A Reader in Cultural Yheory, Routledge, London, 1997

Eisenman, Peter, "Architecture in a Mediated Environment" in Architectural Associations: The Idea of the City, Ed. Robin Middleton. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1996.

Habermas, Jurgen, Communication and the Evolution of Society, Beacon Press, Boston, 1979.

Habermas, Jurgen, n e Structrrral Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiv into a Category of Bourgeois Society, The MIT Press, Cambridge, 199 1.

Habermas, Jurgen, "Modem and Postmodem Architecture" in Rethinking Architecture: A Reader in Cultural Theory, Routledge, London, 1997

Harvey, David, The Condition of Postmodernity, Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1989

Hays, Michael K., ed., Architecttrre / neory /Since 1968, The MIT Press, Cambridge, 2000.

Jameson, Frednc, "Postmodernism and Consumer Society" in H. Foster (Ed.), Postmoclem Culture, Pluto Books, London, 1983.

Jameson, Frednc, Postmodemism. or, The Culfural Logic of Late Capitalisrn, Duke University Press, Durham, 199 1.

Jameson, Frednc, "The Politics of Theory: Ideological Positions in the Postmodern Debate" in m e ideologies of lleory. Essays, 19 71 - 1986: Vol. 2 Dze Syn fax of History, Routledge, London, 1988.

Kearney, Richard, The Wake of the Imagination, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1988.

Kemmis, Stephen, "Methodology and Epistemology in Educational Research" seminar prepared for the annual meeting of the Australian Association for Educational Research, Geelong, Victoria, November 22-26, 1992.

Koolhaas, Rem, "Atlanta" in Architecttiral Associations: The ldea of the Ci@, Ed. Robin Middleton. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1996.

Leach, Neil, Rethinking Architecture: A Reacler in Czrltural Theory, London, Routledge, 1997.

Lynch, Kevin n e Image of the City, Cambridge, Massachusetts, The MIT Press, 1960.

Mitchell, William J., Space, Place, and the Infobaah: City of Bits, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1999.

Perez-Gomez, Alberto, Architecture and the Crisis ofModem Science, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1996.

Rothe, Peter J., Qaulftative Research: A Practical Guide, RCYPDE Publications, Toronto, 1993.

Simmel, Georg, "The Metropolis and Mental Life", in Rethinking Architecture: A Reader in Cultural Theory, Routledge, London, 1997

Simon, Julian, Basic Research Methods in Social Sciences, Random House, New York, 1978.

Touraine, Alain, Critique of Moderniry, Basil Blackwell, Massachusetts, 1995)

Vattirno, Gianni, The End of Modemity, The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1985.

Virilio, Paul, "The Overexposed City", in Rethinking Architecture: A Reader in Cultural Theory, Routledge, London, 1997

Yin, Robert K., Case Study Research, Sage Publications, Beveriy Hills, 1984.

Cecil, Wes, "Book Review of Fredric Jameson : Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism" (No Date) h t tp : / / to rnade .e re .umont rea1 .ca1 ' -g ;uedon/ l (February 10 2000)

Hirakawa, Hideyuki, "Coping with the Uncertainty beyond Epistemic-Moral Inability: Rethinking the Hurnan Self-Understanding with Hannah Arendt's Reflection on Vita Activa" (No Date) http://web.bu.edu~wcp/Papers/Tech/TechHi.h (October 14 2000)

Homer, Sean, "Fredric Jameson and the Limits to Postmodem Theory"(No Date) ~ w . s h e f . a c . u W u n i / a c a d e m i c / N - O / ~ s y s c / s t l (Febmary 10 2000)

McPheron, William, "Fredric Jameson" (September 7 1999) http://prelectur.stanford.edu/lecturers/iarneson (January 27 2000)

McPheron, William, "Postmodernism, or, the CuItural Logic of Late Capitalism" (September 7 1999) http://~relectur.stanford.edu/lecturers/~amesodexcerpts/~ostmod.html (January 27 2000)

"The Westin Bonaventure Hotel and Suites" (1999) http://~vw.westin.com/prope~.taf?~ro~=1004&lc=en (September 27 2000)

General References

Cloud Gardens Park Sources

"Award of Excellence" in The Canadian Architect, December 1992, vol, 37, no. 12, 18-19.

Andrighetti, Rick, "Bay-Adelaide Park, Toronto" in The Canadian Architect, August 1994, vol. 39, no. 8, p. 22-23.

Coolidge, Cal, "Hanging Gardens" in Architectural Review, August 1995.

Hume, Christopher, "Finding a Human ScaIe to Greed" in Toronto Star, Thursday April4, 1996

Freedman, Adele, "Park a Real Scene Stealer", in The Globe and Mail, Friday December 24, 1993.

Freedman, Adel, "Urban Meditation", in Architecture, August 1995, vol. 84, no. 8, p. 62-67.

Fulford, Robert, "A Modern-Day Ruin" in Toronto Lfe, July 2995, p.45-47.

Ledger, Bronwen, "Six Schemes for a Downtown Park", in The Canadian Architect, November 1990, vol. 35, no. I l , p. 30-34.

Mandel, Charles, "Soothing the Urban Soul", in Canadian Geographic, May/June 1998.

Margeret Preist, Artist and design team member in the Cloud Garden Conservatory

Cumberland Park Sources

"Cumberland Park Design Cornpetition: Report of Professional Advisors and Report of Jury", courtesy of the City of Toronto

"Design Brief' courtesy of the City of Toronto

"Stage III: The Five Finalist", courtesy of the City of Toronto

"Written Submission by Schwartz Smith Meyer", courtesy of the City of Toronto

Andrighetti, Ray, "Village of Yorkville" in The Canadian Architect, August 1994, vol. 39, no. 8, p. 20-21.

Griswold, Mac, "Box Set: Cumberland Park", in Landscape Architecture, p. 66-63.

Kahn, Eve, "Controversial Toronto Parks" in Landscape Architecture, July 1994, vol. 84, p. 20, 22.

"1996 ASLA Awards; President7s Award of Excellence", in Landscape Architectz~re, November 1996, p.71-75.

"Concrete Pavers Knit Park into Toronto's Urban Fabric", in Interlocking Concrete Pavement Magazine, August 1997, p. 4-5,23-24.

Courthouse Park Sources

"Court House Square Design Competition: Report of the Jury", courtesy the City of Toronto

"Design Brief' courtesy of the City of Toronto

"Design Brief for the Canadian Society of Landscape Architects Award Subrnission Urban Design Categosp Courthouse Square: Toronto 1997, courtesy Cecilia Paine of the CSLA

Leslie Coates, Horticulture Co-ordinator, Natural Environment and Horticulture Section, the City of Toronto

Dundas Square

"Dundas Square Design Competition", courtesy of the City of Toronto

"Written Submission by Brown and Storey Architects", courtesy of the City of Toronto

"1999 Awards of Excellence", in m e Canadian Architect, Decernber 1999, vol. 44, no. 12, p. 28-29.

"Ten Arquitectos: Brown aad Storey", in Arclzitecture, April2000, vol. 89, no. 4, p. 13 8- 139.

Hume, Christopher, "Big Urban Room a Wimer" in n e Shr, December 2, 1998.

Furman, Drew, "Dundas Square" (No Date) ~mv.aIIstvlz.com/pa~es/stvIdmiddle mafarc2.htm (August 24 2000)

Johnson, Bernadette, "Dundas Square the 'Stanley Cup' of Outdoor" (June 7 1999) ~~v.strategvrnag,comlarticles/st25778.a (August 4 2000)

Maclean, Susan, 'cArchitects Become More Competitive with CAD" (March 2000) www.cads~stems.corn/proflies/0003R)2.htrnl (August 4 2000)

Walker, Ruth, "Designing Spontaneity into a Public Space" (May 27, 1999) www.csmonitor.com/durable/l999/055/27/~ 14s2.htm (August 24 2000)

Plans for Dundas Square Win Second Architectural Award" (May 16 2000)~w.citv.toronto.on.cahlannindimaes/voun~dundas east2.irig (October 15 2000)

Appendix A: Survey ~uestionnaire'~

Dundas Square Design Cornpetition T O R O N T O , O N T A R I O

Dear: Juror

My narne is Lisa Tamara Wilson and 1 am a graduate student in the Landscape Architecture Program at the University of Guelph. Currently 1 am working on my Master's thesis that in part deals with design competitions in a Metropolitan environment. I have chosen to focus on the successful entry by Brown and Storey for the Dundas Square competition. in order to apply my research to this competition 1 require information regarding the winning entry from the point of view of the jurors who were involved in the competition. I would greatly appreciate it if you could answer the following questions to the best of your ability so that 1 may test my research and predictions against the information 1 am hoping to receive in the responses to the questions.

For my research, I am interested in your perceptions. When answering the questions please write down the first words that corne to mind. Point forrn is acceptable for the questions.

Ideally, 1 would like you to approxirnately 10 minutes cornpleting this questiomaire.

With the tirnelines that 1 am facing with my thesis I appreciate a response to this questionnaire by the end of July. It can be emailed to mittens73(a.vahoo.com, faxed to my attention at (5 19) 767-1686 or mailed to me at 2254 Sussex Court, Burlington, On, Canada, L7P 3R8. I can also be reached by phone at (905) 336-2678.

1 would like to thank you in advance for your cooperation.

Sincerely,

Lisa Tamara Wilson MLA Candidate

72 The questionnaire was ernailed to the jurors of the Dundas Square competition.

These questions pertain to the Dundas Square Cornpetition that was held in Toronto. Please spend approximately 10 minutes to record the first words that corne to mind. Point form answers are welcomed-

Thank you

1. PIease w-rïte down the words which best describe what you believe an individual's

emotional expenence would be within this design.

2. a) Were the types of experience to be had in and around Dundas Square within the Brown and Storey subrnission, fi-om your perception, different f?om the other designs? Yes or No.

b) Please record words that describe the types of expenences to be had in Dundas Square under these two lists. ïhese lists may overlap.

1 Experiences unique to the Brown and 1 Expenences important within Dundas 1

3 . m a t was the main purpose of the design, and how did the Brown and Storey

submission achieve this in your opinion?

Storey design

4. Why was this design unique fkom the other submissions?

Square in your opinion

5. What were the most important elements to you in choosing a design for this site?

6 . How does the expenence in this design differ or relate to the experience of an

individual's Iife in the metropolis?

Please write down the words which best describe what you believe an individual's emotional experience would be within this design.

Arriva1 at the heart of a vital, active city Diversi ty, interest Nighttime - lights, carnera, action A respite by the fountains to hang back and observe

a) Were the types of experience to be had in and around Dundas Square within

the Brown and Storey submission, fiom your perception, different from the other designs? Yes or No.

Yes

Please record words that descnie the types of experiences to be had in Dundas

Experiences unique to the Brown and S torey design Clarity Cornmon ground Positive sequence of arriva1 for subway riders, parkers, and others Orientation Delight Room for serendipity and surprise

Square under these two lists. These lists may overlap. Experiences important within Dundas Square in your opinion

Create a 'heart' to the district Set that 'heart' apart from the high intensity and bustle of area, while allowing enjoymen; of that activity Front door for al1 abutters Distinctive in the family of downtown public spaces Interesting, accessible, safe day and night

What was the main purpose of the design, and how did the Brown and Storey submission achieve this in your opinion?

A new, distinctive, galvanizing, sophisticated center for the commercial downtown.

Why was this design unique fkorn the other submissions?

Clarity, simplicity with elegance, room for the flow of urban life, serendipity and variety. Potential to link modes of transportation, handle crowds, lines

etc. Get a sense of the life of the district fiorn a viewpoint a place of cornmon ground, Successfû~ relationship in al1 directions.

S. What were the most important elements to you in choosing a design for this site?

Create a 'heart' to the district Set that 'heart' apart £kom the high intensity and bustle of area, while allowing enjoyment of that activity Front door for a11 abutters Distinctive in the family of downtown public spaces Interesting, accessible, safe day and night

6. How does the experience in this design differ or relate to the expenence of an individual's life in the metropolis?

A place apart Moment cf amval, connections, orientation, aspects on City life

Juror B

1. Please write down the words which best descnbe what you believe an individual's

emo tional experience would be within this design.

Relief f?om commercial environment, interest in participating in available activities.

2. a) Were the types of expenence to be had in and around Dundas Square within

the Brown and Storey submission, f?om your perception, different îrom the other designs? Yes or No.

Yes

b) Please record words that descnie the types of experiences to be had in Dundas Square under these two lists. These lists may overlap.

1 Experiences unique to the Brown and 1 Experiences important within Dundas 1

Participate or observe Variety of choice

Storey design Public character

Participate or observe Variety of choice

Square in your opinion Public character

submission achieve this in your opinion?

Sense of beauty

To provide a strong sense of public character in contrast to the intense commercial environment surrounding the square and to accornrnodate a variety of activities throughout the year.

Sense of beauty

4. Why was this design unique fiom the other subrnissions?

3. What was the main purpose of the design, and how did the Brown and Storey

Bold simplicity of its design

5. What were the most important elements to you in choosing a design for this site?

Design concept, flexibility of use, sense of quality

How does the experience in this design differ or relate to the experience of an individual's life in the metropolis?

Provides a new focal point in the metropolis, actual and syrnbolic.

PIease write d o m the words which best describe what you believe an individual's emotional expenence would be within this design.

Serenity, calm, a kind of unburdening

a) Were the W e s of experience to be had in and around Dundas Square within the Brown and Storey submission, fiom your perception, different fiorn the other designs? Yes or No.

b) Please record words that describe the types of experiences to be had in Dundas Square under these two lists. These lists rnay overlap.

Actually 1 don't see how to separate this into two 'lists7

What was the main purpose of the design, and how did the Brown and Storey submission achieve this in your opinion?

To provide a sort of oasis in the rniddle of a particular chaotic part of the city. They achieve this through a kind of sleek underdesigning - as opposed to the belIs - and - whistles amusement -park feeling of many of the other entries.

Why was this design unique from the other submissions?

Answer stated in #3

What were the most important elements to you in choosing a design for this site?

These questions seern highly repetitive to me

How does the experience in this design differ or relate to the experience of an individual's life in the metropolis?

What do you mean by 'the experience in this design'? 1 guess the answer, already stated above, is that it provides calmness in chaos.

Juror D

Juror D and 1 had many email discussions concerning the survey and the appropriateness of m y course of study during which too 1 was forced to reveal the intent of m y study in a degree of description which would bias his responses. Juror D, however, did provide commentary which was usefil during the analysis of the responses.

The following is an excerpt fiom Our email correspondence of August 3,2000.

"My reaction was that the scheme was deliberately austere, this is a11 1 can Say for certain. Why 1 believe this to be a virtue is precisely that public space should not be over- designed, it needs to be open to accommodate a hugh of varies. of activïty and response. Most of the other schemes did too much and would not, 1 think, have made good public spaces-"

Juror E

Unfortunately Juror E was to be out of the country during the time in which the questionnaires were to be distributed.