THE CULTURE OF PEACE AND PEACE EDUCATION

ADRIAN NASTASE

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Abstract - In the present world situation, there is an urgent need for new strategies of peace based on the common fundamental interest of mankind, rejecting the use of force, and aimed at creating a new world order. Recognising the close interrela- tionship between culture and peace, and the extension of international interdepen- dencies in reducing economic disparities, emphasis must be given to developing posi- tive attitudes to peace in the minds of att men: a qualitative change in thinking has to occur before international security can be ensured without resort to military alli- ances and nuclear deterrence. The dangers inherent in the arms race require that edu- cation for disarmament be an integral part of peace education. Likewise, the connec- tions between peace and other international objectives such as development and hu- man rights, need to be stressed. Peace education should lead not only to a greater awareness of problems but also to a sense of responsibility and an active involvement in efforts towards promoting equal rights, economic and social development, and mutual respect and understanding among nations. The power of informed public opinion, internationally, in influencing governments towards peace and disarma- ment should not be underestimated; therefore, greater attention in peace education needs to be given to identifying and overcoming the structural, conceptual and cul- tural obstacles to peace. What is being undertaken in Romania, especially amongst young people, by way of education and action for peace, reflects a coherent policy, comprises a powerful and effective educational whole, and is contributing towards the building up of an international 'constituency' of peace and disarmament.

Zusammenfassung - In der gegenw~irtigen Weltlage sind Friedensstrategien, die sich auf das gemeinsame fundamentale Interesse der Menschheit stfitzen, ~iul3erst notwendig geworden. Sie lehnen die Anwendung yon Gewalt ab und es ist ihr Ziel, eine neue Weltordnung zu schaffen. Wird die enge Beziehung zwischen Kultur und Frieden und der Ausbau internationaler gegenseitiger Abh~ingigkeiten zur Reduzie- rung wirtschaftlicher Ungleiehheiten anerkannt, so mul3 der Entwicklung positiver Einstellungen zum Frieden ein besonderer Platz einger/iumt werden: eine qualitative Ver/inderung der Denkgewohnheiten muB eintreten, bevor internationale Sicherheit gew/ihrleistet werden kann, ohne auf milit~irische Biindnisse und nukleare Ab- schreckung zurfickzugreifen. Die Gefahren des Wettrfistens machen es erforderlich, dab Erziehung zur Abrtistung zum wesentlichen Bestandteil der Friedenserziehung wird. Ebenso mul3 die wechselseitige Beziehung, die zwischen Frieden und anderen internationalen Zielen besteht, wie Entwicklung schlechthin und Menschenrechte betont werden. Friedenserziehung sollte nicht nur zu einem gr6f~eren Problembe- wuBtsein, sondern auch zu einem Verantwortungsgefiihl und einer aktiven Teil- nahme an solchen Bemfihungen fiihren, die gleiche Rechte, die wirtschaftliche und

International Review of Education lnternationale Zeitschrift ffir Erziehungswissenschaft - Revue lnternationale de Pddagogie X X [ X (1983), 391-401. All rights reserved. Copyright © by Unesco Institute for Education, Hamburg and Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, The Hague.

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gesellschaftliche Entwicklung und gegenseitigen Respekt und Verst/indnis fiir einan- der zwischen Nationen f6rdern. Der Druck der informierten Offentlichkeit weltweit, Regierungen hinsichtlich Frieden und Abrfistung zu beeinflussen, darf nicht unter- sch~tzt werden; deshalb muf~ in der Friedenserziehung gr6i3ere Aufmerksamkeit darauf verwandt werden, strukturelle, konzeptuelle und kulturelle Hindernisse, die dem Frieden im Wege stehen, zu erkennen und zu nehmen. Was - besonders bei den jungen Menschen - in Rum~inien in Sachen Friedenserziehung und -aktionen getan wird, spiegelt eine koh/~rente Politik wieder, enthfilt ein starkes und effektives erzieherisches Ganzes und tr~igt zum Aufbau einer internationalen 'W~ihlerschaft' von Frieden und Abrtistung bei.

R6sum6 - Un besoin urgent de nouvelles strat6gies de paix bas6es sur l'int6r~t com- mun et fondamental de l 'humanit6, refusant l 'emploi de la force et visant ~ la cr6a- tion d 'un nouvel ordre mondial se fa r sentir dans le monde actuellement. En recon- naissant l'6troite corr61ation entre la culture et la paix, l'extension des interd6pen- dances internationales au niveau de la r6duction des in6galit6s 6conomiques, l 'accent doit ~tre mis sur le d6veloppement d'attitudes positives envers la paix dans l 'esprit de tous les hommes: un changement qualitatif doit s'op6rer au niveau du raisonne- ment avant que la s6curit6 internationale ne puisse ~tre assur6e sans avoir recours aux alliances militaires et ~ la force de dissuasion nucl6aire. Les dangers inh6rents

la course aux armements exigent que l '6ducation pour le d6sarmement fasse partie int6grante de l '6ducation pour la paix. I1 faut souligner 6galement les rapports entre la paix et les autres objectifs internationaux tels que le d6veloppement et les droits de l 'homme. L'6ducation pour la paix ne devrait pas conduire seulement ~t une plus grande conscience des probl6mes mais aussi ~t un sens des responsabilit6s et ~t une participation active aux efforts fairs pour promouvoir l'6galit6 des droits, le d6velop- pement 6conomique et social, le respect mutuel et la compr6hension entre les na- tions. I1 ne faudrait pas sous-estimer la force d 'une opinion publique mondiale in- form6e et son influence sur les gouvernements en mati6re de paix et de d6sarmement. I1 faut donc, dans l '6ducation pour la paix, accorder une plus grande importance l 'identification et ~t la suppression des obstacles ~ la paix du type structurel, concep- tuel et culturel. Ce qui est entrepris en Roumanie, et particuli6rement cbez les jeunes par la voie de l '6ducation et de l 'action pour la paix refl6te une politique coh6rente, renferme un tout 6ducatif efficace et puissant et contribue a la formation d 'un 'col- l~ge 61ectoral' international de paix et de d6sarmement.

Confl ic t , Interdependence and the C o m m o n Dest iny

The c o n t e m p o r a r y wor ld is cons tan t ly changing its s t ructure , becoming

more and more complex , and there fore being con f ron t ed with an ever-

increasing n u m b e r o f p rob lems o f a g lobal charac ter , as a result o f the emer-

gence in the in te rna t iona l a rena of new interests der iving f rom the cont inu-

ous mod i f i ca t i on o f the in te rna t iona l ba lance o f power . In this in te rna t iona l

c l imate, in which the exponent ia l increase o f wor ld-wide in te rdependencies

also engenders the appea rance - inevi table as a mat te r o f fact - o f new

tensions and var ious confl icts , it is essential to f ind, develop and put in to

pract ice peaceful p rocedures with the in ten t ion o f changing and resolving

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conflicts, procedures which - in the nuclear era - should be able to obviate

the danger of war that might mark the end of mankind.

Under these circumstances, it is necessary, more than ever, to elaborate a coherent strategy of peace which would have as its purpose the influencing of the attitude of different social categories f rom all countries, the 'teach- ing' of certain types of social behaviour aimed at facilitating its progressive

growth, by means of stimulating at the same time the process of mutual un- derstanding among peoples. This process, oriented mainly towards the edu-

cation of youth in the spirit of ideals of peace, mutual respect and under- standing among peoples, should have as its central goal the development in the minds of individuals of a consciousness of the fundamental interests

common to mankind related first of all to inhibiting the outbreak of a nu- clear war.

A contradictory dialectic of human interests at political, economic and social levels is hence revealed, together with which a common fundamental interest o f mankind emerges, linked to its destiny in a political/military background torn apart by crisis and distrust.

The problems of peace and disarmament therefore represent at present a

central issue for all peoples and for all categories of people of every age whose efforts should be marshalled for the achievement of peace and disar-

mament . Differences of conception and ideology, even if profound, cannot constitute obstacles in the fulfilment of the common purpose, which is

peace, in a climate of disarmament and co-operation. For this reason, strat- egies of peace, having as their main target the elimination of all internation- al conflicts as well as the use of force, must be oriented towards utilising

some means of change in international relations which should result in a new world order - characterised by the harmonious development of all nations

- and thus remove possible causes of future confrontations or conflicts.

This process should be based on the use and development of existing nor- mative and institutional structures and channels, and particularly on the ob- servance of the fundamental principles of international law and an increas-

ing role of the United Nations in maintaining international peace. It should also, however, support such initiatives - unilateral or multilateral - as the creation of peace zones, the intensification of measures for increasing trust among nations, the development of good-neighbourliness, the improve- ment of the international climate and the relaunching of policies of dftente

- against the general background of eliminating the use of force.

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The Culture of Peace and the 'Civilization of the Universal'

A close interdependence exists between the development of culture and mankind 's state of peace, the level of culture and civilization being, at the

same time, a premise and an outcome of peace. As Sigmund Freud declared in 1932 in a letter to Albert Einstein, 'Everything which acts for the develop-

ment of culture also acts against war. '~ The extension of international interdependencies - at global, regional

and sub-regional levels - in the context of reducing economic disparities and against a background of an extremely high level of armaments and military forces in the contemporary world, has brough to the forefront of

theoretical analysis of international problems the need to examine the hu-

man, cultural dimension of international conflicts as well as the necessity of finding the means to overcome the mental obstacles to peace. As has been

stated in the preamble to the Constitution of Unesco, 'Since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defences of peace must

be constructed. ' War has long been glorified, people's heroes having generally been the

victors of wars. Ancient mythology even sanctioned a god of war. The cul- ture of peace - which does not have too remote a history - should first, therefore, recognise and discredit the myth of the god, Mars. 2 With this in

view, its aim has to be the legitimisation of peace and its orientation to the promotion of peaceful values, which may be achieved by developing a mes- sage that can be employed in the process of peace education and by engend-

ering a new approach - global and humanistic - to world problems. This new approach is needed because 'al though we live at a new level of risk and

complexity, men 's understanding, actions, decisions and values remain rooted in conceptions about the world that have lost ground' .3

Thus, the process of international ddtente cannot be relaunched without a qualitative change taking place as regards the approach to peace and secu-

rity - inasmuch as military security will not of itself move from its tradi- tional basis of military and political alliances and nuclear deterrence, to-

wards a gradual limitation of arms and forces and ultimately disarmament. The purpose of this process should be to ensure the security of all states by means other than military ones.

While seeking a general consensus with regard to certain key values, the essential diversity of cultures and value-systems should not be undermined. Acknowledging the right of various cultures to their own identity within the context of what R. Maheu has called ' the civilization of the universal ' , also imposes the necessity of encouraging a common responsibility in the resolv- ing of global problems.

Hence, so far as peace - as an international value - is concerned, al-

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though it exists as a legally protected value (according to numerous interna-

tional legal documents), the most efficient ways of bringing it to the level

of a realised value need to be discovered, because the state of peace repre-

sents only a premise for the establishment of a new worm order which is in- tended to be a real system of peace, constantly self-generating.

We should underline that, under the circumstances of the world at the

present time, peace must no longer be defined as the absence of war ( 'nega- tive peace') but rather as the gradual process of organising the multi-value international interdependencies as well as resolving any disputes which may appear, by means that exclude the use o f force and that emphasize the find- ing of adequate forms of co-operation ( 'positive peace'). Consequently, the culture of peace should have as its object the control of violence and the 'hu- manizing' of international conflicts by developing peaceful means of effect-

ing change. A central element of the strategy against war has been, up to now, the de-

velopment of deterrent forces consisting mainly of military components. That is why, at present, a fundamental mutat ion in the way in which matters of war and peace are dealt with, is needed, brought into being by the promo-

tion of a mentality of peace oriented towards diminishing controversial and aggressive instincts. E. Evtuchenko wrote, 'Culture and war are hereditary

enemies, because war is anti-culture'4; and he added, 'Culture is a barri-

cade against war. Each stone of this barricade should be a book. '5

Just as Bronze- or Iron-Age Culture had periods in which man was de-

scribed as homofaber, so the culture of peace should be concerned with the creation of a new human type, conscious of his powers but at the sarne time

aware of the dangers his force engenders; acknowledging the fundamental significance that peace has for mankind in this period, the new type of man should be able to be described as homo pacis.

Peace Education: Aims

'We are running carelessly towards a precipice, having erected something in

front of us to prevent us f rom seeing it. ' These words of Pascal - written, of course, in another epoch and in a different context - nevertheless expres- sively define the irrational state of the present world as regards the contrast between the tremendous developments of science and culture and the anti- human manner of using them in international relations. Analysis of Pascal 's text f rom the present perspective suggests what the main aims of peace edu- cation in the contemporary world should be, namely (1) appreciation of the reality of a 'precipice' and the removal of barriers, false arguments and the- ories that may obscure it; (2) developing in the mind of individuals a con-

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sciousness of the danger that the race towards this 'precipice' represents; and (3) creation of conditions for action which would gradually brake and finally halt the careless rush towards the 'precipice'.

It is therefore necessary that the problems of peace and disarmament be made accessible to ever larger social groups 6 - by developing the concerns of education on peace and disarmament and of education for peace and dis- armament, 7 and by assembling a 'message' which on the one hand empha- sizes the dangers of the arms race, the history of disarmament concerns and the present stage and dimensions of the approach to it, and on the other hand makes clear the mechanisms for change, the ways of solving this severe global dysfunctioning.

The educational process is going on all the time in different forms and at various levels (formal/nonformal/informal, elementary/secondary/uni- versity, direct/indirect, in-school/out-of-school, etc.), 8 its importance be- ing underlined more and more frequently. Thus, in the Final Document of the Tenth Special Session of the United Nations General Assembly, dedicat- ed to disarmament, it was stated inter alia that education programmes in the fields of disarmament and peace 'contribute to a better understanding of and acquaintance with the problems created by the arms race and the disarma- ment necessity, thus being able to play an effective part in the solving of this major problem of the contemporary world by creating an opinion favour- able to the stopping of the arms race, to the reduction of arsenals of accu- mulated arms, to the systematic reduction of military expenditures and to moving on to disarmament'. Impressing on the minds of young people the dangers present in the negative phenomena of international life would make possible on an international scale the growth of solidarity and collaboration directed towards the elimination of those factors which distort the process of ddtente and peace in the world, and contribute to the development of a powerful force of world public opinion against those governments that con- tinue the irrational arms race. As was stated in the 1965 Declaration of the United Nations General Assembly regarding the promotion amongst young people of the ideals of peace, mutual respect and understanding among peo- ples (a declaration initiated by Romania), 'Young people should be educat- ed in the spirit of peace, justice, freedom, mutual respect and understand- ing, in order to promote equal rights for all peoples and nations, as well as economic and social progress, disarmament and the maintenance of peace and international security.' The main short-term objective of peace educa- tion, then, should be the promotion of a conception based on the peaceful resolution of conflicts already existent or still to appear, and in the long- term, it should aim to prevent any serious international conflicts arising.

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Peace Education: Content and Form

The content of peace education is dynamic and, consequently, variable. It is different, relatively, in different parts of the world and reflects, among other things, the national interests, traditions and values of the respective peoples. 9 In principle, this educational process has to stress the necessity of maintaining peace, the essential relationship between peace and disarma- ment, the need to find new forms of international security which would no longer be based on armaments, and the necessity of resolving all interna- tional disputes peacefully; it must also underline the importance of observ- ing all the basic principles of international law. 1°

The message that peace education conveys should be fluent, vital, con- stantly adapting its content to changing world problems. It must also point out the connections between peace and other international objectives, con- cepts and values, such as disarmament, international security, development and human rights, emphasizing the interdependence which exists among all the global problems of mankind. 11

Peace education should comprise and develop more dimensions like ac- quaintance with world problems, awareness of responsibility and participa- tion in influencing international life. Knowledge of the great dangers which threaten mankind and of the other negative consequences of the arms race, must lead to the development of an awareness of responsibility and bring about a real desire to participate in the great efforts being made to prevent man's self-destruction. Education with an international purview must also have as a goal the development of the capacity for perceiving and under- standing how the individual may be involved in international life, and the responsibility which this participation conveys, by explaining international interdependencies and pointing out the existence of such global issues as peace, underdevelopment, mineral resources and the protection of the envi- ronment.

Within the framework of peace education, an ever-greater attention has to be paid to the obstacles to peace - obstacles of a structural nature (main- ly related to the relationships between states), conceptual (strategic doc- trines), and cultural (prejudices, malformed perceptions), like the glorifica- tion of war, the exacerbation of ideologies based on violence, the biassed presentation in the press of information that breeds fear and distrust among nations.22 Amongst these, false ideas spread as propaganda by the media represent a dangerous way of manipulating social action; in this context, it is a significant contributory factor to conflict in that it heightens the sense of threat/3 For this reason, peace education requires a considerable com- mitment on the part of the researchers and teachers taking an interest in so- cial sciences, in the analysis of the profound crisis confronting man - as

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citizens having responsibilities that affect the destiny and consequently the survival of their fellow-men. At the mental level, the risk consists in the manner in which one perceives an eventual danger coming from outside one's own community/nat ion and the reaction/overreaction to this danger, both being justified by individual/collective interests. Besides being sensible of his responsibility towards the collectivity to which he belongs, the person involved in making judgements on issues of war and peace should develop a sense of responsibility towards mankind as a whole, inasmuch as such a person, who is 'politically aware', has to be prepared on behalf of his com- munity to set a maximum limit to what may be permissible in the interest of humanity. In other words, no decision of national policy that may en- danger the survival of mankind, can be acceptable or accepted.

In this domain, the ideas and conceptions promoted by the great Roma- nian diplomat, Nicolae Titulescu, in the period between the two World Wars, are particularly relevant. For Titulescu, 'the foundation of peace' should be laid in the consciousness of every individual. 'How can the edifice of peace be erected without the support of the masses?' he asked, TM illus- trating the importance of the part played by public opinion in maintaining peace and influencing the policy of governments towards disarmament. As far back as 1931, Titulescu stated, 'I am thinking of moral disarmament

having as its aim the revising of school textbooks, in order to develop in young people the spirit of international solidarity. '15

Peace Education in the Romanian Context

Peace education is a naturally integral part of the consciousness of the Ro- manian people, who have always been concerned with creating peaceful re- lations, with good-neighbourliness with other peoples, and with maintain- ing peace itself, having known in unlooked-for circumstances over the course of time, the wounds and destruction wrought by war. Moreover, this is reflected in the Romanians' mind and spirit by the numerous expressions in their language which sanction their love and desire for peace: ' to give peace', ' to make peace', ' to go in peace', ' to have (or 'not to have') peace', ' to break the peace, ' to reach peace', ' to leave in peace', ' to impose peace', and so on.

In every country there must be a connection between its government's policy with respect to issues of peace and war and the practice and content of peace education, because every educational process implies the 'repro- duction' of some value-system based on the national interest as this is per- ceived by each government. Hence, a close relationship exists between the position and action of governments in international relationships and the

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content of peace education. So far as Romania is concerned, its position and initiatives in the field of peace and disarmament are well known. 16 In these circumstances, it will be clear that in Romania, peace education is endorsed both by the political will and by the will of the public in its orientation to- wards the reduction and eventual dismantling of armaments, and in its at- tempts at the same time to catalyse public opinion and governments' poli- cies, internationally, to this end.

Peace education in Romania, to be found at every level of the educational process, points to the need for a related dimension, that of actionforpeace - action which can only be based on an awareness of the necessity of con- structing a peaceful international order. While this is true for people of all ages, it is particularly important for young people at school and university. With a view to the presentation and analysis of these insights, numerous seminars, discussions, round tables, national and international, have taken place at the Academy of Social and Political Sciences, at 'Stepfan Gheor- ghiu' Academy, at the University of Bucharest, at the Romanian Associa- tion of International Law and International Relations, and at the National Commission of Romania for Unesco. Various aspects of peace and disar- mament in relation to other major international issues have been examined, granting the opportunity to teachers, researchers and students to express their opinions in these fields. Among these meetings, mention may be made, for instance, (1) of the international round table on 'Peace and Disarma- ment ' , organised by the Romanian Association of International Law and International Relations (ADIRI); (2) of the debate on the relationship be- tween disarmament and national/international security, organised by the Academy of Social and Political Sciences; and (3) of many other meetings organised by ADIRI in connection with the good-neighbourhood principle, with recent aspects of disarmament at the United Nations, with the outlook of Nicolae Titulescu on peace and disarmament between the two World Wars. The Institute of Legal Research and the Institute of Political Sciences of Bucharest have also organised some debates on the same subjects.

Studies on these matters by Romanian teachers, researchers and students have appeared in specialised publications such as t h e Revue roumaine d'dtudes internationales, the Journal of the National Commission of Roma- nia for Unesco, Viitorul social, the Annals of the University of Bucharest, Legal Studies and Research, the Journal of Philosophy, and the Romanian Journal of Social Sciences (also issued in foreign language editions). Univer- sity textbooks designed for students of the Law, the Economic Sciences and other Faculties, contain important chapters on the problems of peace and disarmament and their legal aspects; at the same time, the efforts made by the United Nations in this field are stressed. 'Political Reports ' are also brought to the knowledge of students regularly, within the framework of

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youth organisations; these reports lay emphasis on international actions for peace and disarmament that are taking place all over the world. Finally, the

Romanian daily newspapers with their large circulations play an impor tant

role in presenting th rough their regular columns, news and comment on ne-

gotiations and other activities for peace and disarmament .

All that is being done in many different forms and ways, comprises a

powerful educat ional whole which has an effective impact on Romanian

public opinion; and it represents, at the same time, a major componen t o f

what has begun to stand for a real, international ' const i tuency ' o f peace and

disarmament .

Notes

1. Quoted in Paixsur la terre. Anthologie de lapa&. Paris: Unesco, 1980, p. 202. 2. Cf., A. de Saint-Exup6ry: ' . . . if I make war to obtain peace, I lay the founda-

tion for war'; and, 'Peace is no longer a state which can be obtained by means of war.' 'Citadelle'. In Oeuvres. Paris: Ed. Gallimard, Biblioth6que de la PI6- iade, 1959, p. 566.

3. J.W. Botkin, M. Elmandjra and M. Malitza. Orizontulfdrd limite al ?nvdtdrii (The Limitless Horizon of Learning). Bucharest: Ed. politich, 1981, p. 24.

4. E. Evtuchenko. 'La po6sie, rempart contre la guerre'. In La guerre ou la paix? Paris: Unesco, 1980, p. 193.

5. E. Evtuchenko. Op. cir., p. 194. 6. See also, A. Nastase. 'Educa~ia pentru dezarmare - necesitate ~i actualitate'

('Disarmament education - a matter of necessity and present interest'). Rev&ta romCmd de drept. 1981, No. 12, pp. 3-7.

7. By 'peace education' we mean education with an international dimension which aims at developing in the minds of individuals an awareness of the reasons for war and the necessity of establishing and maintaining conditions for peace. This implies, therefore, education for peace, disarmament, development, interna- tional co-operation, etc.

8. Extremely interesting conceptual insights in this field have resulted from the studies by Magnus Haavelsrud, Robin Burns, Nigel Young and Robert Aspe- slagh in the Special Issue of the Bulletin of Peace Proposals on 'Peace Educa- tion' (12 (1981), No. 2).

9. For a more extensive analysis of these aspects, see D. Chiloran and A. N~stase. 'Educa~ia pentru dezarmare: con~inut ~i form~' ('Disarmament education: con- tent and form'). Journal of the National Commission of Romania for Unesco. 1980, No. 4, pp. 323-328.

10. Unfortunately, the object of this educational process is not understood and pre- sented coherently as an entity or consistently with the targets cited, by different education systems.

11. K.E. Boulding. Stable Peace. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1978, pp. 5ff. See also, D. Senghaas. 'Education for peace'. Law and State. 1971, No. 3, p. 70. And J. Galtung. 'Between peace and development'. Bulletin o f Peace Pro- posals. 11 (1980), No. 2, pp. 145-149.

12. As regards the concrete problems of analysing and teaching, at various educa-

40l

tional levels, about the obstacles to peace, see B. Reardon. 'Obstacles to disar- mament education'. Bulletin o f Peace Proposals. 10 (1979), No. 4, pp. 359-367.

13. Cf., A. Myrdal" 'According to an investigation carried out in 1948, fifty per cent of Americans used to consider the Russians as being "cruel" , while, during the war, when they were allied, it was only nine per cent of Americans that attributed such a characteristic to them. This is, therefore, the type of prejudice which fa- voured cold war; it is very probable that the Russians have the same kind of pre- judice against the Americans. ' 'Unesco and peace'. In Comisia na~ionalfi ro- mgmfi pentru Unesco, In cugetul oamenilor. Unesco 1946-1971 (In the Mind of People. Unesco 1946-1971). Bucharest: Ed. Univers, 1974, p. 192.

14. N. Titulescu. 'Progresul ideii de pace' ( 'Progress of the idea of peace'). In Dis- cursuri (Speeches). Bucharest: Ed. Stiin~ifica, 1967, pp. 346-347. For details see also A. Nfistase. 'Conceptul de pace ~n viziunea lui N. Titulescu' ('The concept of peace in N. Titulescu's outlook'). Revista rom~nd de studii internationale (Revue roumaine d'dtudes internationales). 1982, No. 3.

15. Cited in I.M. Oprea. Nicolae Titulescu. Bucharest: Ed. Stiin~ific~, 1966, p. 109. 16. As long ago as 1960, Romania proposed, for inclusion on the agenda of the Unit-

ed Nations General Assembly, the topic, 'Measures for the promotion among young people of the ideals of peace, mutual respect and understanding among peoples. ' In the explanatory prologue to this proposal, it was pointed out that the education of the younger generation could be influenced in a positive way by the condemnation of war and war propaganda and by developing their under- standing of the ideals of peace. In 1965, as a result of this initiative, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Declaration on promoting among young people the ideals of peace, mutual respect and understanding among peoples.