the democratic coup

8/13/2019 The Democratic Coup

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Volume 53, Number2, Summer 2012

The

DemocraticCoup dE

tat

Oa! O" Varol

Table o# Co!te!t$

%!troductio!""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""2&2

%" T'pical Characteri$tic$ o# a Democratic CoupdE tat """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 2%%" The Co!$titutio!al E!tre!chme!t The$i$ """"""""" 3

A. Self-Interested Behavior in Democratic Politics """"""""""" 3B. Self-Interested Behavior by Military Leaders in a

Democratic Coup """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 3C. Constitutional ntrenchment Durin! Military "ule """""" 3

%%%" Ca$e Studie$ """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 3A. #he #ur$ish Coup of %&'() Institutional ntrenchment """ 3

%. #he Prelude and Aftermath of the Coup """""""""""" 3*. Institutional ntrenchment """"""""""""""""""""""" 3

a. #he #ur$ish Constitutional Court """"""""""""" 3b. #he +ational Security Council """""""""""""""" 3

B. #he Portu!uese Coup of %&,) Substantive ntrenchment " " 3%. #he Prelude and Aftermath of the Coup """""""""""" 3*. Substantive ntrenchment """""""""""""""""""""""" 3

C. #he !yptian Coup of *(%%) Procedural ntrenchment """" 3%. #he Prelude and Aftermath of the Coup """""""""""" 3*. Procedural ntrenchment """"""""""""""""""""""""" 3

%V" Co!clu$io! """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 3


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2

arvard International La/ 0ournal 1 2ol. 34

The Democratic Coup dE

tat

Oa! O" Varol)

#his Article e5amines the typical characteristics and constitutional conse6uences of a lar!ely ne!lectedphenomenon that I call the 7democratic coup d8e9tat.: #o date; the academic le!al literature hasanalyollo/in! a democratic coup; the military temporarily !overns the nation as part of an interim!overnmentuntil democratic elections ta$e place. #hrou!hout the democratic transition process; themilitary behaves asa self-interested actor and entrenches; or attempts to entrench; its policy preferencesinto the ne/ constitutiondrafted durin! the transition. Constitutional entrenchment may occur in three/ays) procedural; substantive; and institutional. #he Article uses three comparative case studies toillustrate the democratic coupphenomenon and the constitutional entrenchment thesis) ?%@ the %&'(military coup in #ur$ey; ?*@ the%&, military coup in Portu!al; and ?4@ the *(%% military coup in !ypt.

%!troductio!

O! *ebruar' 11, 2011, the E+'ptia! rmed *orce$ $eied po-er #rom.re$ide!t /o$!i ubara i! a coup detat" The coup -a$ $ta+ed i! re$po!$e

to determi!ed prote$t$ oer ei+htee! da'$ b' hu!dred$ o# thou$a!d$ o#E+'ptia!$ dema!di!+ the ou$ter o# the autocratic a!d corrupt ubara re+ime a!d it$ replaceme!t -ith democrac'" The demo!$tratio!$ -ere lar+el'!o!ideolo+ical a!d the prote$tor$ hailed #rom all #acet$ o# E+'ptia! $ociet'"4ome! a!d me!, u$lim$ a!d Chri$tia!$, $eculari$t$ a!d %$lami$t$, thepoor a!d the -ealth' all oi!ed ha!d$ i! the aptl' !amed alTahrir, or 6iberatio! S7uare, i! a call #or #reedom a!d democrac' a#ter decade$ o# rule b'dictator$"1 That call -a$ a!$-ered, !ot b' a #orei+! po-er, but b' thecou!

) Vi$iti!+ $$i$ta!t .ro#e$$or o# 6a-, Chica+o8e!t Colle+e o# 6a-" *or help#ul di$cu$$io!$a!d #eedbac, % tha! 9er!adette tuahe!e, 6i$a 9er!$tei!, 4illiam 9irdthi$tle, %rit 9rod$',Natha! 9ro-!, Chri$topher 9ucca#u$co, :ia!li! Che!, Stee! /e'ma!, Tom ;i!$bur+, Ta''abahmud, a de la /uerta Vial, %!+ram 4eber, a!d theparticipa!t$ i! the =ale%lli!oi$.ri!ceto! Comparatie 6a- 4or$i!.ro+re$$ 4or$hop, Chica+o8e!t *acult' 4or$hop, a!d the ?!ier$it' o# Chica+o 6e+al Scholar$hip 4or$hop" *or out$ta!di!+re$earch a$$i$ta!ce, % tha! 8ei! cClure" ll Turi$h tra!$latio!$ i! the rticle are mi!e"1.See; e.!., Daid D" 8irpatric, !ypt rupts in 0ubilation as Mubara$ Steps Do/n, N"=" Time$, *eb"

11, 2011, http@AA---"!'time$"comA2011A02A12A-orldAmiddleea$tA12e+'pt"htmlBpa+e-a!tedall Thi$i$a reolutio! #or all E+'ptia!$F there i$ !o room #or a $i!+le +roup$ $lo+a!$, !ot the Gu$limH 9rother
http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html?pagewanted=allhttp://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html?pagewanted=all


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*(%* 1 #he Democratic Coup d89

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tr'$ o-! militar', -hich $eied po-er #rom ubara a!d a$$umed co!trolo#

the +oer!me!t"ubara$ #all $pared a -ae o# celebratio!$ arou!d the -orld" $ thetouch$to!e #or cha!+eI i! the rab -orld,2 E+'pt +ae hope to the oppre$$ed people o# 6ib'a, S'ria, =eme!, a!d be'o!d to reolt a+ai!$ttheir oppre$$or$"3 Credit #or the $ucce$$#ul oerthro- o# the ubarare+ime -e!ti! lar+e part to the E+'ptia! rmed *orce$, -ho re#u$ed to#ire o! the prote$tor$ duri!+ the demo!$tratio!$ a!d $tepped i! toa$$ume co!trol o#the +oer!me!t -he! ubara $tubbor!l' re#u$ed toreli!7ui$h hi$ $tro!+hold" .re$ide!t 9arac Obama heaped prai$e o!the E+'ptia! militar' #or $erGi!+H patrioticall' a!d re$po!$ibl' a$ acaretaer to the $tateI a!deJpre$$ed hi$ co!#ide!ce that the militar'-ould e!$ure a tra!$itio! that i$credible i! the e'e$ o# the E+'ptia!people"I(

The E+'ptia! militar' coup appear$ to brea the traditio!al mold o# militar' coup$" /i$toricall', mo$t militar' coup$ hae bee! perpetrated b'po-erhu!+r' militar' o##icer$, primaril' i! South merica a!d #rica,$eei!+ to depo$e eJi$ti!+ re+ime$ i! order to rule their !atio!$ i!de#i!itel'"

5The term militar' coup detat

*re!ch #or $troe o# the $tateI

bri!+$ to mi!d coup$ $ta+ed throu+h corrupt bacroom plot$ b'o##icer$ lie Colo!el uammar ;adda#i" ilitar' o##icer$ i! mo$tcoup$ abu$e publictru$t a!d oerthro- the eJi$ti!+ re+ime, !ot tobri!+ about $tructural re+ime cha!+e, but to co!ce!trate po-er i!their o-! ha!d$ a$ dictator$"K

The a$$umptio! that all militar' coup$ #it -ithi! thi$ traditio!al, a!tidemocratic model perade$ the literature" ccordi!+ to the preaili!+ie-, a democratic militar' coup i$ a! oJ'moro!" *or eJample,


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o# the proce$$ o# reolutio!"I& Other eJample$ o# thi$ academic ie-

abou!d"10

*ederal la- i! the ?!ited State$ re#lect$ the $ame di$dai! #ormili tar' coup$ b' prohibiti!+, -ith certai! eJceptio!$, a!' #i!a!ciala$$i$ta!ceto the +oer!me!t o# a!' cou!tr' -ho$e dul' elected heado# +oer!me!t i$ depo$ed b' militar' coup or decree"I11 The Europea!?!io! made a $imilar commitme!t i! 1&&1"12

%! thi$ rticle, % challe!+e thi$ co!e!tio!al i!tellectual #rame-or a!dit$ u!derl'i!+ a$$umptio!$" *ir$t, % propo$e that althou+h all coup$ haea!tidemocratic #eature$ i!$o#ar a$ the' place the militar' i! po-er b'#orce or the threat o# #orce, $ome militar' coup$ are di$ti!ctl' more

democrac'promoti!+ tha! other$" %! the$e coup$, the militar' re$po!d$to popular oppo$itio! a+ai!$t a! authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+ime,oerthro-$ that re+ime, a!d #acilitate$ #air a!d #ree electio!$ -ithi! a$hort $pa! o# time"lthou+h militar' leader$, lie ciilia! leader$, ca!abu$e a!d hae abu$edtheir po-er$, eJample$ eJi$t o# militar' coup$ detat that hae $ucce$$#ull' tra!$itio!ed authoritaria! re+ime$ todemocracie$" Thi$ rticle thu$ adocate$ a more !ua!ced approach toealuati!+ the de$irabilit' o# coup$ that accou!t$ #or coup$ that producedemocracie$, e$peciall' -here other path$ to democratiatio! hae bee!bloced b' a! authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+ime" Dra-i!+ o! #ield-orthat % co!ducted i! E+'pt a!d Ture' duri!+ the $ummer o# 2011, thi$

rticle de$cribe$ the t'pical characteri$tic$ o# democratic coup$ a!deJami!e$ their co!$titutio!al co!$e7ue!ce$ u$i!+three comparatie ca$e$tudie$@ 1 the 1&K0 militar' coup i! Ture', 2 the1&L( militar' coup i!.ortu+al, a!d 3 the 2011 militar' coup i! E+'pt"

9. Id. 7uoti!+ !dre- C" :a!o$, #he Seiorce and Popular Consent, in


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Democratic militar' coup$ commo!l' #eature $ee! attribute$@ the militar'

coup i$ $ta+ed a+ai!$t a! authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+imeF the mili tar're$po!d$ to popular oppo$itio! a+ai!$t that re+imeF the authoritaria! ortotalitaria! leader re#u$e$ to $tep do-! i! re$po!$e to the popular oppo$itio!F the coup i$ $ta+ed b' a militar' that i$ hi+hl' re$pected -ithi! the!atio!,ordi!aril' becau$e o# ma!dator' co!$criptio!F the militar' eJecute$ the coupto oerthro- the authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+imeF the militar'#acilitate$ #reea!d #air electio!$ -ithi! a $hort $pa! o# timeF a!d the coup e!d$ -ith thetra!$#er o# po-er to democraticall' elected leader$"

The democratic coup i$ the eJceptio!, !ot the !orm" The a$t maorit' o#coup$ do !ot #it -ithi! the democratic coup #rame-or put #orth i! thi$ rticle,primaril' becau$e either the' are $ta+ed a+ai!$t a democraticall' elected+oer!me!t, !ot a! authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+ime, or the' re $ult i! adictator$hip, !ot i! #ree a!d #air electio!$" 9ut !either i$ the demo cratic coupphe!ome!o! limited to the three ca$e$ eJplored i! thi$ rticle"ccordi!+ to arece!t empirical $tud', i! the po$tCold 4ar era, $ee!t' #our perce!t o#coup$ -ere #ollo-ed b' democratic electio!$ -ithi! #ie 'ear$"13 $ theauthor$ o# that $tud' !ote, the !e- +e!eratio! o# coup$ ha$ bee! le$$o# a me!ace #or democrac' tha! their hi$torical predece$$or$"I1(

*ollo-i!+ a democratic coup, the militar' temporaril' +oer!$ the !atio!a$part o# a! i!terim +oer!me!t u!til democratic electio!$ o# ciilia! lead er$tae place" Duri!+ that democratic tra!$itio! proce$$, -hich t'picall' la$t$#or o!e to t-o 'ear$, the militar' mu$t oer$ee a !umber o# hou$eeep i!+ta$$ to tra!$itio! the !atio! to a democrac'" Thi$ rticle #ocu$e$ o! o!e$peci#ic ta$@ dra#ti!+ a !e- co!$titutio! to replace the co!$titutio! that+oer!ed duri!+ the authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+ime"

The rticle$ $eco!d the$i$ i$ that, ee! thou+h a democratic coup e!d$ i!#ree a!d #air electio!$, the militar' behae$ a$ a $el#i!tere$ted actor duri!+the democratic tra!$itio! proce$$ a!d e!tre!che$, or attempt$ to e!tre!ch, it$

polic' pre#ere!ce$ i!to the !e- co!$titutio! dra#ted duri!+ the tra!$itio!proce$$"15 Co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t ma' occur i! three mode$@procedu

13. Id. at 12" Thi$ doe$ !ot mea!, ho-eer, that $ee!t'#our perce!t o# all coup$ i! the po$tCold4ar era co!#orm to the democratic coup #rame-or i! thi$ article" *or eJample, i# the coup -a$$ta+eda+ai!$t a democraticall' elected +oer!me!t a$ oppo$ed to a totalitaria! or a! authoritaria!+oer!me!t, that coup -ould #all out$ide thi$ article$ democratic coup #rame-or, -hether or !otdemocratic electio!$ #ollo-ed the coup" See infra .art % a!al'i!+ the t'pical characteri$tic$ o# ademocratic coup"14.

ari!o P ;oema!$, supra !ote 12, at 12"15. The a$t literature o! public choice ha$ a!al'ed $el#i!tere$ted behaior b' politicia!$ a!da+e!c' co$t$ i! democratic rule" See; e.!., Daid u$te!Smith P :e##re' S" 9a!$, .o$itie.oliticalTheor' %%@ Strate+' a!d Structure 32K 2005F Timoth' 9e$le', .ri!cipled +e!t$B@ The.olitical Eco!om' o# ;ood ;oer!me!t 3K3M OJ#ord ?!i" .re$$ 200KF /a!$ ;er$bach,De$i+!i!+ Democrac'@ %dea$ #or 9etter


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ral, $ub$ta!tie, a!d i!$titutio!al" %! the procedural mode, the militar' $et$ up

the democratic tra!$itio! proce$$ $o that the proce$$ produce$ a $ub$ta! tieco!$titutio!al outcome #aorable to the militar'" %! the $ub$ta!tie mode, themilitar' re$ere$ $ub$ta!tie po-er$ #or it$el# u!der the !e- co! $titutio!" %!the i!$titutio!al mode, the militar' e$tabli$he$ cou!ter maoritaria! i!$titutio!$u!der the !e- co!$titutio! that co!ti!ue to e! #orce the militar'$ polic'pre#ere!ce$ ee! a#ter the militar' reli!7ui$he$ po-er to democraticall'elected leader$" %! democratic coup$, there#ore, the people a!d the militar'$eem to $trie a *au$tia! bar+ai! -here the militar' eJtract$ a price i! the#orm o# co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t i! eJcha!+e #ordepo$i!+ a dictator$hip

a!d tur!i!+ po-er oer to the people"lthou+h militar' coup$ -ere o!ce a hot topic i! academia, $cholar$hip o!coup$ ha$ $i+!i#ica!tl' decrea$ed i! rece!t 'ear$"1K Scholar$ rece!tl' !otedthat the academ' co!ti!ueG$H to lac a ba$ic u!der$ta!di!+ o# ho-coup$mi+ht hae a broad impact o! a ra!+e o# topic$"I1L That dearth o#$cholarl' u!der$ta!di!+ eJte!d$ to the militar'$ role i! co!$titutio!alde$i+!, o!-hich there i$ little literature"1M The militar' thu$ remai!$ thelea$t $tudied o# the #actor$ i!oled i! !e- democratic moeme!t$"I1&

Thi$ $cholarl' $hortcomi!+ i$ ee! more pro!ou!ced #or democraticmilitar' coup$, -hich hae bee! lar+el' !e+lected b' the literature" Theco!cept o# a democratic coup, i!cludi!+ both it$ aim$ a!d it$co!$titutio!al co!$e 7ue!ce$, remai!$ #orei+! #or academic$ a!dpoliticia!$ alie" 4e are there#ore u!able to +ra$p a!d properl' addre$$,e5 ante, the pote!tial e##ect$ that ademocratic militar' coup ma' hae o!the re$ulti!+ democratic co!$titu tio!"20 E$peciall' +ie! the rece!thi+hpro#ile coup i! E+'pt, there i$ a! ur+e!t !eed #or academicatte!tio! to the co!cept a!d co!$titutio!al co!$e 7ue!ce$ o# ademocratic militar' coup" Thi$ rticle i$ a! attempt to #ill that$cholarl' oid"

Thi$ rticle proceed$ i! three .art$" .art % a!al'e$ the t'picalcharacteri$tic$ o# a democratic militar' coup detat" .art %% $et$ #orth theco!$titu tio!al e!tre!chme!t the$i$" .art %%% applie$ the co!$titutio!ale!tre!chme!t the$i$ to three ca$e $tudie$@ .art %%%" eJami!e$ the 1&K0militar' coup i! Ture'F .art %%%"9 $tudie$ the 1&L( militar' coup i!.ortu+alF a!d .art%%%"C a!al'e$ the 2011 E+'ptia! militar' coup"

Policies, 132 .ub" Choice 2L3 200L" To m' !o-led+e, ho-eer, $el#i!tere$ted behaior b' militar'o##icial$ duri!+ militar' rule ha$ attracted little atte!tio! i! the literature"16. See .o-ell P Th'!e, supra !ote 5, at 2(&F see also ahmud, supra !ote 10, at 52 !oti!+ that the

la$t article o! udicial re$po!$e$ to coup$ detat -a$ publi$hed i! 1&MK"17. .o-ell P Th'!e, supra !ote 5, at 2(&"18. See; e.!., ahmud, supra !ote 10, at 103 coup detat, o! the other ha!d, t'picall' aim$

o!l' atcapturi!+ political po-er eJtraco!$titutio!all'" O!l' that part o# the Co!$titutio! -hich bear$o! the#ormatio! o# political or+a!$ o# the $tate i$ $uberted"I"19. Seel#red Stepa!,


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I. T'pical Characteri$tic$ o# a Democratic Coup dE

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The primar' purpo$e o# a militar' i$ to protect the $tate #rom eJter!althreat$"21 To achiee that purpo$e, the $tate mu$t e!do- the militar'-ith the mea!$ to u$e coercie po-er ia militar' e7uipme!t a!dper$o!!el"22Thi$ abilit' to u$e coercie #orce, thou+h !ece$$ar' tode#e!d the !atio! a+ai!$t threat$, create$ the da!+er that themilitar' -ill tur! it$ -eapo!$ o!the er' re+ime that empo-ered it$eJi$te!ce"23 %! a $emi!al article o! -hathe termed the ciilmilitar'problemati7ue,I .eter *eaer $ucci!ctl' $um maried the

#u!dame!tal te!$io! cau$ed b' mai!tai!i!+ a militar' -ithi! aciilia! +oer!me!t@ The er' i!$titutio! created to protect thepolit' i$ +ie! $u##icie!t po-er to become a threat to the polit'"I2(

lthou+h mo$t!atio!$ emplo' le+al a!d admi!i$tratie mea$ure$ toeep the militar' $ub $erie!t to the ciilia! +oer!me!t, tho$emea$ure$ are e##ectie o!l' i!$o#ara$ the militar' choo$e$ to #ollo-them"25 4he! the militar' di$re+ard$ tho$e mea$ure$ a!du!lea$he$ it$ coercie po-er to topple the ciilia! +oer!me!t,there$ult i$ a coup detat"

The literature i$ ri#e -ith competi!+ de#i!itio!$ o# a coup detat" coupdetat, a$ the term i$ u$ed i! thi$ rticle, occur$ -he! the militar', or a$ectio! o# the militar', tur!$ it$ coercie po-er a+ai!$t the apeJ o# the$tate, e$tabli$he$ it$el# there, a!d the re$t o# the $tate tae$ it$ order$#rom the !e-re+ime"I2K Thi$ de#i!itio! eJclude$ coup$ perpetrated b'$tate actor$ other tha! the militar' a!d al$o eJclude$ reolutio!$,-hich are de#i!ed a$ epi$ode$ -here !o!$tate actor$ e##ectuatere+ime cha!+e"2L The de#i!itio! #ur ther eJclude$ ca$e$ -here themilitar' pla'$ a more pa$$ie role i! ademocratic tra!$itio! b', #or

eJample, re#u$i!+ to $uppre$$ a popular oppo$itio! -ithout oertl'a$$i$ti!+ it, or b' allo-i!+ a +oer!i!+ cou!cil com pri$ed o#elected repre$e!tatie$, !ot militar' o##icer$, to ru! the proce$$ o#tra!$itio! to democrac'" 9ecau$e thi$ rticle $tudie$ the militar'$role i!democratic tra!$itio!$ a!d democratic co!$titutio!al de$i+!,% #ocu$ o! ca$e$ -here the militar' it$el# depo$e$ the eJi$ti!+authoritaria! re+ime a!d $u peri$e$ the democratictra!$itio!proce$$"

To date, academic di$cu$$io! ha$ primaril' ce!tered o! de#i!i!+ a coup i!

term$ o# it$ tar+et$, perpetrator$, tactic$, a!d $ucce$$ or #ailure"

2M

*or eJam

21. .eter D" *eaer, Civil-Military "elations, 2 !!"


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ple, $cholar$ di$a+ree o! -hether the tar+et o# a coup i$ the e!tire +oer!

me!t or o!l' the chie# eJecutie"2&

6ie-i$e, $cholar$ hae debated-hetherthe perpetrator o# a coup $hould be limited to the armed #orce$or ma' i!clude a!' participati!+ part o# the $tate apparatu$ e"+",$ecurit' $erice$,ciilia! member$ o# the +oer!me!t, etc""30 Scholar$al$o di$a+ree o! -hether the coup mu$t be ille+al31 a!d -hether thede#i!itio! $hould i!clude coup plot$ a!d rumor$"

The de#i!itio!$ i! the eJi$ti!+ literature hae a! importa!t $hortcomi!+"The$e de#i!itio!$ #ocu$ primaril' o! the proce$$ b' -hich the coup tae$place" The literature thu$ reduce$ coup$ detat to mecha!ical term$, -hile

!e+lecti!+ po$$ible $ub$ta!tie compo!e!t$"

32

Thi$ .art attempt$ toaddre$$thi$ $cholarl' oer$i+ht b' deelopi!+ a $ub$ta!tie #rame-or#or a$$e$$i!+ militar' coup$ that #ocu$e$ o! the re$ulti!+ cha!+e, orlac thereo#, to the +oer!a!ce $tructure o# the re+ime #ollo-i!+ thecoup"

' +oal here i$ !ot to create a u!ier$al o!e$ie#it$all theor'I o#dem ocratic coup$ or a! ele+a!t model that ab$tract$ a-a' thedi$ti!ctie"I33The chaotic actualit' o# a coup detat rarel' #it$ -ithi!!eat le+al cate+orie$" Coup$ te!d to i!ole a ra!+e o# di##ere!tmotiatio!$, actor$, a!d outcome$"The obectie$ o# the militar',a$ -ell a$ the outcome o# the coup, -ill o#te! be co!teJtdepe!de!t" %t i$ !o!ethele$$ po$$ible to cate+orie coup$ detati!to t-o admittedl' $impli#ied +roup$ that #ocu$ o! -hether thecoup produce$ democratic re+ime cha!+e"

The #ir$t t'pe o# coup

-hich, #or ea$e o# re#ere!ce, % call the !o!

demo cratic coupI

t'picall' bri!+$ about o!l' per$o!i#ied cha!+e, !ot

$tructuralre+ime cha!+e"3( %! other -ord$, the coup leader$ replace

the political lead er$ o# the preeJi$ti!+ re+ime -ith militar'o##icer$, but the #orm o# the +oer!me!t a!d the political $'$temremai! u!altered" %! a !o!democratic coup, the obectie o# themilitar' o##icer$ i$ o#te! to co!ce!trate po-er i!

29. Id. at 250"30. Id. at 251"31. Id. *or eJample, Samuel *i!er$ de#i!itio! o# a coup i!clude$ the militar'$ i!tere!tio!Ii!to

political a##air$

-hether that i!tere!tio! i$ le+al or eJtrale+al" See Samuel *i!er, The a! o!

/or$ebac@ The


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that a reolutio! $ere$" Id. at M"33. See 8im 6a!e Scheppele, Constitutional thno!raphy) An Introduction, 3M 6" P Soc"


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tat10

their o-! ha!d$ a!d rule the !atio! i!de#i!itel' a$ dictator$" Some o# themo$t

i!#amou$ rece!t eJample$ o# !o!democratic coup$ detat i!cludeuammaral;adda#i$ oerthro- o# the 6ib'a! re+ime a!d Omar /a$a!hmad al9a$hir$ coup i! Suda!"

9ut there i$ a $eco!d cate+or' o# militar' coup$, lar+el' !e+lected i!the eJi$ti!+ literature, -ho$e outcome$ are $ub$ta!tiel' di##ere!t tha!tho$e o# !o!democratic coup$" The$e coup$ oerthro- a totalitaria! orauthoritaria!re+ime, !ot to bri!+ about i!de#i!ite per$o!i#ied cha!+e, butto e##ectuate $tructural re+ime cha!+e b' #acilitati!+ #air a!d #reedemocratic electio!$-ithi! a $hort $pa! o# time" The e!d o# $uch a coupi$ mared b' the tra!$ #er o# po-er b' the militar' o##icer$ todemocraticall' elected leader$" *or ea$e o# re#ere!ce, % re#er to $uch acoup a$ a democratic coup"I

9e#ore % de$cribe the t'pical characteri$tic$ o# a democratic coup, threecaeat$ are i! order" *ir$t, % do !ot mea! to $u++e$t that a militar' coup ca!eer be democratic i! the traditio!al $e!$e o# that -ord" *ree a!d #air electio!$ are the sine 6ua non o# democrac', a!d the militar' a$$ume$ po-er !otthrou+h electio!$, but b' #orce or the threat o# #orce duri!+ a coup"35llcoup$, i!cludi!+ -hat % call the democratic coup,I there#ore hae !o!democratic #eature$" ' ar+ume!t here i$ that !ot all coup$ are e7uall'a!tidemocraticF $ome coup$ are di$ti!ctl' more democrac'promoti!+tha!other$ becau$e the' depo$e a! authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+imea!d tra!$#er po-er to democraticall' elected leader$"

Seco!d, % al$o do !ot ar+ue that a coup detat i$ pre#erable to other method$ o# re+ime cha!+e" %! certai! co!teJt$, a people$ reolutio! i! -hichciilia!$, a!d !ot militar' leader$, co!trol the tra!$itio! proce$$ ma' bepre#erable to a militar' coup" 9ut i! other$, militar' i!tere!tio! ma' bethe o!l' aailable optio! to $hepherd a !atio! throu+h the tumultuou$ tra!$itio! proce$$ to democrac' becau$e other method$ o# democratiatio! hae

bee! bloced b' the authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+ime" *or eJample, i!.ortu+al i! 1&L(, the authoritaria! +oer!me!t e!$ured that the popularoppo$itio! a+ai!$t the re+ime remai!ed too di$or+a!ied, $ociall' a!d politicall', to tae the primar' role i! depo$i!+ the +oer!me!t, -hich promptedthe .ortu+ue$e militar' to $ta+e a coup to topple the +oer!me!t a!d replace it -ith a democratic re+ime"3K

Third, m' #ocu$ here i$ o! the t'pical attribute$ o# a democratic coup,#rom the i!itial $par #or the coup to the ha!do## o# po-er todemocraticall'elected leader$" % do !ot di$cu$$ -hether the re+ime that

re$ult$ a#ter the militar' ha!d$ oer po-er to democraticall' electedleader$ i$ democraticI

35. See 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at (F see also =o$$i Shai! P :ua! :" 6i!, 9et-ee! State$@%!terim ;oer!me!t$ a!d Democratic Tra!$itio!$ & 1&&5 $ lo!+ a$ tho$e -ho hold po-erduri!+the i!terim period do !ot or+a!ie them$ele$ a$ a co!te!di!+ part' a!d -i! a ma!date i! #ree a!d#air electio!$, the' hae !o democratic le+itimac'"I"36. See :ordi Sole Tura, Iberian Case Study) #he Constitutionalism of Democrati


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i! the traditio!al $e!$e o# that -ord or -hether the militar'$ e!tre!chme!t

o# it$ polic' pre#ere!ce$ i!to the re$ulti!+ co!$titutio!, -hich % di$cu$$ i!.art %%, pree!t$ democratic co!$olidatio!" % i!te!d to eJami!e the !ormatie implicatio!$ o# co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t i! #uture proect$"

4ith the$e three caeat$ i! mi!d, ho- doe$ o!e determi!e -hether amilitar' coup #it$ -ithi! the $eco!d, more democratic, protot'pe de$cribedaboeB democratic militar' coup t'picall' #eature$ the #ollo-i!+ $ee!attribute$@ 1 the coup i$ $ta+ed a+ai!$t a! authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+imeF 2 the militar' re$po!d$ to per$i$te!t popular oppo$itio! a+ai!$t thatre+imeF 3 the authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+ime re#u$e$ to $tep do-! i!

re$po!$e to the popular upri$i!+F ( the coup i$ $ta+ed b' a militar' that i$hi+hl' re$pected -ithi! the !atio!, ordi!aril' becau$e o# ma!dator' co!$criptio!F 5 the militar' $ta+e$ the coup to oerthro- the authoritaria! ortotalitaria! re+imeF K the militar' #acilitate$ #ree a!d #air electio!$ -ithi! a$hort $pa! o# timeF a!d L the coup e!d$ -ith the tra!$#er o# po-er todemocraticall' elected leader$"

>irst, a democratic coup $ee$ to oerthro- a totalitaria! orauthoritaria! re+ime" %! a totalitaria! $'$tem, the ruli!+ part' ha$elimi!ated almo$t allpolitical, $ocial, a!d eco!omic plurali$m that eJi$tedbe#ore the ade!t o#that re+ime"3L The o##icial part' o# the $tate ha$ airtual mo!opol' o! po-er that it eJerci$e$ to #urther a u!i#iedutopia! ideolo+'"3M The political leader$ o# the ruli!+ part' +oer!the !atio!, u$uall' chari$maticall', -ith u!de#i!ed limit$ o! theirauthorit' a!d +reat ul!erabilit' a!d u!predict abilit' #or bothmember$ a!d !o!member$ o# the ruli!+ part'"3&

%! a! authoritaria! re+ime

a -atereddo-! er$io! o# a totalitaria! re

+ime

there i$ little or !o re$po!$ible political plurali$m"(0

The ruli!+part'

o#te! act$ a##irmatiel', ia le+al or eJtrale+al mea!$, to $uppre$$ political oppo$itio!" lthou+h a! authoritaria! re+ime lac$ re$po!$iblepoliti cal oppo$itio!, #airl' eJte!$ie eco!omic a!d $ocial plurali$meJi$t$ that pre date$ the e$tabli$hme!t o# the authoritaria! re+ime"(1

The ruli!+ leader or leader$ o#te! lac a! elaborate a!d +uidi!+ideolo+' a!d eJerci$e po-er -ithi! illde#i!ed !orm$"(2

coup $ta+ed a+ai!$t a !o!authoritaria! or !o!totalitaria! +oer!me!tthere#ore doe$ !ot co!$titute a democratic coup u!der thi$ #rame-or" a!'coup$ hae bee! perpetrated -ith the o$te!$ible purpo$e o# toppli!+ -hatmilitar' leader$ ie- a$ corrupt, i!e##icie!t, or $hort$i+hted politicia!$"Tho$e

coup$ #all out$ide the democratic coup #rame-or becau$e the people ma'depo$e $uch politicia!$ b' oti!+ them out o# o##ice, -ithout the !eed

37. 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at (0, (3"38. Id.39. Id. at (5"40. Id. at 3M, (3"41. Id.42. Id. at 3M"


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to re$ort to militar' i!tere!tio!"(3 coup ma' be democratic o!l' -he!

electio!$ are !ot a mea!i!+#ul mecha!i$m #or depo$i!+ a politicalleaderbecau$e that leader i$ u!-illi!+ to reli!7ui$h po-er"Second, i! a democratic coup, the militar' re$po!d$ to a per$i$te!t popular

oppo$itio! a+ai!$t a totalitaria! or authoritaria! leader" That oppo$itio! ordi!aril' tae$ the #orm o# a popular upri$i!+"(( popular upri$i!+, a$ % u$ethat phra$e here, re#er$ to a ma$$ie +atheri!+ o# citie!$ #rom ma!'

#acet$ o#$ociet' u!ited b' a commo! political cau$e

i! thi$ co!teJt, the

oerthro-o# the authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+ime"(5 Citie!$ u$uall'

+ather i! a$'mbolic place

e"+" alTahrir S7uare i! Cairo or Tia!a!me!

S7uare i!9eii!+

to call #or the re$i+!atio! o# a! autocratic leader a!d the

u$heri!+i! o# democrac'"(K The +atheri!+ co!ti!ue$ oer a period o#

time a!d cro-d$+ro- i! $ie, de!$it', a!d #eror each da', i!dicati!+broad popular $upport #or re+ime cha!+e"(L The citie!$ re+ardthem$ele$ a$ the a!+uard o# abetter #uture, o!e i! -hich the' co!troltheir o-! de$ti!' -ithout the$tro!+hold o# a! oppre$$ie re+ime"(M The'

are u!ited b' a commo! -ill #ordemocrac'

a -ill that ha$ bee! de!ied to

them at the ballot boJ"(& l thou+h u!ited b' the commo! cau$e o#democratic re#orm, the cro-d$ t'picall' lac a cohere!t bluepri!t #orachiei!+ democratic re#orm a!d rarel' $ee #ar be'o!d the $i!+ular+oal o# the oerthro- or re$i+!atio! o# the auto cratic leader"50

Duri!+ the popular oppo$itio!, the citie!$ mi+ht eJpre$$l' call upo!the!atio!$ militar' to i!tere!e" *or eJample, the people a!d the arm'areo!e ha!dI -a$ a cha!t #re7ue!tl' i!oed duri!+ the popular upri$i!+that

43. See Samuel ." /u!ti!+to!, The Third 4ae@ Democratiatio! i! the 6ate T-e!tiethCe!tur' 10 1&&1 ;oer!me!t$ produced b' electio!$ ma' be i!e##icie!t, corrupt,$hort$i+hted, irre$po!$ible, domi!ated b' $pecial i!tere$t$, a!d i!capable o# adopti!+ policie$dema!ded b' the public +ood" The$e 7ualitie$ ma' mae $uch +oer!me!t$ u!de$irable, butthe' do !ot mae themu!democratic"I"44. The popular oppo$itio!, ho-eer, !eed !ot tae the #orm o# a popular upri$i!+" *or eJample,

i! the ca$e o# .ortu+al, there -a$ !o ma$$ie popular upri$i!+ a+ai!$t the re+ime, primaril' due totheoppre$$ie practice$ o# the $ecret police that cru$hed a!' oppo$itio! be#ore it blo$$omed" Thepopularupri$i!+ came a#ter the coup, -he! thou$a!d$ poured i!to the $treet$ o# .ortu+al to le!d their$upport to the militar' o##icer$ -ho perpetrated the coup" % di$cu$$ the .ortu+al coup infra i! .art%%%"9"45. See


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tat13

occurred i! E+'pt i! earl' 2011"51! E+'ptia! -ho too part i! the al

Tahrir prote$t$ de$cribed to me ho- the cro-d$ erupted i!celebratio! at the $i+ht o# the #ir$t militar' ta! that e!tered the$7uare" The cro-d$ !e-that the militar' -a$ there either to $hieldthe prote$tor$ #rom the $tate riot police -ho had bee! #iri!+ lieammu!itio! upo! them, to u$e the $7uare a$ the i!itial $ta+e o# acoup i!te!ded to e##ectuate re+ime cha!+e, or both"52 ohamedEl9aradei, #ormer head o# the %!ter!atio!al tomic E!er+'+e!c' a!d a -ell !o-! oppo$itio! leader i! E+'pt, eJpre$$l'called #or a militar' coup o! hi$ T-itter pa+e@ % a$ the arm' to

i!tere!e immediatel' to $ae E+'pt"I

53

6ie-i$e, #ollo-i!+ the.ortu+ue$e coup i! 1&L(, cro-d$#loced to the $treet$ to cheer o!the militar' o##icer$ a!d a ba!!er that readT/N8 =O?,


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14

arvard International La/ 0ournal 1 2ol. 34

co!$criptio!"


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tat15

o# the corrupt a!d autocratic $tate apparatu$"5M *or eJample, a poll co!

ducted b' the dail' !e-$paper uHrriyet i! September 2005 #ou!dthat the militar' i$ Ture'$ mo$t tru$ted i!$titutio!,5& de$pite it$hi$tor' o# meddli!+ i! Turi$h political a##air$, lar+el' becau$e o#compul$or' militar' $er ice #or all me!"K0 Se!do## o# $oldier$ toper#orm militar' $erice $tillprompt$ public celebratio!$ i! Ture'-ith mu$ic a!d parade$, a!d Tur$co!ti!ue to thi! o# them$ele$a$ a! arm' !atio!I as$er millet, re#lecti!+ the perceptio! that a$'mbiotic relatio!$hip bi!d$ the $tate to the armed #orce$ that#ou!ded it a!d !o- protect it"IK1

*or $imilar rea$o!$, ma!' o# the #ou!der$ o# the ?!ited State$ -eredeepl' $eptical about mai!tai!i!+ a militar' compri$ed o# pro#e$$io!al$oldier$"K2The #ramer$ ie-ed pro#e$$io!al $oldier$ a$ automato!$,$tripped o# i!diidualit' a!d $u$ceptible o# ide!ti#'i!+ more -iththeir leader$ tha! -ith the +e!eral populatio!"IK3 Compo$ed o#o##icer$ #rom the ari$tocrac' a!d$oldier$ #rom the bottom o# $ociet'brutalied b' har$h di$cipli!e, i$olated#rom the re$t o# $ociet', lo'al!ot to a! ideal or to a +oer!me!t but to a comma!d -ed to it$ o-!traditio!$,I pro#e$$io!al $oldier$ -ere perceied a$ more liel' to bebeholde! to their leader$ tha! to the +reater ideal$ #or -hich the'

#ou+ht or the people -ho the' purported to protect"K( *oradi$o!,pro#e$$io!al $oldier$ -ere thu$ more readil' tur!ed b' corruptcomma!der$ a+ai!$t the i!tere$t$ o# The .eople"I K5 6ie-i$e, i!*ederali$t No" 2&, /amilto! ar+ued, 4hat $hado- o# da!+er ca!there be #rom me! -ho are dail' mi!+li!+ -ith the re$t o# theircou!tr'me! a!d -ho participate -ith them i! the $ame #eeli!+$,$e!time!t$, habit$, a!d i!tere$t$BIKK !d accordi!+ to :oh!/a!coc, G#Hrom a -ellre+ulated militia -e hae !othi!+ to #earFtheir i!tere$t i$ the $ame -ith that o# the $tate " " " " GTHhe' do !ot

eopardie their lie$ #or a ma$ter -ho co!$ider$ them o!l' a$ the

58. See Eboe /utch#ul, "econstructin! Political Space) Militarism and Constitutionalism in Africa , inCo!$titutio!ali$m a!d Democrac', supra !ote 3K, at 215, 21K The militar' $ee$ it$el#, a!d i$ #re7ue!tl' $ee!, a$ the o!l' or+a!iatio! $u##icie!tl' remoed #rom political parti$a!$hip to be able to claim a!arbitrati!+ role a!d to $et commo! rule$ o# political di$cour$e" %t$ relatie auto!om' " " " promote$ thi$ $el#co!ceptio! -ithi! the militar' a!d +ra!t$ it ar'i!+ de+ree$ o# le+itimatio! -ithi! $ociet' a$ a -hole"IFahmoud /amad, #he Constitutional Challen!es in Post-Mubara$ !ypt, 1( %!$i+ht Tur" 51,53 2012a!' E+'ptia!$ $a- the arm' a$ a mai! pillar o# $tate $tabilit' a!d !atio!al $ecurit', a! ima+e that the

re+ime co!trolled media care#ull' !urtured"I"59. Er$el 'di!li et al", #he #ur$ish Military8s March #o/ard urope, M5 *orei+!##" LL, LM

200K"60. See id. at M0"61. Id.62. See Deborah N" .earl$tei!, #he Soldier; the State; and the Separation of Po/ers , &0 TeJ 6"


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tat16

i!$trume!t$ o# hi$ ambitio!"IKL militar' compri$ed o# citie!$oldier$ i$

there#ore le$$ liel' tha! it$ pro#e$$io!al cou!terpart$ to $tra' too #ar#rom the dema!d$ o# the public or to e$tabli$h a militar' dictator$hip,a!d more liel' to $ta+e a democratic coup"KM

>ifth, the militar' a!$-er$ the people$ call #or re+ime cha!+e a!d$ta+e$ acoup to oerthro- the authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+ime"

Si5th, the militar' hold$ #air a!d #ree electio!$ o# democratic leader$ -ithi!a $hort $pa! o# time" $ :ua! 6i! a!d l#red Stepa! hae !oted, the$tro!+e$t democratic cou!teraili!+ po-er to the !o!democratic d' !amic o#a! i!terim +oer!me!t i$ #ree electio!$ -ith a $et date"IK& The promi$e o#

electio!$ pre$uppo$eG$H a democratic re+ime i! #ormatio!"IL0

#iJeddate #or electio!$ i$ !ece$$ar' to create a !e- maretplace #or democratic political actor$, or+a!iatio!$, a!d i!$titutio!$"L1 Electio!$ ca!al$o proide $ome le+itimac' to the i!terim militar' +oer!me!t" 9'$etti!+ a #iJed date #or electio!$, the temporar' militar' +oer!me!tac!o-led+e$ the limited !ature o# it$ role a!d $i+!al$ that it$ term i$,i! #act, temporar'"

O!e o# the militar'$ #ir$t prioritie$ i! a democratic coup i$ there#ore to$et a 7uic date #or electio!$ a!d to $ere a$ a relatiel' !eutral caretaer#or tho$e electio!$"L2

*or eJample, the .ortu+ue$e militar', i! a$tateme!t i$ $ued the da' a#ter a 1&L( coup, committed it$el# toholdi!+ democratic parliame!tar' a!d pre$ide!tial electio!$ -ithi!t-o 'ear$"L3 $ a !eutral caretaer, the militar' doe$ !ot u$ei!timidatio! or #raud to ri+ the elec tio!$" The militar' al$o allo-$political partie$ to #reel' or+a!ie a!d participate i! the electio!$,-ith the eJceptio! o# the political part' a$$ociated-ith the depo$edauthoritaria! or totalitaria! re+ime" %! ma!' ca$e$, that part' i$di$$oled #ollo-i!+ the coup a!d there#ore doe$ !ot participate i!the democratic electio!$

at lea$t !ot u!der the $ame !ame"L(

*or

eJample,

67. :oh! /a!coc, 9o$to! a$$acre Oratio! ar" 5, 1LL(, available athttp@AAla-2"umc"eduA#acult'Aproect$A#trial$Abo$to!ma$$acreAha!cocoratio!"html"68. Democratic coup$ al$o te!d to pit the u!corrupt militar' a+ai!$t the corrupt $tate police" %! a

democratic coup, the militar' repre$e!t$ the people, a!d the $tate police repre$e!t the corrupt a!d autocratic re+ime" *or eJample, duri!+ the 2011 E+'ptia! coup, the muchde$pi$ed blacclad E+'ptia! riotpolice brutall' ope!ed #ire o! the prote$tor$ to e!d the prote$t$ a+ai!$t the re+ime, -herea$ the militar're#u$ed to #ire o! the prote$tor$, i!$tead $hieldi!+ them #rom the riot police, a!d ee!tuall' $ta+ed a coup

detat to oerthro- the ubara +oer!me!t" See Daid D" 8irpatric, Mubara$8s rip on Po/er isSha$en, N"=" Time$, :a!" 31, 2011, ---"!'time$"comA2011A02A01A-orldAmiddleea$tA01e+'pt" htmlBpa+e-a!tedall"69. 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at 120F see also ;iu$eppe Di .alma, To Cra#t Democracie$@ !

E$$a' o! Democratic Tra!$itio! M5 1&&0 ar+ui!+ that $-i#t electio!$ duri!+ the tra!$itio! proce$$te!d to curb chao$I a!d ee! -he! ariou$l' th-arted, co!#i!ed, ma!ipulated, or u$t !ot i! the card$,o!ce the' are called, electio!$ ca! $till e!er+ie a!d po$$ibl' protect democratiatio! be'o!d the hope$ or#ear$, a!d i!deed be'o!d the u!der$ta!di!+, o# the pri!cipal actor$I"70. See Thoma$ C" 9ru!eau, >rom "evolution to Democracy in Portu!al) #he "oles and Sta!es of the

Provi-sional overnments, in Shai! P 6i!, supra !ote 35, at 152"71. 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at 120"72. See id. at L1"73. Id. at 120"

74. See; e.!., infra !ote$ L5, 21&, 31(, a!d accompa!'i!+ teJt"
http://law2.umkc.edu/http://law2.umkc.edu/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/01/world/middleeast/01egypthttp://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/01/world/middleeast/01egypthttp://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/01/world/middleeast/01egypthttp://law2.umkc.edu/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/01/world/middleeast/01egypt


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#ollo-i!+ the 2011 coup i! E+'pt, political partie$ -ere allo-ed to #reel'

e$tabli$h them$ele$ a!d participate i! parliame!tar' electio!$, but E+'pt$/i+h dmi!i$tratie Court di$$oled /o$!i ubara$ Natio!al Demo cratic.art' #or mo!opolii!+ po-er a!d ma!ipulati!+ electio!$"L5

%! democratic coup$, electio!$ te!d to happe! -ithi! a $hort $pa! o# time,u$uall' o!e to t-o 'ear$"LK militar' determi!ed to tra!$#er po-er todemo craticall' elected leader$ t'picall' -a!t$ to +et out o# theu!#amiliar bu$i !e$$ o# +oer!i!+ a cou!tr' a!d +et bac to -hat it!o-$ be$t@ de#e!di!+ the !atio! #rom eJter!al threat$" *or eJample,the Turi$h a!d .ortu+ue$emilitarie$, -hich $ta+ed democratic coup$i! 1&K0 a!d 1&L(, re$pectiel', both retur!ed po-er to democraticall'elected leader$ -ithi! t-o 'ear$"Duri!+ the tra!$itio! period, a !umbero# hou$eeepi!+ ta$$ !ece$$ar' toholdi!+ #ree a!d #air electio!$ ma'occur" *or eJample, the militar' ma' create the re7ui$ite politicali!#ra$tructure #or political partie$ to or+a!ie a!d #or #ree a!d #airelectio!$ o# democratic leader$ to tae place e"+", the #ormatio! o# a!electio! commi$$io!, the e!actme!t o# electio! la-$ a!d re+ulatio!$,etc"" The militar' ma' hold electio!$ #or a co!$titue!t a$$embl'to dra#ta !e- co!$titutio! be#ore parliame!tar' or pre$ide!tial electio!$, a$ didthe .ortu+ue$e militar' #ollo-i!+ a coup i! 1&L(, or it$el# ha!dpic a

+roup o# per$o!$ to dra#t a !e- co!$titutio!, a$ did the Turi$h militar'#ollo-i!+ a coup i! 1&K0" 9ut re+ardle$$ o# -hich ee!t$ tra!$pireduri!+ the tra!$itio! proce$$, the militar' doe$ !ot attempt toperpetuate it$ time i! po-er a!d $ta'$ i! po-er !o lo!+er tha! i$!ece$$ar' to tra!$itio! the!atio! to democrac'"

The re+ime that emer+e$ out o# a democratic coup thu$ co!#orm$ to Samuel /u!ti!+to!$ $emi!al de#i!itio! o# democrac'@ a re+ime i! -hich political leader$ are $elected throu+h #ree a!d #air electio!$"LL /u!ti!+to!$de#i!itio!, -hich #ocu$e$ o! electoral proce$$, ha$ t-o dime!$io!$@

co!te$ta tio! a!d participatio!"LM Co!te$tatio! mea!$ that ca!didate$#reel' compete #or the co!te$ted $eat o# the i!cumbe!t"L& !dparticipatio! re7uire$ that

75. See Shaimaa *a'ed P .atric 4err, !ypt Court Dissolves Mubara$8s >ormer "ulin! Party,


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tat18

irtuall' all o# the adult populatio! be allo-ed to ote" M0 The u$e o# /u!t

i!+to!$ dichotomou$, procedural approach $uit$ the #rame-or i! thi$rti cle, -hich dra-$ a di$ti!ctio! bet-ee! coup$ that re$ult i! #reea!d #airelectio!$ a!d tho$e that do !ot" 9ecau$e thi$ rticle emplo'$/u!ti!+to!$ de#i!itio! o# democrac', it doe$ !ot u$e the termdemocrac'I to mae a !ormatie ud+me!t o! the 7ualit' o# thedemocrac' that emer+e$ out o# ademocratic coup"

Ee! thou+h /u!ti!+to!$ de#i!itio! o# democrac' #ocu$e$ o! proce$$,the procedural ri+ht to participate i! #ree a!d #air electio!$ ha$ importa!t$ub$ta!tie alue$, e$peciall' i! $ocietie$ that hae lo!+ bee! de!ied that

ri+ht" % ote, there#ore % am,I read the headli!e o# a Tu!i$ia! !e-$paper#ollo-i!+ democratic electio!$ there i! 2011"M1 6ie-i$e, i! E+'pt, -herea -hole +e!eratio! +re- up -ithout a!' mea!i!+#ul ri+ht to ote,oter$ pa tie!tl' -aited i! li!e #or hour$ to ote i! parliame!tar'electio!$ #ollo-i!+ the 2011 coup"M2 Echoi!+ the $e!time!t$ o# it$Tu!i$ia! cou!terpart, theheadli!e o# a! E+'ptia! !e-$paper readThe be+i!!i!+I o! the #ir$t da' o#the parliame!tar' electio!$"M3

Ee! thou+h democraticall' elected leader$ ca! abu$e a!d hae abu$edi!diidual libertie$, the correlatio! bet-ee! democrac' a!d i!diidual libertie$ i$ er' hi+h"M( Elected leader$ u$e #ar le$$ iole!ce o! their citie!$tha! authoritaria! leader$"M5 %! democracie$, there are al$o #e-eri!ce!tie$ to re $ort to iole!ce becau$e accepted ae!ue$ eJi$t #orthe eJpre$$io! o# di$$e!t, i!cludi!+ the ballot boJ, -here oter$ ma'$a!ctio! +oer!me!t o##icial$ b' oti!+ them out o# o##ice"MK .opularparticipatio! i! electio!$ there#ore !ot o!l' e!coura+e$ i!diidualauto!om', but al$o deter$ +oer!me!t i!cur$io!$ i!to i!diidual ri+ht$"ML

$ the ?"S" Supreme Court put it, the ri+ht to ote i$ a #u!dame!talri+ht, becau$e pre$eratie o# all other ri+ht$"IMM

80. See id. at L"81. See 6i' Daie$, #unisian lections) Pollin! Day as it appened, ;uardia! ?"8", Oct" 23,

2011,http@AA---"+uardia!"co"uA-orldAmiddleea$tlieA2011AoctA23Atu!i$ia!electio!$2011araba!dmiddleea$tprote$t$"82. See!tho!' Shadid, ope limmers in Lon! Lines at Polls in Cairo, N"=" Time$, No" 2M, 2011,

http@AA---"!'time$"comA2011A11A2&A-orldAa#ricaAi!cairoa!electio!brid+e$e+'pt$diide$"html"

83. Id.84. /u!ti!+to!, supra !ote (3, at 2M"85. Id.86. Id.

87. 4alter *" urph', Constitutions; Constitutionalism; and Democracy, in Co!$titutio!ali$m a!dDemocrac', supra !ote 3K, at 3, ("88. =ic 4o" " /opi!$, 11M ?"S" 35K, 3L0 1MMK" :oh! Stuart ill ha$ al$o -ritte! about the

irtue$ o# deci$io!mai!+ b' leader$ elected i! #ree a!d #air electio!$" See Tom Chri$tia!o,Democracy, The Sta!#ord E!c'clopedia o# .hilo$oph' *eb" 200M, available athttp@AAplato"$ta!#ord"eduA archie$A#all200MAe!trie$Ademocrac'" ill ar+ue$ that, $i!ce electio!$ +iepolitical po-er to each citie!, democraticall' elected leader$ mu$t tae i!to accou!t the i!tere$t$ a!dopi!io!$ o# more people tha! authoritaria! or totalitaria! leader$" Id. Democratic deci$io!mai!+te!d$ to be more i!#ormed becau$e it bri!+$ more people i!to the deci$io!mai!+ proce$$" Id.*i!all', accordi!+ to ill, democrac' improe$ the character$ o# the citie!$ b' e!coura+i!+ moreauto!om'" Id.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/middle-east-live/2011/oct/23/tunisian-elections-2011-arab-and-midhttp://www.guardian.co.uk/world/middle-east-live/2011/oct/23/tunisian-elections-2011-arab-and-midhttp://www.guardian.co.uk/world/middle-east-live/2011/oct/23/tunisian-elections-2011-arab-and-midhttp://www.guardian.co.uk/world/middle-east-live/2011/oct/23/tunisian-elections-2011-arab-and-midhttp://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/29/world/africa/in-cairo-an-election-bridges-egypts-divides.htmlhttp://plato.stanford.edu/http://plato.stanford.edu/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/middle-east-live/2011/oct/23/tunisian-elections-2011-arab-and-midhttp://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/29/world/africa/in-cairo-an-election-bridges-egypts-divides.htmlhttp://plato.stanford.edu/


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Seventh, #ollo-i!+ #air a!d #ree electio!$, the militar' promptl' tra!$#er$

po-er to democraticall' elected leader$" The militar' doe$ !ot alter or oidtheelectio! re$ult$ a!d e!$ure$ that the re$ult$ are promptl' certi#ied" Themilitar' the! ha!d$ po-er to the leader$ $elected b' the people, re+ardle$$ o#their ide!titie$ a!d -hether or !ot their polic' pre#ere!ce$ are i! li!e -iththo$e o# the militar'"M&

The literature a$$ume$ that the purpo$e o# a coup detat i$ to mai!tai!co!ti!uit' i! the le+al $'$tem a!d bri!+ about o!l' per$o!i#ied cha!+e i!the political leader$hip throu+h the u$urpatio! o# political o##ice$, rathertha! $tructural re+ime cha!+e"&0 %! #act, Ed-ard 6utt-a$ $emi!al

de#i!i

tio! o# a coup

the i!#iltratio! o# a $mall but critical $e+me!t o#

the $tateapparatu$, -hich i$ the! u$ed to di$place the +oer!me!t

#rom it$ co!trol o#the remai!derI

a$$ume$ that a coup doe$ !ot alter

the +oer!i!+ $tructureo# the $tate"&1

That a$$umptio! ca!!ot be correct" ilitarie$ that $ta+e democratic coup$detat bri!+ about $tructural re+ime cha!+e b' teari!+ do-! a! authoritaria!re+ime to #or+e a path to democrac'" O# cour$e, the tra!$itio! to de mocrac'doe$ !ot happe! $imulta!eou$l' -ith the coup" t the out$et, theo!l' cha!+e

i$ to the leader$hip o# the re+ime i"e", per$o!i#ied cha!+e" The u!'ieldi!+autocratic leader$ mu$t !ece$$aril' be dethro!ed to tra!$itio! the !atio! todemocrac'" .er$o!i#ied cha!+e become$ the mea!$ -ith -hich the militar'achiee$ it$ ultimate purpo$e i! a democratic coup@ to #acilitate the #air a!d#ree electio!$ o# ciilia!$" *or eJample, #ollo-i!+ the democratic coup i!Ture' i! 1&K0, ;e!eral Cemal ;u r$el ruled the !atio! a$ head o#$tate #or$ee!tee! mo!th$ be#ore retur!i!+ po-er to democraticall' elected leader$"&2

$ the rece!t ee!t$ i! E+'pt demo!$trate, ho-eer, democratic coup$ do!ot e!$ure a $mooth tra!$itio! to democrac'" Democratic coup$, lie other

reolutio!$ that brea do-! decade$old +oer!a!ce $tructure$ a!d replace

89. %! $ome democratic coup$, the militar' ma' #ield a ca!didate to compete i! the democratic electio!$" *or eJample, ;e!eral


20/104


tat20

them -ith a !e- re+ime, ca! be 7uite turbule!t" %!terim militar' leader$

empo-ered -ith the u!#amiliar ta$ o# ru!!i!+ a +oer!me!t o#te! #acee!ormou$ di##icultie$ i! e!$uri!+ a! orderl' tra!$itio! to democrac'" Thei!terim leader$ o# E+'pt hae per#ormed e$peciall' poorl' i! that ta$, re$ulti!+ i! the death$ a!d beati!+$ o# prote$tor$ o! $eeral occa$io!$" &3$ the*re!ch reolutio!ar' irabeau put it, -he! 'ou u!dertae to ru! areolutio!, the di##icult' i$ !ot to mae it +oF it i$ to hold it i! chec"I&(

The $ame i$ true #or a democratic coup" The militar' mu$t be tried, b'ciilia! pro$e cutor$, #or a!' crimi!al la- iolatio!$ that occur duri!+the tra!$itio! proce$$" lthou+h militarie$ u$uall' !e+otiate immu!it'a+reeme!t$ a$ a co!ditio! #or $urre!deri!+ po-er to ciilia! leader$,cou!trie$ $uch a$ E+'pt ca! #ollo- the eJample$ o# r+e!ti!a a!d?ru+ua', -hich both rece!tl'repealed am!e$t' la-$ #or militar' o##icer$#or crime$ committed i! the co! teJt o# !o!democratic coup$"&5 Themilitar' mu$t al$o trai! it$ ra!a!d #ile $oldier$, -ho ma' hae !eerbee! deplo'ed to police the populatio!, o! ho- to mai!tai! orderduri!+ peace#ul prote$t$" %!ter!atio!al i!#lue!ce ca! al$o pla' a

determi!atie role duri!+ the tra!$itio! proce$$" *or eJample,$tri!+$

ca! be placed o! #i!a!cial a$$i$ta!ce to aiddepe!de!t cou!trie$

$uch a$

E+'pt

to e!$ure that the militar' leader$ mai!tai! a! orderl' tra! $itio! todemocrac'"&K 6ie-i$e, i!ter!atio!al or+a!iatio!$ ca! impo$e co!ditio!$ o! their eJi$ti!+ or #uture member$ to promote democratic+oer!a!ce $tructure$ a!d to decrea$e the i!#lue!ce that the militar'pla'$ i!democratic politic$"&L

II. The Co!$titutio!al E!tre!chme!t The$i$

*ollo-i!+ a democratic coup, a tra!$itio! period #ollo-$ duri!+ -hichthe militar' leader$hip rule$ the cou!tr' a$ part o# a! i!terim or proi$io!al+oer!me!t" Duri!+ the tra!$itio! period, the militar' mu$t oer$ee a !um

93. !ypt Protests) Death #oll up in Cairo8s #ahrir S6uare, 99C Ne-$, No" 20, 2011, http@AA---"bbc"co"uA!e-$A-orlda#rica15M0&L3&"94. See Tom ;i!$bur+, Libya8s +e/ Constitution) Lessons from Ira68s Missteps, Chi" Trib", Oct" 21,

2011, http@AAarticle$"chica+otribu!e"comA20111021A$iteActoped1021lib'a201110211!e-co!$titutio!po$t+adha#ilib'a!atio!altra!$itio!alcou!cil"95. See $hle' /ilema!, Ar!entina 5-Military fficers Sentenced to Life for Crimes A!ainst

umanity, :uri$t , Oct" 2L, 2011, http@AAuri$t"or+Apapercha$eA2011A10Aar+e!ti!aeJmilitar'o##icer$

$e!te!cedto li#e#orcrime$a+ai!$thuma!it'"phpF Da! Ta+lioli, =ru!uay Le!islature "epeals AmnestyLa/, :uri$t, Oct" 2L, 2011, http@AAuri$t"or+Apapercha$eA2011A10Auru+ua'le+i$laturerepeal$am!e$t'la-"php"

96. See ari!o P ;oema!$, supra !ote 12, at 2 !oti!+ that, i! the po$tCold 4ar era, depe!de!ceo! 4e$ter! aid te!d$ to mae cou!trie$ more liel' to hold competitie electio!$ a#ter coup$I"97. *or eJample, the Europea! ?!io! ha$ pla'ed that role i! the ca$e o# Ture' b' co!ditio!i!+

Ture'$ member$hip i! the Europea! ?!io! o!, amo!+ other thi!+$, Ture'$ a+reeme!t to limit thei!#lue!tial role that the militar' ha$ pla'ed i! Turi$h politic$" See; e.!., Cou!cil Deci$io! 200MA15L,Ture' 200L cce$$io! .art!er$hip, !!eJ, 200M O":" 6 051 (1M, available athttp@AAeurleJ"europa"euA6eJ?riSerA6eJ?riSer"doBuriO:@6@200M@051@000(@01@EN@/T6 E!$ure that the militar' doe$!ot i!tere!e i! political i$$ue$ a!d that ciilia! authoritie$ #ull' eJerci$e $uperi$or' #u!ctio!$ o!$ecur it' matter$, i!cludi!+ a$ re+ard$ the #ormulatio! o# the !atio!al $ecurit' $trate+' a!d it$

impleme!tatio!"I"
http://www/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2011-10-21/site/ct-oped-1021-libya-20111021_1_new-constitution-http://jurist.org/paperchase/2011/10/argentina-ex-military-officers-sentenced-to-http://jurist.org/paperchase/2011/10/argentina-ex-military-officers-sentenced-to-http://jurist.org/paperchase/2011/10/argentina-ex-military-officers-sentenced-to-http://jurist.org/paperchase/2011/10/argentina-ex-military-officers-sentenced-to-http://jurist.org/paperchase/2011/10/uruguay-legislature-repeals-amnesty-law.phphttp://jurist.org/paperchase/2011/10/uruguay-legislature-repeals-amnesty-law.phphttp://eur-lex.europa/http://eur-lex.europa/http://www/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2011-10-21/site/ct-oped-1021-libya-20111021_1_new-constitution-http://jurist.org/paperchase/2011/10/argentina-ex-military-officers-sentenced-to-http://jurist.org/paperchase/2011/10/argentina-ex-military-officers-sentenced-to-http://jurist.org/paperchase/2011/10/uruguay-legislature-repeals-amnesty-law.phphttp://jurist.org/paperchase/2011/10/uruguay-legislature-repeals-amnesty-law.phphttp://eur-lex.europa/


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tat21

ber o# hou$eeepi!+ ta$$ be#ore democratic electio!$ ma' be held" %

#ocu$ o! o!e ta$ i! thi$ .art@ the preparatio! o# a !e- co!$titutio! toreplace the co!$titutio! that +oer!ed the authoritaria! or totalitaria!re+ime"

%! dra#ti!+ a !e- co!$titutio!, the militar' leader$hip ha$ three primar'optio!$" *ir$t, it ca! rei!$tate a preiou$ democratic co!$titutio! that +oer!ed the !atio! be#ore the i!troductio! o# totalitaria!i$m or authoritaria!i$m"&M Seco!d, the leader$hip ma' ame!d the eJi$ti!+ !o!democraticco!$titutio! to elimi!ate the autocratic eleme!t$ a!d i!troduce !e-demo cratic +oer!i!+ $tructure$"&& Third, the militar' ma' $crap the!o!demo cratic co!$titutio! a!d re-rite a !e- co!$titutio! -ith or-ithout the aid o#a democraticall' elected a!d i!depe!de!t co!$titue!ta$$embl'"100 %! additio! to the #ir$t three optio!$, i# the militar' choo$e$to $u$pe!d the preeJi$ti!+ authoritaria! co!$titutio!, it ma' al$o dra#ta! i!terim co!$titutio! that #ill$ the co!$titutio!al oid duri!+ thetra!$itio! period"

Thi$ .art ar+ue$ that i# the militar' choo$e$ to dra#t a! i!terim co!$titutio!, ame!d the eJi$ti!+ !o!democratic co!$titutio!, or re-rite a !e-co! $titutio!, it e!+a+e$ i! the co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t o# it$ polic'pre#ere!ce$" 9e#ore eJplai!i!+ ho- co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t -or$, %#ir$t di$cu$$ -hat mae$ co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t po$$ible duri!+ thetra!$itio! period" Thi$ i$ a cla$$ic ca$e o# $el#i!tere$ted behaior b' a$tate actor" Sectio! brie#l' a!al'e$ the literature o! $el#i!tere$tedbehaior b' politicia!$ a!d mecha!i$m$ #or miti+ati!+ $el#i!tere$tedbehaior duri!+ democratic rule" Sectio! 9 the! a!al'e$ -h' the$emecha!i$m$ are lar+el' u!aailable to miti+ate $el#i!tere$ted behaiorb' militar' leader$ duri!+ the tra!$itio! proce$$ #ollo-i!+ a democraticcoup" Sectio! C $et$ out the co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t the$i$ a!deJplai!$ ho- the militar', a$ a $el# i!tere$ted actor, e!tre!che$, or

attempt$ to e!tre!ch, it$ polic' pre#ere!ce$ i!to the !e- co!$titutio!dra#ted duri!+ the democratictra!$itio! proce$$"

A. Self-Interested Behavior in Democratic Politics

The eJi$ti!+ literature -idel' ie-$ politicia!$ a$ $el#i!tere$ted i!diidual$"101 $ earl' a$ 1L(2, Daid /ume -rote that i! co!trii!+ a!'$'$tem o# +oer!me!t a!d #iJi!+ $eeral chec$ a!d co!trol$ o# theco!$titutio!,eer' ma! ou+ht to be $uppo$ed a !ae a!d to hae !o

other e!d, i! all hi$

98. See 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at M3" lthou+h the re$toratio! o# a preiou$ democraticco!$titutio! aoid$ a pote!tial $talemate oer the dra#ti!+ o# !e- co!$titutio!al proi$io!$, it pre$e!t$t-o primar' problem$" Id. *ir$t, i# the !atio! ha$ u!der+o!e $i+!i#ica!t cha!+e$ duri!+ theauthoritaria! re+ime, a preiou$ democratic co!$titutio!al arra!+eme!t ma' !ot re#lect eJi$ti!+$ocietal !orm$ a!d de$ire$" Id. Seco!d, the preiou$ democratic co!$titutio! ma' hae bee!re$po!$ible, at lea$t partiall', #or the breado-! o# democrac' a!d the i!troductio! o# autocrac'" Id. %#that i$ the ca$e, it mi+ht be more de$irable $tart a!e- -ith a !e- a!d improed co!$titutio! le$$$u$ceptible to democratic breado-!" Seeid.99. Id.100. Id.

101. *ereoh!, supra !ote 15, at L&"


22/104


tat22

actio!$, tha! priate i!tere$t"I102 %! more rece!t $emi!al -or$,


23/104


tat23

Second, the oter$ ma' emplo' mo!itori!+ deice$ to ob$ere the politi

cia!$ behaior a!d miti+ate the !ece$$ar' i!#ormatio!al a$'mmetr' bet-ee!the politicia!$ a!d the citie!r'"10M Tra!$pare!c' i$ critical i! e!$uri!+ thatpoliticia!$ co!#orm their behaior to the oter$ i!tere$t$" 10&$ earl' a$1LK5, :oh! dam$ -rote that GlHibert' ca!!ot be pre$ered -ithout a+e! eral !o-led+e amo!+ the people -ho hae a ri+ht " " " a!d ade$ire to !o-" " " the character$ a!d co!duct o# their ruler$"I110 %# oter$ ca! ob$ere thepoliticia!$ actio!$ a!d hae $u##icie!t i!#ormatio! about the rea$o!$behi!d tho$e actio!$, the' ca! more e##ectiel' re-ard or pu!i$hpolitical beha ior"111 %! promoti!+ tra!$pare!c', the media, !o!pro#it or+a!iatio!$, thi! ta!$, a!d other i!depe!de!t -atchdo+$pla' a! importa!t role b' proidi!+ i!#ormatio! o! the 7ualit' o#politicia!$ a!d their policie$"11 2 9ut ee! -ith a #ree media a!d ciil$ociet', the electorate ma' be u!able to ob$ere ma!' politicalactiitie$ a!d -ill i!$tead ud+e political per#orma!ce ba$ed o! it$e##ect$ o! their o-! -ellbei!+"113

#hird, citie!$ ma' emplo' $a!ctio!i!+ mecha!i$m$ de$i+!ed to pu!i$h apoliticia! -he! the politicia!$ per#orma!ce dier+e$ #rom the citie!$ be$ti!tere$t$" The primar' mecha!i$m #or $a!ctio!i!+ $el#i!tere$ted politicia!$ i$

to ote them out o# o##ice"11( Voter$ dele+ate political authorit' to politicia!$ throu+h electio!$"115 %# politicia!$ e!+a+e i! $el#i!tere$ted actio!$detrime!tal to the oter$ duri!+ their term, oter$ ma' pu!i$hthem b'

108. Id. at LKK"

109.9e$le', supra !ote 15, at 3LF id. at 203 Tra!$pare!c' i$ #a$t becomi!+ the motherhood a!dapple pie o# +ood +oer!a!ce"I"110. See :oh!dam$, Di$$ertatio! o! the Ca!o! a!d *eudal 6a- 1LK5, reprinted in 3

The4or$ o# :oh! dam$ ((L, (5K Charle$ *ra!ci$ dam$ ed", 1M51"111. 9e$le', supra !ote 15, at 3L, &&F *ereoh!; supra !ote 15, at 10 4ith per#ect i!#ormatio!

the oter i$ able to eJtract mo$t o# the re!t$ i! the tra!$actio! " " " " %!tuitiel', the +reater thei!#ormatio!al ada!ta+e that o##icial$ hold, the +reater their abilit' to ear! re!t$ #rom o##iceholdi!+"I"112. 9e$le', supra !ote 15, at 3L, 203"113. *ereoh!; supra !ote 15, at 11"

114. 9e$le', supra !ote 15, at 3K The mai! $a!ctio! o# poor per#orma!ce Gb' politicia!$H i$ electoral

tho$e -ho per#orm badl' -ill !ot be reelected"IF ;er$bach, supra !ote 15, at 32F *ereoh!, supra

!ote 15, at M The !atural mecha!i$m to tra!$mit " " " i!ce!tie$ i$ the#act that electio!$ tae placerepeatedl' a!d that o##iceholder$ de$ire toretai! o##ice" ?!der the$e circum$ta!ce$, oter$ ca! adopt $trate+ie$that ca! a##ect the i!ce!tie$ o# o##iceholder$ i! ariou$ -a'$"I" %!*ederali$t No" 5L, :ame$ adi$o! $imilarl' !oted the role o# popularelectio!$ i! polici!+ politicia!$@

GTHhe /ou$e o#


24/104


tat24

The *ederali$t No" 5L, at 3M5 :ame$ adi$o!"115. 9e$le', supra !ote 15, at 3K"


25/104


tat25

de!'i!+ them reelectio!"11K The politicia!$ de$ire to retai! o##ice thu$

motiate$ them to co!#orm their behaior to the i!tere$t$ o# theelectorate"11L

B. Self-Interested Behavior by Military Leaders in a Democratic Coup

6ie politicia!$, militar' leader$ are $el#i!tere$ted actor$" *or the purpo$e$ o# thi$ rticle, the militar' a$ a! i!$titutio!, repre$e!ted b' it$ leader$,ha$ t-o i!tere$t$"11M *ir$t, the militar' de$ire$ to pre$ere a!d promoteit$priile+ed $tatu$ i! $ociet'" ilitarie$ i! !atio!$ $uch a$ E+'pt a!d Ture' e!o' ma!' eco!omic a!d $ocial priile+e$ a!d it i$ i! their $el#i!tere$tto protect tho$e priile+e$" Seco!d, the militar' ha$ a! i!tere$ti! pre$eri!+ i!tra$tate $tabilit'"11&! u!$table re+ime i$ a di$tractio!#or the militar'a!d detract$ the militar'$ #ocu$ #rom it$ primar' ta$,-hich i$ to de#e!dthe !atio! #rom eJter!al threat$" The$e t-o i!tere$t$are at -or #rom thei!ceptio! o# a democratic coup u!til it$ completio!"

%! a! authoritaria! re+ime, a! i!here!t te!$io! eJi$t$ bet-ee! the +oer!me!t a!d the people becau$e authoritaria! leader$ ordi!aril' re$ort to#orce or the threat o# #orce to $ile!ce oppo$itio! oice$ a!d pree!t competitie electio!$" The militar' mu$t co!ti!uou$l' -ei+h that te!$io! bet-ee!

116. Id.117. ;er$bach, supra !ote 15, at 32" Ee! electoral co!trol i$ o!l' a partiall' e##ectie method o#

motiati!+ the politicia!$ to ada!ce the i!tere$t$ o# their co!$titue!t$" See 9arro, supra !ote 15, at 20Fuller, supra !ote 15, at 2L3 GDHemocratic electio!$ alo!e ca!!ot motiate politicia!$ to u!dertae lo!+term, $ociall' be!e#icial proect$ that do !ot per#orm -ell i! the $hort ru!, -he! politicia!$ are $horttermorie!ted or #uture electio!$ do !ot $u##icie!tl' re#lect the $ucce$$ o# pa$t policie$"I"118. %!$titutio!al i!tere$t i$ o#te! a $hortha!d #or the motiatio!$ o# i!diidual$ -ho are

member$ o# that i!$titutio!" :o! El$ter, E$$a', >orces and Mechanisms in the Constitution-Ma$in!Process, (5 Due 6":"3K(, 3M0 !"(0 1&&5" :o! El$ter ha$ ar+ued that le+i$lator$ te!d to ide!ti#'-ith the le+i$lature #orariou$ rea$o!$, i!cludi!+ the !eed #or co+!itie co!$o!a!ce Thi$ mu$t be

a! importa!t i!$titutio! $i!ce % am a member o# itI or $ocialiatio!" See id. *or eJample, i#member$ o# a political part' deiate#rom the part' li!e, the' ma' be $a!ctio!ed b' #aili!+ to +etre!omi!ated or reelected" Id. The $amed'!amic i$ lar+el' at -or i! a militar'" The i!tere$t$ o#the militar' a$ a! i!$titutio! a!d the i!tere$t$ o# it$ leader$ -ill o#te! co!er+e $i!ce it i$ themilitar' leader$ that be!e#it #rom the militar'$ eco!omic a!d $ocial priile+e$ a!d the i!tra$tate$tabilit' that allo-$ them to #ocu$ o! eJter!al threat$" See 6i! PStepa!, supra !ote 20, at KL Theo##icer corp$, tae! a$ a -hole, $ee$ it$el# a$ a perma!e!t part o# the $tate apparatu$, -ithe!duri!+ i!tere$t$ a!d perma!e!t #u!ctio!$ that tra!$ce!d the i!tere$t$ o# the +oer!me!t o#the da'"IF :ua!


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the re+ime a!d the people" %# the authoritaria! re+ime i$ $tro!+ e!ou+h to

$uppre$$ a popular oppo$itio!, the militar' -ill o#te! 'ield to that re+imetopre$ere $tabilit' a!d it$ priile+ed $tatu$ i! $ociet'" *or eJample, #orde cade$, the E+'ptia! militar' $upported the authoritaria! ubarare+ime"120?!til earl' 2011, ubara ept oppo$itio! oice$ i! checthrou+h eJtra le+al mea$ure$ a!d appeared $tro!+ e!ou+h toremai! i! po-er i!de#i !itel'"121 $ di$cu$$ed i! .art %%%"C, theE+'ptia! militar' had ama$$ed e!ormou$ priile+e$ duri!+ubara$ rule a!d thu$ had a! i!ce!tie to$upport hi$ re+ime a$lo!+ a$ he remai!ed po-er#ul e!ou+h to mai!tai!co!trol"

4hat motiate$ a militar', -he! it i!itiall' $upport$ a! authoritaria!re+ime, to tur! it$ arm$ a+ai!$t that re+ime a!d $ta+e a coup detatB t$ome poi!t duri!+ the authoritaria! re+ime$ rule, the po-er d'!amic bet-ee! the re+ime a!d the people mi+ht cha!+e, a!d popular oppo$itio!ma' become po-er#ul e!ou+h to th-art $uppre$$io! e##ort$ b' theauthoritaria!leader$" The cha!+e i! that po-er d'!amic mi+ht cau$e themilitar'$ i!ce!tie$ to cha!+e a$ -ell" 4he! the bala!ce o# po-er $hi#t$to the people, themilitar' -ill hae three primar' optio!$"

*ir$t, the militar' mi+ht $ide -ith the re+ime a!d $uppre$$ the prote$t$throu+h the u$e o# #orce" %! ma!' ca$e$, that optio! -ill !ot be i! the mili

tar'$ i!tere$t" %# the militar' u$e$ #orce to $uppre$$ a popular oppo$itio!, itmi+ht #ace retaliatio! b' a #orei+! po-er that come$ to the aid o# the reolutio!arie$, a$ i! the ca$e o# 6ib'a i! 2011"122 9' u$i!+ #orce o! the populatio!, the militar' -ould ri$ irreer$ibl' lo$i!+ it$ popular a!dpriile+ed role i! $ociet'" The militar' -ould al$o ri$ de#ectio!$ #romthe ra!a!d#ile $oldier$ -ho mi+ht re#u$e to #ire o! the prote$tor$ a!dperhap$ $ta+e a coup a+ai!$t the +oer!me!t a!d the militar'leader$hip" That ri$ i$ e$pe ciall' +reat i! a militar' compri$ed o#citie!$oldier$ -ho are more liel' tha! pro#e$$io!al $oldier$ to

ide!ti#' -ith the populatio! o! -hom the' are ordered to u$e #orce"9ecau$e ra!a!d#ile co!$cript$ ma' re#u$e to obe' order$ to u$eiole!ce o! the +e!eral populatio!, re$ulti!+ i! a breado-! o# thecomma!d $tructure, democratic coup$ te!d to occur i! !atio!$ thathaema!dator' !atio!al co!$criptio!"123

Seco!d, the militar' mi+ht remai! !eutral a!d allo- the reolutio! tocarr' it$ cour$e" That optio! i$ al$o a ri$' o!e" %# the popular oppo$itio!$ucceed$ i! oerthro-i!+ the authoritaria! re+ime, the people, a!d !otthe militar', -ill be i! char+e o# the tra!$itio! proce$$ to democrac'"

Duri!+

120.See To!' 8aro!, !yptian Military Provin! to Be "ival Po/er Center to Mubara$, Time, *eb" 1,2011, available at http@AA---"time"comAtimeA-orldAarticleA0,M5&&,20(5(55,00"html"121. See id.122.See Libya) o/ the pposin! Sides Are Armed, 99C Ne-$, u+" 23, 2011, http@AA---"bbc"co"uA

!e-$A-orlda#rica12K&20KM"123.See supra teJt accompa!'i!+ !ote$ 5MKM"
http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0%2C8599%2C2045455%2C00.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/http://www.bbc.co.uk/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0%2C8599%2C2045455%2C00.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/


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that proce$$, the people mi+ht elimi!ate or curb the priile+ed $tatu$ o# a

militar' that bli$$#ull' cho$e to remai! o! the $ideli!e$ duri!+ the upri$i!+"Third, the militar' mi+ht $ta+e a coup detat a!d $eie po-er #rom theauthoritaria! re+ime a!d oer$ee a tra!$itio! proce$$ that e!d$ -ith thetra!$#er o# po-er to the people" That optio! -ould allo- the militar' toe!able the e$tabli$hme!t o# a more $table re+ime, emer+e i! the e'e$ o# thepeople a$ a credible $tate i!$titutio!, a!d pre$ere it$ o-! i!tere$t$ duri!+ atra!$itio! proce$$ that the militar' leader$ them$ele$ co!trol" %! ma!' ca$e$,$ta+i!+ a democratic coup -ill there#ore be i! the militar'$ i!tere$t$ o#pre$eri!+ co!ti!uit' a!d $tabilit', ee! i# tho$e i!tere$t$ are achieed

throu+h a #u!dame!tal cha!+e o# the +oer!i!+ $tructure" Note, ho-eer, thatthe primar' purpo$e o# the militar' i! a democratic coup i$ !ot democ rac'promotio!" %t i$ the pre$eratio! o# $tabilit'" The e$tabli$hme!t o# ademocraticre+ime co!$titute$ the mea!$ -ith -hich the militar' achiee$the e!d re$ulto# i!tra$tate $tabilit'"12(

*ollo-i!+ the coup, a!d duri!+ the democratic tra!$itio! proce$$,themilitar' -ill co!ti!ue o! it$ $el#i!tere$ted path" 4hat i$ more, the

primar'method$ #or miti+ati!+ $el#i!tere$ted behaior i! democratic

politic$ $cree!i!+ politicia!$ be#ore electi!+ them, mo!itori!+

their per#orma!ce, a!d $a!ctio!i!+ $el#i!tere$ted politicia!$ b'oti!+ them out o# o##ice

125 are +e!erall' u!aailable duri!+

militar' rule" % di$cu$$ each i! tur! belo-"%! electoral politic$, the $electio! o# the mo$t compete!t politicia!$ -ho$e

motie$ are mo$t liel' to be i! li!e -ith the public i!tere$t #ilter$ $el#i!tere$ted politicia!$ be#ore the' tae o##ice"12K 9ut i! a militar' coup, thepeople are i!capable o# mea!i!+#ul $electio! bet-ee! competi!+a+e!t$" Themilitar', !ot the people, choo$e$ to i!tere!e to oerthro-

the eJi$ti!+ re+ime" !d there i$ little, i# a!'thi!+, that the people ca!do to pree!t themilitar' #rom a$$umi!+ co!trol o# the +oer!me!t"Seco!d, the opportu!it' o# the people to mo!itor the actio!$ o# the mili

tar' i$ $i+!i#ica!tl' curtailed b' a lac o# tra!$pare!c' duri!+ the demo

124. Thi$ $el#i!tere$t model i$ admittedl' a reductie accou!t o# the optio!$ aailable to the militar' i!a! authoritaria! re+ime" The model ma' !ot capture the e!tire compleJit' o# the i!ce!tie$ a!d motiatio!$o# the militar' leader$ that $ta+e democratic coup$" .erhap$, i! additio! to acti!+ i! $el# i!tere$t, a militar'that $ta+e$ a democratic coup ha$ a! i!depe!de!t commitme!t to the e$tabli$hme!t a!d promotio! o#democrac', e$peciall' $i!ce the t'pe o# militar' that $ta+e$ democratic coup$ te!d$ to be compri$ed o#

citie!$oldier$, $ome o# -hom ma' act altrui$ticall' to protect the -el#are o# the $ociet' a$ a -hole" Seesupra teJt accompa!'i!+ !ote KM" Neerthele$$, altrui$m i$ u!liel' to be the primar' motiator" %# it -ere,the militarie$ that hae $ta+ed democratic coup$ -ould be eJpected to $ta+e thecoup re+ardle$$ -hether$tro!+ popular oppo$itio! eJi$ted a+ai!$t the authoritaria! re+ime" The E+'p tia! militar', #or eJample,-ould !ot hae $upported the authoritaria! ubara re+ime #or decade$ a!d -ould hae $ta+ed a coup-he! ubara #ir$t adopted a! authoritaria! $ta!ce" 9ecau$e democratic coup$ te!d to happe! o!l' -he!the po-er d'!amic bet-ee! the authoritaria! +oer!me!t a!d the popularoppo$itio! $hi#t$, a!d the peoplebecome $tro!+ e!ou+h to th-art $uppre$$io! attempt$ b' the re+ime, $el#i!tere$t appear$ to be theprimar' motiator"125.See Tom ;i!$bur+ P Eric " .o$!er, Subconstitutionalism, K2 Sta!" 6"


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cratic tra!$itio! period" uch happe!$ i! relatie $ecrec' duri!+ militar'

rule" Due i! lar+e part to the hierarchical comma!d $tructure o# it$ re+ularoperatio!$, the militar' u!ta rarel' #eel$ the !eed to u$ti#' or eJplai! therea$o!$ behi!d it$ actio!$ duri!+ the tra!$itio! proce$$" 6a-$, proclamatio!$, a!d i!terim co!$titutio!$ are o#te! dra#ted behi!d clo$ed door$ throu+ha lar+el' opa7ue proce$$, -ith little or !o participatio! b' ordi!ar' citie!$"12L

4hat i$ more, the oice$ o# the or+a!iatio!$ that pla' a! impor ta!t

role i! e!$uri!+ tra!$pare!c' i! democratic politic$

e"+", the media, !o!

pro#it or+a!iatio!$, thi! ta!$, a!d other i!depe!de!t -atchdo+$ma'

be curtailed or ee! completel' $ile!ced, at lea$t o! certai! $ubect$,b'the militar' duri!+ the democratic tra!$itio! proce$$" 12M The citie!$thu$lac mea!i!+#ul mo!itori!+ mecha!i$m$ to ob$ere the co!duct o#themilitar'"

The primar' mo!itori!+ method aailable to the citie!$ i$ direct ob$eratio! o# the results o# the militar'$ actio!$" lthou+h the populace i! mo$tca$e$ ca!!ot mo!itor, #or eJample, the i!ter!al debate$ oer the co!te!t o#a!i!terim co!$titutio!, the citie!r' ca! ob$ere -hether the militar' ha$a!!ou!ced a $chedule #or the tra!$itio! to democrac' e"+", a date certai! #ordemocratic electio!$ a!d -hether the depo$ed de$pot$ #rom the authoritaria! re+ime hae bee! put o! trial" The$e re$ult$ proide a! ae!ue #or amodicum o# mo!itori!+ to the citie!r', but, a$ di$cu$$ed belo-, there i$er'little b' -a' o# $a!ctio!$ that the citie!r' ca! impo$e o! the militar' #or -hatthe' ob$ere a$ $el#i!tere$ted co!duct"

*i!all', i! mo$t ca$e$, the primar' mecha!i$m #or $a!ctio!i!+ $el#

i!tere$ted politicia!$

oti!+ them out o# o##ice

i$ u!aailable #or the

militar'"Ordi!aril', the militar' doe$ !ot $ee reelectio! at the e!d o#

a democraticcoup" %t$ purpo$e i$ limited to tra!$itio!i!+ the !atio!

to a democrac' a!dretur!i!+ to the barrac$" lthou+h the militar'remai!$ i! po-er u!til thetra!$itio! i$ complete, the people ca!!otote the militar' out o# o##icebe#ore the tra!$itio! e!d$" *urther, theimpo$itio! o# $a!ctio!$ o! the mili tar' a#ter the tra!$itio! todemocrac' ma' al$o be er' di##icult" The mili tar' u$uall'!e+otiate$ immu!it' #rom pro$ecutio! a$ a co!ditio! #orreli!7ui$hi!+ po-er to democraticall' elected leader$, -hichprohibit$ the impo$itio! o# crimi!al $a!ctio!$ o! the militar' a#terthe coup"12& The mili

127.*or eJample, amo!+ the mo$t commo! complai!t$ i! the o!+oi!+ democratic tra!$itio! i!E+'pt i$ that the militar' i$ utterl' opa7ue, i$$ui!+ edict$ #rom behi!d clo$ed door$I a!d -ith !o$e!$e o# popular co!$ultatio!"I Neil ac*ar7uhar, Protestors Scold !ypt8s Military Council, N"="Time$,pr" 1, 2011,http@AA---"!'time$"comA2011A0(A02A-orldAmiddleea$tA02e+'pt"html"128.See; e.!., !ypt) #orrid Post-"evolutionary #imes, Eco!omi$t, :ul' 30, 2011, available at http@AA

---"eco!omi$t"comA!odeA2152(M51 !oti!+ attempt$ b' the ruli!+ E+'ptia! militar' to pla!t plai!clothe$a+itator$ i! prote$t$ a!d to mute the thrii!+ i!depe!de!t pre$$ -hile e!coura+i!+ $tateo-!ed media toportra' prote$ter$ a$ hooli+a!$I"129. *or eJample, the co!$titutio! dra#ted #ollo-i!+ a 1&K0 coup i! Ture' prohibited the

impo$itio! o# a!' ciil or crimi!al $a!ctio!$ a+ai!$t the militar' ruler$ that +oer!ed the !atio!duri!+ thetra!$itio! proce$$" See Tu ri'e Cumhuri'eti !a'a$a$i GCo!$titutio!H 1&K1, temp"art" ( Tur""
http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/02/world/middleeast/02egypt.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/02/world/middleeast/02egypt.htmlhttp://www.economist.com/node/21524851http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/02/world/middleeast/02egypt.htmlhttp://www.economist.com/node/21524851


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tar' thu$ ha$ little #ear o# pre$e!t or #uture $a!ctio!$ #or $el#i!tere$ted

behaior"The aailabilit' o# $a!ctio!$ i$ al$o limited becau$e there eJi$t$ !o eJter

!al e!#orcer o# the bar+ai! bet-ee! the people a!d the militar'"130 ?po!$eii!+ po-er, the militar' ordi!aril' di$ba!d$ the .arliame!t, a!!ul$theco!$titutio!, a!d $u$pe!d$ udicial reie-,131 proidi!+ it$el# a irtualmo!opol' o! coercie po-er"132 The people ca!!ot i!oe the po-ero# the court$ to e!$ure that the militar' remai!$ #aith#ul to the be$ti!tere$t$ o# thepopulace" !d ee! -here udicial reie- i$ aailable,the udiciar' lac$ the po-er to e!#orce a!' ud+me!t a+ai!$t the

militar'"133

The militar' ma' i+!ore the udiciar'$ ruli!+$, aboli$h or$u$pe!d udicial reie-, or ee!impeach u!cooperatie ud+e$"13(

The o!e limited ae!ue #or $a!ctio!$ i$ the prote$t, ai! to -hat thepolitical$cie!ce literature label$ the decibel meter"I135 %! political $cie!ce,the decibel meter re#er$ to the #eedbac that politicia!$ receie #romtheir co!$titue!t$ about bureaucratic per#orma!ce"13K The militar'lie-i$e re ceie$ #eedbac #rom the citie!$ i! the #orm o# prote$t$"4he! u!happ' about the militar'$ per#orma!ce duri!+ the tra!$itio!,the #ru$trated ma$$e$ ru$h bac to the $'mbolic $7uare i! -hich thei!itial upri$i!+ a+ai!$t theautocratic re+ime be+a! i! order to #orce theruli!+ militar' to accede totheir dema!d$" *or eJample, i! the o!+oi!+tra!$itio! proce$$ i! E+'pt, thecro-d$ retur!ed to alTahrir S7uare toprote$t the $lo- pace o# the tra!$itio! a!d the militar'$ #ailure to$peedil' pro$ecute the member$ o# the ubara re+ime"13L O!e o# theor+a!ier$ o# the alTahrir S7uare prote$t$ told meduri!+ a! i!terie-that a cro-d o# about 100 to 200 prote$tor$ -ould remai! i! theS7uare i!de#i!itel' u$t $o the militar' !o-$ -e are $tillhere a!d-ill tae oer the S7uare a+ai! i# thi!+$ +o a-r'"I13M$ a!other E+'ptia!prote$tor put it@ .rote$t$ a!d popular pre$$ure Ga+ai!$t the mili tar'H

mu$t retur!, becau$e the' are o!l' the real method o# realii!+ the

130.See ;i!$bur+ P .o$!er, supra !ote 125, at 15M&"131.See ahmud, supra !ote 10, at 103, 12L"132.See ;i!$bur+ P .o$!er, supra !ote 125, at 15&2F ahmud, supra !ote 10, at 10( 9ecau$e the

militar' e!o'$ a prepo!dera!ce, ee! a mo!opol', o# coercie po-er i! the $ociet', it ca! e!#orce it$ -illo! a!' $ectio! o# the $tate or ciil $ociet' -hile it remai!$ relatiel' immu!e #rom cou!teraili!+ pre$ $ure#rom a!' other 7uarter"I"133.ahmud, supra !ote 10, at 10("134. Id.

135.Cf. oe, supra !ote 15, at LKL"136. Id.137.See #he Arab A/a$enin!) "evolution Spinnin! in the ind, Eco!omi$t, :ul' 1(, 2011, available

at http@AA---"eco!omi$t"comA!odeA1M&5M23LB#$rc$c!A#bA-lAarAreolutio!i!the-i!d %! the ab$e!ce o#parliame!t$ a $ort o# rolli!+ dialo+ue ha$ u!#olded Gi! the rab -orldH, -hereb' public a!+er build$ atthelac o# pro+re$$, re$ulti!+ i! prote$t$ that prompt i!terim +oer!me!t$ to #urther co!ce$$io!$"I"138. %!terie- -ith /a'tham /ammad i! Cairo, E+'pt u+" 1, 2001F see also 8irpatric, !ypt

rupts in 0ubilation as Mubara$ Steps Do/n, supra !ote 1 Ee! i# Gthe prote$tor$H leae, a!' +oer!me!t-ill !o- that -e ca! +et them to the $treet$ a+ai! i! a mi!ute" I 7uoti!+ Shad' el;haal' /arb, o!eo#the or+a!ier$ -ho +uided the E+'ptia! reolutio!"


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people$ dema!d$"I13& 9' i!oi!+ the po-er or the threat o# prote$t$,

thecitie!$ thu$ proide #eedbac to the militar' about their-i$he$"1(0

%! additio! to proidi!+ #eedbac, prote$t$ al$o $ere a limited $a!ctio!i!+#u!ctio!" The' diert the militar'$ re$ource$ #rom other area$ o# co!cer! tore$po!d to the prote$t$" The po-er o# the people eJpre$$ed throu+h per$i$te!t prote$t$ there#ore ma' al$o motiate the militar' to act" *or eJample,the E+'ptia! Supreme Cou!cil o# rmed *orce$ ha$te!ed to bri!+ to trial$eeral member$ o# ubara$ depo$ed cabi!et i! re$po!$e to determi!edprote$t$ i! alTahrir S7uare dema!di!+ accou!tabilit' #or the ubara re+ime"1(1 The decibel meter that mea$ure$ the oice o# the people i$ thu$relea!t i! polici!+ the co!duct o# the militar', but ultimatel', the po-ero#the prote$t$ i$ limited" The militar' po$$e$$e$ the coercie po-er to7uell the prote$t$, arre$t the prote$tor$, a!d co!ti!ue o! it$ $el#i!tere$ted path"1(2!d i! re$po!$e, there i$ er' little, i# a!'thi!+, thatthe people ca! do"

4ith little or !o opportu!it' #or $cree!i!+, mo!itori!+, a!d $a!ctio!$, themilitar' i$ ordi!aril' u!accou!table #or ma!' o# it$ actio!$ duri!+ thedemocratic tra!$itio! proce$$"1(3 The militar' i$ !ot obli+ed to act o! behal#o# the people, a!d the people +e!erall' lac a le+al mecha!i$m #or$a!ctio!i!+ or re-ardi!+ the militar' #or it$ per#orma!ce duri!+ thetra!$itio!"1(( Thi$ irtual mo!opol' o! po-er, -ith #e- mecha!i$m$ #ormiti+ati!+ $el# i!tere$ted behaior, proide$ the militar' ample lee-a'to maJimie it$ -el #are duri!+ the tra!$itio! proce$$" %! the !eJt$ectio!, % #ocu$ o! o!e $peci#ic #orm o# -el#are maJimiatio!@co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t"

C. Constitutional ntrenchment Durin! Military "ule

Co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t re#er$ to the militar'$ placeme!t i!to thei!terim co!$titutio! or the re$ulti!+ democratic co!$titutio! proi$io!$ that#aor the militar'$ i!$titutio!al or polic' pre#ere!ce$ or $ee to perpetuatethemilitar'$ oice i! the !atio!$ political a##air$ be'o!d the e!d o# thedemocratic tra!$itio! period" lthou+h, a$ de$cribed i! .art %, the militar'reli!7ui$he$ po-er at the e!d o# a democratic coup, it al$o $et$ it$ term$

139.See ac*ar7uhar, Protestors Scold !ypt8s Military Council, supra !ote 12L"140.Cf. #he Arab A/a$enin!) "evolution Spinnin! in the ind, supra !ote 13L"

141.See /ama /e!da-i, Mubara$ Prosecutors Demand the Death Penalty, ;lobe P ail, :a!" 5,2012, http@AA---"the+lobea!dmail"comA!e-$A-orldAmubarapro$ecutor$dema!dthedeathpe!alt'Aarticle22&2K(LA"142. %!deed, the Supreme Cou!cil o# rmed *orce$ i! E+'pt outla-ed demo!$tratio!$ a!d $iti!$ i!

re$po!$e to co!ti!ued prote$t$" ichael Slacma!, Islamist roup Is "isin! +e/ >orce in a +e/ !ypt, N"="Time$, arch 2(, 2001, http@AA---"!'time$"comA2011A03A25A-orldAmiddleea$tA25e+'pt"htmlBpa+e-a!tedallF see also ac*ar7uhar, Protestors Scold !ypt8s Military Council, supra !ote 12L !oti!+ a hea'militar' ha!d i! breai!+ up demo!$tratio!$ a!d credible alle+atio!$ o# torturi!+ arre$ted prote$tor$I"143.Cf. 9e$le', supra !ote 15, at 101 GHchiei!+ accou!tabilit' i$ o!e o# the e' role$ o#

electio!$"I"144.See :ame$ D" *earo!, lectoral Accountability and the Control of Politicians) Selectin! ood #ypes

2ersusSanctionin! Poor Performance, in Democrac', ccou!tabilit', a!d


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throu+h co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t"1(5 democratic coup ma' $ho- a!'

o!e or a combi!atio! o# three t'pe$ o# e!tre!chme!t@ i!$titutio!al,$ub$ta!tie,1(K a!d procedural" % di$cu$$ each i! tur!">irst, the militar' ma' create cou!termaoritaria! i!$titutio!$ i! the !e-

co!$titutio! e"+", !atio!al $ecurit' cou!cil$, co!$titutio!al court$, etc"that co!ti!ue to e!#orce the militar'$ i!$titutio!al or polic' pre#ere!ce$a#ter the militar' reli!7ui$he$ po-er to democraticall' elected leader$"%!$titutio!al ied prero+atie$ allo- the militar' to eJerci$e e##ectieco!trol oer it$ i!ter!al +oer!a!ce, to pla' a role -ithi! eJtramilitar'area$ -ithi! the $tate apparatu$, or ee! to $tructure relatio!$hip$

bet-ee! the $tate a!d po litical or ciil $ociet'"I1(L

*or eJample, a!atio!al $ecurit' cou!cil, de$i+!ed a$ a #orum #or eJcha!+e o#ie-$ bet-ee! ciilia! a!d militar' leader$, ma' allo- the militar'to i!#lue!ce political polic'mai!+" 6ie-i$e, a co!$titu tio!al courtcompri$ed o# ud+e$ ali+!ed -ith the militar'$ polic' pre#ere!ce$ma' $trie do-! democraticall' e!acted le+i$latio! co!trar' totho$epre#ere!ce$"

Tom ;i!$bur+ a!d


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polic' pre#ere!ce$ to u!elected ud+e$ -ho $hare the elite$ ideolo+' a!d

$hield the elite$ policie$ #rom the a+arie$ o# dome$tic politic$"

151

Ee! i#thepolitical elite$ lo$e po-er, the u!elected ud+e$ co!ti!ue to e!#orce theelite$ polic' pre#ere!ce$ ia udicial #iat"152

%! a democratic coup, b' de#i!itio!, the militar' leader$ -ill ee!tuall'ha!d oer po-er to democraticall' elected leader$

-hich, i! mo$t

ca$e$,-ill !ot be the member$ o# the militar' u!ta that $ta+ed the

coup" %! $uchca$e$, the militar' ha$ a! i!ce!tie, i! li!e -ith thetheorie$ o# .ro#e$$or$ ;i!$bur+ a!d /ir$chl, to create cou!termaoritaria! i!$titutio!$ that -illperpetuate their polic' pre#ere!ce$lo!+ a#ter the' reli!7ui$h po-er"153 %!#act, the militar'$ i!ce!tie tocreate cou!termaoritaria! i!$titutio!$ dur i!+ a democratictra!$itio! i$ +reater tha! that o# ciilia! elite$" 15(lthou+h ciilia!elite$ ma' ru! a+ai! #or o##ice a!d po$$ibl' -i! electio!$ a#ter thetra!$itio!, militar' leader$ do !ot ordi!aril' ru! #or electio! #ollo-i!+democratic coup$"155 %! ma!' ca$e$, the o!l' optio! #or the militar'to perpetu ate it$ polic' pre#ere!ce$ i$ to e!tre!ch tho$epre#ere!ce$ i! a cou!termaoritaria! i!$titutio! be#ore the militar'leader$ reli!7ui$h o##ice"15K O# cour$e, cou!termaoritaria!i!$titutio!$ ma' di$appoi!t the militar' leader$ that e$tabli$hedthem, but the$e i!$titutio!$, -ho$e $tructure a!d member $hiphae bee! de#i!ed b' the militar', are liel' to be more reliable part!er$ tha! the elected bra!che$"

particularl' attractie optio! #or i!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t i$ the e$tabli$hme!t o# a co!$titutio!al court" ?!lie a! i!$titutio! $uch a$ a !atio!al $ecurit' cou!cil compri$ed partl' o# militar' o##icer$, a co!$titutio!alcourt ordi!aril' ha$ !o militar' member$" The creatio! o# a co!$titutio!alcourt thu$ allo-$ the militar' to e!#orce it$ i!tere$t$ throu+h a $eparate

i!$titutio! -ith !o oert militar' i!oleme!t"15L 9' e!tre!chi!+ it$ polic'pre#ere!ce$ i! a udiciar', the militar' ca! let a di##ere!t bra!ch o#+oer! me!t protect it$ i!tere$t$ a!d aoid accou!tabilit' i! theproce$$"15M $ di$ cu$$ed i! .art %%%", to mae $ure that theco!$titutio!al court #ollo-$ it$polic' pre#ere!ce$, the militar' ma'proide the authorit' to appoi!t mem

151.See d mir roma!ded",200M"155. See id.156. See id.157. See id.158. See id.


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tat33

ber$ to the court to i!$titutio!$ that are #rie!dl' to it$ polic' pre#ere!ce$"15&

6ie-i$e, the militar' ma' adopt a liberal de#i!itio! o# $ta!di!+ a!dallo- i!$titutio!$ ali+!ed -ith it$ ideolo+' to $ee udicial reie-be#ore the co!$titutio!al court, proidi!+ the court -ith additio!alopportu!itie$ to e!+a+e i! udicial reie- a!d to e!#orce the polic'pre#ere!ce$ that it $hare$ -ith the militar'"1K0 The creatio! o# a!i!depe!de!t a!d $'mpathetic udici ar' mi+ht thu$ be the be$ti!$ura!ce polic'I #or the militar'"1K1

Second, the militar' ma' re$ere $ub$ta!tie po-er$ #or it$el# i! the !e-co!$titutio!" Sub$ta!tie e!tre!chme!t i$ di$ti!ct #rom i!$titutio!al e!

tre!chme!t i! that the #ormer proide$ the militar' it$el# -ith $ub$ta!tieco!$titutio!al po-er$, -herea$ the latter dele+ate$ co!$titutio!al authorit' toa $eparate i!$titutio!" t it$ mo$t eJtreme, a$ i! the ca$e o# .ortu+aldi$cu$$ed i! .art %%%"9, the militar' ma' proide it$el# the po-er to e!act la-$a!d re+ulatio!$ or to ud+e the co!$titutio!alit' o# la-$ pa$$ed b' thedemocraticall' elected le+i$lature" To a le$$er eJte!t, a$ i! the ca$e$ o# Ecuador a!d Ture', the militar' ma' i!clude a +uardia! o# the !atio!I clau$e i!the !e- co!$titutio!, eJpre$$l' declari!+ it$el# to be the protector o# the$tate"1K2t #ir$t blu$h, thi$ proi$io! ma' $eem i!!ocuou$F a#ter all, themilitar' i$ authoried to +uard the $tate #rom eJter!al threat$" 9ut i!ma!' ca$e$, the militar' i!$ert$ a +uardia!o#the$tate clau$e toprotect -hat itdeem$ to be the #u!dame!tal pri!ciple$ o# the $tate #romdemocraticall'elected +oer!me!t$" Thi$ clau$e ma' thu$ proide themilitar' -ith co!$ti tutio!al authorit' to hae a! o!+oi!+ oice i!political a##air$ a!d to dictate-hat democraticall' elected +oer!me!t$ma' or ma' !ot do" *or eJample,a$ di$cu$$ed i! .art %%%", the Turi$hmilitar' ha$ #re7ue!tl' i!tere!ed i! political a##air$ to protect the$ecular !ature o# the $tate a+ai!$t theocraticlea!i!+ +oer!me!t$"

#hird, the militar' ma' de$i+! the tra!$itio! proce$$ $o that it produce$ a$ub$ta!tie co!$titutio!al outcome #aorable to the militar'" .rocedural e!tre!chme!t i$ mo$t liel' to happe! -he! the co!$titutio! i$ dra#ted, !ot b'the militar', but b' a democraticall' elected le+i$latie bra!ch or co!$titue!ta$$embl'" %# that i$ the ca$e, the militar' ma' !ot hae the po-er todirectl'dictate the co!te!t o# the !e- co!$titutio! a!d ma' thu$ re$ort to procedurale!tre!chme!t to i!#lue!ce the co!$titutio!$ co!te!t" *or eJam ple, themilitar' ma' decide to hold electio!$ -ithi! a $hort time #rame, mai!+ iter' di##icult #or !e- partie$ to e##ectiel' or+a!ie a!d mou!t a!

159.See infra !ote$ 2(3(K a!d accompa!'i!+ teJt a!al'i!+ the appoi!tme!t$ proce$$ #or the Turi$h Co!$titutio!al Court"160.See infra !ote$ 2(K(& di$cu$$i!+ the $cope o# $ta!di!+ #or bri!+i!+ petitio!$ #or udicial reie-

be#ore the Turi$h Co!$titutio!al Court"161.See Shamba'ati, #he uardian of the "e!ime, supra !ote 15(, at 103"162.Seeurel Croi$$a!t et al", Beyond the >allacy of Coup-ism) Conceptuali


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electoral campai+!"1K3 The militar' ma' hae a! i!ce!tie to protect

e$tab li$hed political partie$ a+ai!$t !e- a!d u!#amiliar o!e$,beliei!+ that thee$tabli$hed partie$ -ill better protect the militar'$pre#ere!ce$ -he! dra#t i!+ the !e- co!$titutio!" $ di$cu$$ed i!.art %%%"C, the E+'ptia! rmed *orce$, #or eJample, ma' haee$tabli$hed a $peed' timeli!e #or electio!$ #ollo-i!+ the *ebruar'2011 coup i! order to #aor the more e$tabli$hed a!d or+a!iedpartie$ a+ai!$t !e-l' #ormed partie$ compri$ed primaril' o# E+'ptia! 'outh"

%! additio! to co!trolli!+ the timeli!e #or the electio!$, the militar' ma'al$o alter the $e7ue!ce o# the electio!$ that tae place duri!+ thetra!$itio! $o that the electoral proce$$ produce$ a $ub$ta!tieco!$titutio!al outcome #aorable to the militar'"1K( Three primar' t'pe$o# electio!$ ma' tae placei! ariou$ order$ duri!+ the democratictra!$itio! proce$$"1K5 .re$ide!tial electio!$ ma' be held #ir$t, -iththe !e-l' elected pre$ide!t holdi!+ po-er#or a #iJed period o# timea!d -ithout a!' chec b' a! i!depe!de!t parlia me!t"1KK

lter!atiel', parliame!tar' electio!$ ma' be held #ir$t, -ith thele+i$lature +ii!+ it$ co!#ide!ce to a +oer!me!t eJecutie $uch a$a prime mi!i$ter or a cabi!et"1KL *i!all', electio!$ #or a co!$titue!t

a$$embl' to dra#t a !e- co!$titutio! ma' be held be#orepre$ide!tial or parliame!tar'electio!$"1KM

The determi!atio! o# -hich i!$titutio! i$ elected #ir$t

the pre$ide!t,

the parliame!t, or the co!$titue!t a$$embl'

i$ o# maor importa!ce to

therelatio!$hip bet-ee! the le+i$latie a!d the eJecutie bra!che$,

the role o# political partie$, a!d the !ature o# political li#e i!+e!eral"I1K& *or eJample, the deci$io! to elect a pre$ide!t #ir$t ma'

hae a pro#ou!d e##ect o! the!atio!$ co!$titutio!al #uture"

1L0

4ith apopularl' elected pre$ide!t alread' i! place, the co!$titutio!aldra#ter$ are much le$$ liel' a!d able to alter the $tatu$ 7uo a!dopt #or a parliame!tar', a$ oppo$ed to a pre$ide!tial, de $i+!"1L1 %!co!tra$t, i# electio!$ #or a co!$titue!t a$$embl' or the parliame!t

163..rocedural e!tre!chme!t doe$ !ot re!der the re$ulti!+ electio!$ u!#air or !ot #ree" $ lo!+ a$u!ier$al adult $u##ra+e a!d mea!i!+#ul competitio! eJi$t, the electio!$ that occur #ollo-i!+ the democratic coup are #ree a!d #air u!der Samuel /u!ti!+to!$ de#i!itio! o# that term" See supra !ote$ K&MM a!daccompa!'i!+ teJt" .rocedural e!tre!chme!t ma' tilt the electoral pla'i!+ #ield to-ard o!e or morepolitical partie$, but ee! i! e$tabli$hed democracie$, the electoral #ield i$ rarel' leel" %! the ?!itedState$,

#or eJample, procedural mecha!i$m$ $uch a$ +err'ma!deri!+, oter ide!ti#icatio! re7uireme!t$, a!d #elo!di$e!#ra!chi$eme!t la-$ ma' produce $ub$ta!tie e##ect$"164.See Shai! P 6i!, supra !ote 35, at & !oti!+ that the determi!atio! o# electoral $e7ue!ce b' a!

i!terim +oer!me!t ca! be critical"165.See =o$$i Shai! P :ua! :" 6i!, #imin! of >irst Democratic lections, in Shai! P 6i!, supra !ote

35, at LK, M3"166. Id.167. Id.168. Id. The democratic tra!$itio! proce$$ i! Tu!i$ia a#ter the reolutio! i! 2011 #ollo-ed thi$

third$e7ue!ce"169. Id. at M("170. See id.

171. Id. %# pre$ide!tial electio!$ occur #ir$t, the co!$titutio!al dra#ter$ hae to -or -ith a!electedleader -ho i$ !ot accou!table to the le+i$lature a!d -ho$e term i$ #iJed a!d ma' eJte!dbe'o!d the


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are held #ir$t, the! the e$tabli$hme!t o# a parliame!tar' $'$tem remai!$ a

po$$ibilit'"

1L2

!d the militar', a$ i! the ca$e o# E+'pt di$cu$$ed i! .art%%%"C, ma' #aor a pre$ide!tial $'$tem oer a parliame!tar' o!e o! theba$i$ that a $tro!+ pre$ide!t -ill better pre$ere it$ polic' a!di!$titutio!alpre#ere!ce$"

Ee! thou+h a democratic coup e!d$ i! #ree a!d #air electio!$,$ub$ta!tie, i!$titutio!al, a!d procedural e!tre!chme!t allo- the militar'to pla' a! o!+oi!+ role i! the !atio!$ political a##air$" Neerthele$$,co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t doe$ !ot la$t #oreer" Ture' a!d .ortu+al,#or eJample, -hich re$pectiel' eJperie!ced democratic coup$ i! 1&K0a!d 1&L( a!d re $ulti!+ co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t b' their militarie$,both hae e$tab li$hed ibra!t democracie$" .ortu+al remoed thee!tre!chme!t #rom it$co!$titutio! b' ame!di!+ it $iJ $hort 'ear$ a#ter thecoup e!ded" !d be+i!!i!+ i! 2001, Ture' ame!ded it$ co!$titutio! a!umber o# time$ to chip a-a' the proi$io!$ e!tre!ched b' the militar'" 1L3

t the time o# thi$ -rit i!+, Ture' i$ i! the proce$$ o# dra#ti!+ a!e- co!$titutio! that -ill liel're!der the militar' #orce$ completel'$ub$erie!t to the ciilia! bra!che$"

III.Ca$e Studie$

Thi$ .art u$e$ three comparatie ca$e $tudie$ to illu$trate the democraticcoup phe!o

the democratic coup

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