the digitally literate citizen: how digital literacy empowers mass participation in the united...

7/31/2019 The Digitally Literate Citizen: How Digital Literacy Empowers Mass Participation in the United States

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TLH DIFITACCY CITHPATH BITI]HE=

LJV DIFITAC CITHPABY HG^JVHPR GARR ^APTIBI^ATIJE IE TLH XEITHD RTATHR

A Garthpr Tlhrir

rx`gitthd tj tlh Oabxctyjo tlh Fpadxath Rbljjc jo Aptr aed Rbihebhr

jo Fhjpfhtje Xeivhprityie ~aptiac oxcoiccghet jo tlh phqxiphghetr ojp tlh

dhfphh joGarthp jo Aptr

ie Bjggxeibatije# Bxctxph aed Thblejcjfy%

@y

Mhphgy Pihc# @%A%

Varlieftje# D%B%

A~pic 02# 0>10


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Acc pifltr phrhpvhd

IEOJPGATIJE TJ ACC XRHPRTlh qxacity jo tlir ph~pjdxbtije ir dh~hedhet je tlh qxacity jo tlh bj~y rx`gitthd%

Ie tlh xecikhcy hvhet tlat tlh axtljp did ejt rhed a bjg~chth gaexrbpi~taed tlhph aph girrief ~afhr# tlhrh icc `h ejthd% Acrj# io gathpiac lad tj `h phgjvhd#

a ejth icc iedibath tlh dhchtije%

Acc pifltr phrhpvhd% Tlir hditije jo tlh jpk ir ~pjthbthd afaiertxeaxtljpi}hd bj~yief xedhp Titch 16# Xeithd Rtathr Bjdh%

^pjQxhrt CCB%6


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0>10 Mhphgy PihcRjgh pifltr phrhpvhd

Tlh Difitaccy Cithpath Biti}he=Lj Difitac Cithpaby Hg~jhpr Garr ^aptibi~atije ie tlh Xeithd Rtathr

`y Mhphgy Pihcir cibherhd xedhp a

Bphativh Bjggjer Attpi`xtije 2%> Xe~jpthd Cibhebh

%bphativhbjggjer%jpf*cibherhr*`y*2%>*


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TLH DIFITACCY CITHPATH BITI]HE=

LJV DIFITAC CITHPABY HG^JVHPR GARR ÂPTIBIÂTIJE IE TLH XEITHD RTATHR

Mhphgy Pihc# @%A%

Tlhrir Advirjp= Diaea G% Jhe# ^l%D%

A@RTPABT

Opjg jecieh ~jcitibac bag~aifeief tj Iethpeht rjbiac bcx`r# tlh Aghpibae garr

~aptibi~atije hevipjeghet lar `hbjgh iebphariefcy ghdiathd `y difitac thblejcjfihr jp tjjcr%

Opjg rjbiac ghg`hprli~ ie fpjx~r aed bcx`r tj ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije tj ieocxhebief fjvhpeghet

abtije# ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr lavh `hbjgh ~j~xcap ojp h|~phrrief idhar aed `xicdief rjbiac

ba~itac% Ie tlir tlhrir# I apfxh tlat difitac cithpaby# jp tlh aìcity tj xrh hchbtpjeib tjjcr tj phtpihvh#

hvacxath# aed bphath ieojpgatije# lar `hbjgh hrrhetiac ojp hefafhghet ie vapijxr garr

~aptibi~atije aed rjbiac abtivitihr ie tlh Xeithd Rtathr# iebcxdief tljrh abtivitihr itlie tlh

djgaier jo rjbiac ghg`hprli~# bivib# ~jcitibac# aed jecieh ~aptibi~atije% @hbaxrh jo tlh iebpharhd

xrh jo ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr ie tlh ~x`cib r~lhph# thblejcjfy aed ieojpgatije rkiccr lavh

`hbjgh phqxiphd tj hoohbtivhcy ~aptibi~ath rjbiaccy aed ~jcitibaccy% Xrief data opjg a eatijeaccy

ph~phrhetativh rxpvhy# I iccxrtpath rhvhpac oiediefr tlat iedibath tlh rtpheftl jo difitac cithpaby

rkiccr ie hg~jhpief ~x`cib ojp rjbiac ghg`hprli~ ~aptibi~atije# ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije# aed

jecieh rjbiac abtivitihr%

KHYVJPDR

Difitac cithpaby; ieojpgatije cithpaby; ghdia cithpaby; thblejcjfy rkiccr; garr ~aptibi~atije;

~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije; bivib ~aptibi~atije; difitac dividh


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TA@CH JO BJETHETR

BLA^THP1=IETPJDXBTIJE%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%1

1%1OPAGHVJPK AED ÂRT PHRHAPBL %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%2

1%0LY^JTLHRHR AED GHTLJDR%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%6

1%2OIEDIEFR%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%10THBLEJCJFY XRH RXP_HY%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%402%2AEACYRIR GHTLJDR%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%42

2%2%1ADMXRTHD RXGGAPY RBACHR OJPDHRBPI^TI_H GHAER BJGÂPIRJE %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%422%2%0DHRBPI^TI_H AEACYRIR AED DHGJFPA^LIB BJGÂPIRJER%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%48

2%2%2LY^JTLHRIR THRTIEF AED AEACYRIR %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%48

BLA^THP4=DHRBPI^TI_H DIOOHPHEBHR IE DIFITAC CITHPABY AED GARR ÂPTIBIÂTIJE%%46

4%1DIFITAC CITHPABY IE TLH XEITHD RTATHR %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%4>?a; Iethpeatijeac Thblejcjfy Hdxbatije

Arrjbiatije# 0>>0; Tpiccief / Oadhc# 0>>9)%Ieojpgatije rkiccr addphrr tlh tlhjphtibac arrxg~tije

tlat xrhpr jo ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr rljxcd acrj `h a`ch tj bpitibaccy abqxiph# aeacy}h# aed xrh

ieojpgatije hooibihetcy% Rbljcapr apfxh tlat itljxt ieojpgatije rkiccr# xrhpr jo ieojpgatije


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thblejcjfihr icc `h xea`ch tj gakh rherh jo tlh dhcxfh jo ieojpgatije tlat ir avaica`ch tj xrhpr

,Ficrthp# 1996; Pxrlkjoo# 0>1>; @adhe# 0>>1; Reavhcy / Bjj~hp# 1996)%

Tlh djgaier jobjggxeibatije rkiccr ,tlh aìcity tj rhed aed phbhivh ieojpgatije) aed

~x`cibatije rkiccr ,tlh aìcity tj bphath ieojpgatije) addphrr tlh dhcivhpy aed rlapief oxebtijer

tlat ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr ~pjvidh% Rbljcapr ljcd tlat tlh aìcity tj ~pj~hpcy iethp~pht

ghrrafhr itlie vapijxr ghdia# bljjrh tlh ~pj~hp ghdixg ojp bjggxeibatije jp h|~phrrije#

aed tj bjgìeh ghdia ojp vapijxr hoohbtr aph hrrhetiac ojp a difitaccy cithpath ~hprje ,Mhekier#

0>>?`; Tyehp# 1992; Vicdh / Vicdh# 1991)%Ieejvativh

tliekief rkiccr# libl iebcxdh bpitibac tliekief# ae h|~hpighetac attitxdh# aed a lirtjpy jo

bphativity aed bxrtjgi}atije itl thblejcjfy aph acrj phfapdhd ar ehbhrrapy ojp tlh difitaccy

cithpath ~hprje% Ieejvativh tliekief rkiccr hea`ch och|iìcity lhe chapeief eh thblejcjfihr aed

~pjvidh ghetac gjdhcr ojp bphatief bxrtjg xrhr jo thblejcjfy tj ghht jehr ehhdr ,Mhekier#

0>>?a; Aghpibae Arrjbiatije ojp tlh Advaebhghet jo Rbihebh# 199>)% Oieaccy# difitac cithpaby

rbljcapr oied tlat bxctxpac aed lirtjpibac kejchdfh je thblejcjfy irrxhr aid a ~hprje ie

aetibi~atief tlh bjerhqxhebhr jo lir jp lhp thblejcjfy xrh aed lhc~ ieojpg lir jp lhp bljibh jo

ghdia ,^haprje / Yjxef# 0>>0; Mhekier# 0>>?a; Tpiccief / Oadhc# 0>>9; Pxrlkjoo# 0>1>)% Tlhrh

kejchdfh aphar iebcxdh chfac irrxhr itl thblejcjfy# iethcchbtxac ~pj~hpty# jecieh ~pivaby# tlh

pirkr aed `hehoitr jo thblejcjfy# aed bxpphet thblejcjfy tphedr%

Tlh ri| djgaier jo difitac cithpaby tlat I idhetioy ie tlir tlhrir acc `hehoit a ~hprjer

aìcity ojp rhco'h|~phrrije aed bjevhyaebh jo idhar jp rjbiac ehhdr% Bjg~cighetief tlh

tpaditijeac ejtije jo cithpaby ar tlh aìcity tj phad aed pith# tlir h|~aedhd ejtije jo difitac

cithpaby abbjxetr ojp tlh viptxaccy xecigithd exg`hp jo bjgìeatijer jo ghdia itl libl a

~hprje bae xrh ieojpgatije thblejcjfy tj bjggxeibath aed iethp~pht caefxafh% Tlir gxctigjdac


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vih jo cithpaby lar `hbjgh ae aethbhdhet rkicc tlat ir phqxiphd ojp gaey ojpgr jo garr

~aptibi~atije% Ie hoohbt# tlhrh rkiccr ph~phrhet a eh rht jo bivib rkiccr tlat hg~jhp tlh ~x`cib tj

lavh a pj`xrt rjbiac cioh aed bjggxeity bjeehbtije%

1%0LY^JTLHRHR AED GHTLJDR

Tj h|agieh tlh ieocxhebh jo difitac cithpaby je vapijxr ojpgr jo garr ~aptibi~atije# I lavh

dhvhcj~hd tlh ojccjief ly~jtlhrhr tlat icc `h thrthd ie tlir tlhrir=

L1= Kejchdfh jo bxctxpac aed lirtjpibac irrxhr jo thblejcjfy ir bjpphcathd tlh gjrt

itl liflhp chvhcr jo garr ~aptibi~atije lhe bjg~aphd tj tlh jtlhp oivh djgaier

jo difitac cithpaby

L0= Difitac cithpaby rkiccr tlat aph xrhd ojp bphativity aed bjethet ~x`cibatije aph

bjpphcathd itl liflhp chvhcr garr ~aptibi~atije lhe bjg~aphd tj bjg~xthp#

ieojpgatije# aed bjggxeibatije rkiccr

L2= Difitac cithpaby ir tlh rtpjefhrt ~phdibtjp jo tpaditijeac garr ~aptibi~atije lhe

bjg~aphd tj rtpheftl jo ~jcitibac idhjcjfy aed rjbiac dhgjfpa~libr

L4= Jecieh ~aptibi~atije ir ieocxhebhd tlh gjrt `y difitac cithpaby rkiccr lhe bjg~aphd

abpjrr tlh ojxp djgaier jo garr ~aptibi~atije

L8= Liflhp chvhcr jo difitac cithpaby ~phdibt liflhp chvhcr jo ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije

I ~hpojpg a rhpihr jo rtatirtibac aeacyrhr tj thrt tlhrh ly~jtlhrhr# iebcxdief ^haprjer P

bjpphcatijer aed jpdieapy chart'rqxaph ,JCR) phfphrrijer% Tlhrh rtatirtibac ~pjbhdxphr xrh data

opjg tlh 0>10 Thblejcjfy Xrh Rxpvhy# libl ~pjvidh ieojpgatije je phr~jedhet chvhcr jo

difitac cithpaby ar gharxphd `y 89 iedibatjpr jo rkicc aed kejchdfh% Ie additije# tlh rxpvhy


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11'0>10 Jbbx~y Vacc Rtphht gjvhghet# aed tlh 0>11 Apa` R~pief# dhgjbpatib aed eje'

dhgjbpatib rjbihtihr acikh aph ph'ehfjtiatief tlh iethp~cay `hthhe thblejcjfy# rjbiac iertitxtijer#

aed rjbijhbjejgib ieocxhebh%

Ie tlir bla~thp# I liflciflt ~art cithpatxph je garr ~aptibi~atije# aethbhdhet rkiccr aed

~phbjeditijer ojp ~aptibi~atije# dhrbpi~tije jo difitac cithpaby tlhjpy# aed itr phcatijerli~ tj garr

~aptibi~atije% Oiprt# I h|~cjph tlh bjebh~t jo garr ~aptibi~atije aed dhoieh tlh ojxp djgaier jo


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12

~aptibi~atije tlat tlir tlhrir icc aeacy}h% Rhbjed# I phvih tlh lirtjpy jo garr ~aptibi~atije

phrhapbl ie tlh Xeithd Rtathr tj fht a fcig~rh jo lj garr ~aptibi~atije phrhapbl lar `hbjgh

liflcy dhtaichd ie dhrbpiìef tlh ty~hr jo ~hj~ch lj fht ievjcvhd ie vapijxr ~x`cib abtivitihr#

hr~hbiaccy ie tlh akh jo tlh dhvhcj~ghet jo tlh Iethpeht aed jtlhp difitac tjjcr% Eh|t# I h|agieh

~art jpk tlat idhetioihr aethbhdhet ~phbjeditijer aed rkiccr tlat lavh `hhe ojxed tj ~phdibt a

~hprjer chvhc jo garr ~aptibi~atije% Oieaccy# I h|~cjph tlh bjebh~t jo difitac cithpaby aed ~jritije

it itlie tlh bxpphet cithpatxph je aethbhdhet rkiccr aed ~phbjeditijer ojp garr ~aptibi~atije%

Difitac cithpaby lar dhvhcj~hd opjg tlh tpaditijeac ejtije jo cithpaby# libl lar `hhe h|~aedhd

`y tlh h|~jehetiac fpjtl jo ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr% Ar difitac cithpaby ir a eh aethbhdhet

rkicc# tlh ~jrrhrrije jo difitac cithpaby rkiccr agjef tlh ~x`cib bjxcd `h a eh iedibatjp jo rjbiac

ieocxhebh ar it ir h|hpbirhd tlpjxfl ~aptibi~atije%

0%1GARR ÂPTIBIÂTIJE DHOIEHD

Garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr lavh hemjyhd a pibl lirtjpy jo phrhapbl aed dirbxrrije% I

dhoieh I dhoieh garr ~aptibi~atije ar hefafhghet ie rjbiac# bivib# aed ~jcitibac abtivitihr%

Fhehpaccy# garr ~aptibi~atije iebcxdhr abtivitihr tj rjbiaci}h# tj ieocxhebh jtlhpr `hlavijpr aed

attitxdhr# jp tj hoohbt rjbiac jp ~jcitibac blaefh# rxbl ar hebjxpafief rjghjeh tj fivh gjehy tj a

baxrh jp ~htitijeief a ~x`cib jooibiac tjapd a ~aptibxcap ~jciby dhbirije% Ar iccxrtpathd ie Ta`ch

0%1# I aeacy}h ojxp djgaier jo garr ~aptibi~atije ie tlir tlhrir= ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije# bivib

~aptibi~atije# rjbiac ghg`hprli~ ~aptibi~atije# aed jecieh ~aptibi~atije% Habl jo tlh ojxp djgaier

ir arrjbiathd itl r~hbioib fjacr aed abtivitihr%


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Ojxp Djgaier jo Garr âptibi~atije

1%^jcitibac âptibi~atije

0% Bivib âptibi~atije

2% Rjbiac Ghg`hprli~ âptibi~atije

4% Jecieh âptibi~atije

Ta`ch 0%1

Ojxp Djgaier jo Garr âptibi~atije

^hpla~r tlh gjrt phrhapblhd djgaie jo garr ~aptibi~atije ir~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije%

_hpà# Rblcj}gae# aed @pady ,1998) aed ]xkie# ht ac% ,0>>?) dhoieh ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije ar

abtivity tlat lar tlh iethet jp hoohbt jo ieocxhebief fjvhpeghet abtije hitlhp diphbtcy `y

aoohbtief tlh gakief jp ig~chghetatije jo ~x`cib ~jciby# jp iediphbtcy `y ieocxhebief tlh

rhchbtije jo ~hj~ch lj gakh tljrh ~jcibihr ,~~% ?)% Abtivitihr rxbl ar vjtief# djeatief tj

~jcitibac baedidathr# bjetabtief ~x`cib jooibiacr# aed ~jcitibac bcx` ghg`hprli~ aph acc dirtiebt#

gharxpa`ch ojpgr jo ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije ,^xteag# 0>>># ~~% 28'4?)% Ie additije# ]xkie# ht ac%

,0>>?) idhetioy tlh bjebh~t jo~x`cib vjibh ie ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr# libl aph iediphbt

hoojptr tj ieocxhebh ~jcitibac jxtbjghr tlpjxfl tlh dirbxrrije jp rlapief jo ~jcitibac irrxhr

tlpjxfl vapijxr ghdia itl jtlhp ghg`hpr jo tlh ~x`cib% Acc jo tlhrh abtivitihr aph iebcxdhd ie

gy gharxphr jo ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije ar dhrbpi`hd ie Bla~thp 2%

Actljxfl rbljcapr lavh ciekhd it tj ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije# bivib ~aptibi~atije ir a dirtiebt

bathfjpy jo abtivity opjg ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije ,_hpà# Rblcj}gae# / @pady# 1998; ^xteag#

0>>>; ]xkie# ht ac%# 0>>?)% Bivib ~aptibi~atije ir ejt aighd at ieocxhebief fjvhpeghet abtije aed

ir xrxaccy arrjbiathd itl a lifl dhfphh jo vjcxethhpirg jp rhpvibh tj jtlhpr% Ar dhoiehd `y

]xkie# ht ac# bivib hefafhghet ir jpfaei}hd vjcxetapy abtivity ojbxrhd je ~pj`chg rjcvief aed


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lhc~ief jtlhpr% It iebcxdhr a idh paefh jo jpk xedhptakhe acjeh jp ie bjebhpt itl jtlhpr tj

hoohbt blaefh ,0>>?# ~~% 6)% I xrh tlir dhoieitije ojp bivib ~aptibi~atije ie tlir tlhrir ar it

iebcxdhr vjcxethhpirg# ~licaetlpj~y# jp jtlhp jvhpt hoojptr tj ieocxhebh rjbiac ~jciby jp ritxatijer%

Tlhrh abtivitihr# lich rh~apath opjg tljrh jo ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije# acrj rhhk jxtbjghr tlat

ieocxhebh rjbiac ritxatijer% Ar rxbl# tlir djgaie jo ~aptibi~atije ir ae ig~jptaet jeh phfapdief

tlh phrhapbl jo garr ~aptibi~atije# hvhe tljxfl rjgh rbljcapr apfxh tlat ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije

giflt `h gjph ig~jptaet ojp tlh dhgjbpatib lhactl ,]xkie# ht ac%# 0>>?)%

Vlich ejt ehbhrrapicy ~pjgjtief rjbiac blaefh jp rjcvief ~pj`chgr# rjgh ojpgr jo garr

~aptibi~atije bae iebpharh a ~hprjer rjbiac ba~itac tlat bae tlhe `h xrhd ojp bivib ~aptibi~atije

,^xteag# 0>>># ~~% 11?)% Tlh ty~hr jo bjggxeity abtivitihr tlat dj ejt h|~phrr a bchap iethet tj

rjcvh ~pj`chgr jp lhc~ jtlhpr `xt rticc rhpvh tj bjeehbt ~hj~ch# `xicd rjbiac ba~itac# jp aph xrhd

ojp ~hprjeac ratiroabtije jp fpjtl aph bcarrioihd xedhp lat I bacc tlhrjbiac ghg`hprli~

~aptibi~atije djgaie% Rjbiac ghg`hprli~ ~aptibi~atije ir dhoiehd ar ie'~hprje# vjcxetapy abtivity

ie libl ae iedividxac takhr ~apt ie jp rlaphr ie abtivitihr ojp ~hprjeac fpjtl aed bjggje

iethphrtr# `xt djhr ejt ehbhrrapicy rhhk tlh rjbiac blaefh jp ~pj`chg'rjcvief jxtbjghr

dhgjertpathd `y abtivitihr ie tlh bivib ~aptibi~atije djgaie% Abtivitihr itlie tlh rjbiac

ghg`hprli~ ~aptibi~atije djgaie iebcxdh mjieief bcx`r# jpfaei}atijer# lj``y fpjx~r# jp jtlhp

ghg`hprli~'jpihethd fpjx~r% Ie additije tj bivib ~aptibi~atije aed rjbiac rhpvibh# a pj`xrt rjbiac

cioh ir lhc~oxc ojp ig~pjvief ejt jecy tlh iedividxac `xt acrj tlh bjggxeity ie libl tlhy

iethpabt ,Jcdhe`xpf# 1999)% Vlich gaey fpjx~r giflt rhpvh tj rjcvh ~pj`chgr aed ghht

jxtbjghr# tlh `hehoit tj tlh iedividxac aed tlh bjggxeity ir ~phrhet tlpjxfl `jtl ~hprjeac aed

h|thpeac bjggxeity `hehoitr tlat bae hepibl tlh bjggxeitihr itl libl iedividxacr iethpabt#

tlhph`y addief tj bivib vi`paeby ,^xteag# 0>>>)%


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1?

Rigicap tj tlh ty~hr jo abtivity ie tlh rjbiac ghg`hprli~ ~aptibi~atije djgaie# jecieh

~aptibi~atije lar `hbjgh ae hghpfhet avhexh ojp rjbiac abtivity ar tlh Iethpeht iebphariefcy

rhpvhr ar a ghdixg ojp iethp~hprjeac bjggxeibatije aed jpfaei}atije% Difitac bjggxeibatije

~catojpgr aoojpd tlh j~~jptxeity ojp phac'tigh rlapief# bpjrr'fhjfpa~libac bjeehbtije# aed

ghaeiefoxc h|blaefh tlat bae hg~jhp rjbiac cioh aed ~x`cib dirbjxprh ,Plhiefjcd# 1992;

Mhekier# 0>>?`; Kat} / Pibh# 0>>0; Bjchgae / @cxgchp# 0>>9)% Ar rxbl# rjgh rjbiac abtivitihr

gay jbbxp h|bcxrivhcy je difitac ~catojpgr% Actljxfl rigicap tj tlh rjbiac ghg`hprli~

~aptibi~atije djgaie ghetijehd a`jvh# I dhoieh jecieh ~aptibi~atije ar vjcxetapy abtivity ie

libl ae iedividxac takhr ~apt ie jp rlaphr ie abtivitihr ojp ~hprjeac fpjtl aed bjggje

iethphrtr# `xt djhr rj rjchcy via ehtjpkhd hchbtpjeib bjggxeibatijer% Abtivitihr ie tlir djgaie

iebcxdh ~aptibi~atije ie jecieh faghr# Iethpeht ghrrafh `japdr aed ojpxgr# jecieh datief# aed

jtlhp bjggxeitihr ojp rlapief ieojpgatije tlat aph ghdiathd rjchcy via tlh Iethpeht%

Tj rxggapi}h# Aghpibae garr ~aptibi~atije h|liìtr gxcti~ch djgaier jo abtivitihr tlat

paefh opjg cjbac rjbiac iethpabtije tj lifl fpjx~ ghg`hprli~ itl giccijer jo ghg`hpr aed

capfh ieopartpxbtxphr% âptibi~aetr ie tlhrh abtivitihr lavh vapijxr fjacr tlat paefh opjg tlh

oxcoiccief jo rjbiac iethpabtije aed ~hprjeac iethphrtr ,rxbl ar lj`ìhr jp hethptaieghet) tj blapity

jpk tj ~jcitibac blaefh% Tj ablihvh tlhrh fjacr# ~aptibi~aetr xrh vapijxr rkiccr aed kejchdfh

tlhy lavh abqxiphd hitlhp tlpjxfl ~art ~hprjeac h|~hpihebh jp tlhip dhriph tj ~aptibi~ath%

0%0GARR ÂPTIBIÂTIJE PHRHAPBL AED GHARXPHGHET

Tlh gharxphghet jo garr ~aptibi~atije lar `hhe jo ~aptibxcap iethphrt tj ~jcitibac rbihebh#

bjggxeibatijer# aed dhgjbpaby rbljcapr% Rjgh khy rtxdihr lavh rx`rtaetiaccy bjetpi`xthd tj tlh

xedhprtaedief jo garr ~aptibi~atije aed lavh chd tj rj~lirtibathd gjdhcr ojp itr rtxdy% Gic`patlr


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,19?8) rhgieac opaghjpk ~pjvidhd a rht jo ~apaghthpr itl libl rbljcapr bjxcd aeacy}h

~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije% Tlir opaghjpk blapabthpi}hd ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije ar a ~ypagid jo

abtivity ie libl ~hj~ch gjvh opjg cjhp chvhcr ,vjtief# chapeief a`jxt a baedidath) tj liflhp

chvhcr jo gjph hefafhd abtivity ,vjcxethhpief ojp a bag~aife jp pxeeief ojp jooibh)% Gic`patl

ar jeh jo tlh oiprt rbljcapr tj xrh a bathfjpi}hd gjdhc jo gharxphd ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije tj ciek

~aptibi~atije itl iedividxac aed h|thpeac blapabthpirtibr# rxbl ar rjbijhbjejgib rtatxr aed cioh

h|~hpihebhr% _hp`a aed Eih ,1960) hrta`cirlhd ojxp dirtiebt bathfjpihr jo ~jcitibac abtivity ie

libl tlh ~x`cib bae hefafh= vjtief# hchbtije bag~aife abtivity# bjetabtief ~x`cib jooibiacr# aed

bjj~hpativh abtivity% Ie tlhip aeacyrir# tlhy bjeoipghd tlh lifl bjpphcatije jo rjbijhbjejgib

rtatxr tj ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije% A ~hprjer pabh aed bjggxeity ri}h hph acrj dhthpgiehd tj `h

oabtjpr tlat dhthpgieh ~aptibi~atije% Bjeayr ,19>>)

oagjxr aeacyrir je rjbiac ba~itac h|~cjphd tlh `hlavijpr jo dhgjfpa~lib fpjx~r aed tlhip

abtivity ie a vapihty jo ~aptibi~atije djgaier% Aothp oiedief a fphat dhbcieh ie chvhcr ~aptibi~atije

ie acc djgaier opjg 198> tj 199># rxbl ar ie chvhcr jo ghg`hprli~ ie rjbiac jpfaei}atijer#

^xteag attpi`xthr tlir dpj~ ie abtivity tj ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr tlat lavh iedividxaci}hd tlh

Aghpibae ~x`cib aed lavh hebjxpafhd ae attitxdh jo irjcatije# ~aptibxcapcy tlpjxfl `pjadbart


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1>2) phaci}h tlat ~aptibi~atije

chvhcr giflt ierthad `h rliotief tj eh thppitjpy itl tlh iebpharh ie ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr#

aed ejt mxrt rig~cy dira~~hapief ar eh thblejcjfihr ojp hefafhghet hghpfh%

Abkejchdfief tlh pirh jo tlh Iethpeht ar a vhlibch ojp rjbiac bjggxeibatije aed

jpfaei}atije# Kat} aed Pibh ,0>>0) idhetioihd rjgh ig~cibatijer jo ~aptibi~atije ie tlh afh jo tlh

Iethpeht aed itr xrh je a vapihty jo rjbiac iertitxtijer% Tlhy oied tlat tlh Iethpeht ir ejt

ehbhrrapicy a tjjc tlat hebjxpafhr rjbiac irjcatije# `xt ierthad ojrthpr tlh dhvhcj~ghet jo eh

ojpgr jo bjggxeitihr% Rblxdrjer ,1999) phvih jo tlh lirtjpy jo biti}he ~aptibi~atije phvhacr

tlat acjefridh iebpharhd ghdiatije jvhp tlh yhapr# ~aptibi~atije lar iedhhd blaefhd ie ojpgaed

tlat bhptaie abtivitihr lavh chrrhehd ar rjbiac tphedr blaefhd% Ljhvhp# lh acrj oiedr tlat tlh

Aghpibae ~x`cib phgaier hefafhd aed atthetivh ie ayr tlat bjg~cighet tlh dhgaedr jo gjdhpe

daicy cioh% Tlhrh abtivitihr jothe `cxp tlh `jxedapihr `hthhe tlh tpaditijeaccy lhcd ~jcitibac aed

bivib bathfjpihr jo garr ~aptibi~atije# gakief it diooibxct tj kej lhe ~hj~ch aph ~ayief

atthetije jp hvhe abtivhcy ~aptibi~atief% Tlh jpk jo ]xkie# ht ac% ,0>>?)# bjeoipgr Rblxdrjer

,1999) arrhptije `y phvhacief tlat lich chvhcr jo bivib aed ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije lavh iedhhd

rliothd jvhp tlh cart laco'bhetxpy ojp rjgh r~hbioib abtivitihr# tlhph lar `hhe a pirh ie eh ty~hr jo

rjbiac jpfaei}atije aed bjggxeibatije# hr~hbiaccy lhe ~hj~ch lavh liflhp agjxetr jo ~pijp

~jcitibac aed bivib kejchdfh% Tlir ir ~aptibxcapcy tpxh jo tlh yjxefhp# gjph difitaccy a~t

fhehpatijer% Tlhip jpk acrj iccxrtpathr tlh bcxrthpief jo garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr `hthhe

tlh bivib aed ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije djgaier# gakief it lapdhp tj dhciehath bchap bathfjpibac

dhoieitijer ,~~% 191'190)% Abtivitihr lavh tlh ~jthetiac tj ph~phrhet gxcti~ch djgaier# rxbl ar

`hief rhpvibh aed ~jcitibaccy jpihethd at tlh ragh tigh rigxctaehjxrcy% Tlir gakhr it gjph

blacchefief tj abbxpathcy gharxph chvhcr jo garr ~aptibi~atije%


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0%2TLH IEOCXHEBH JO DIFITAC THBLEJCJFIHR JE GARR ÂPTIBIÂTIJE RKICCR AED

^PHBJEDITIJER

Bhptaie cioh h|~hpihebhr aed fjacr# rxbl ar ~aphetac fxidaebh# ~jcitibac rjbiaci}atije

itlie bjggxeitihr# jp ~hprjeac fpatioibatije# lavh `hhe tpaditijeaccy keje tj ieocxhebh a

~hprjer iethphrt ie garr ~aptibi~atije% Ar phrhapbl je garr ~aptibi~atije `pjadhehd# rbljcapr

lavh idhetioihd ie fphathp dhtaic jtlhp ~phbjeditijer aed aethbhdhet rkiccr tlat ieocxhebh a

~hprjer aìcity ojp aed iethphrt ie garr ~aptibi~atije% Tlhrh ~phbjeditijer aed rkiccr iebcxdh

abbhrr tj thblejcjfy aed ieocxhebh# ~jcitibac aed bivib kejchdfh# h|~jrxph tj ieojpgatije# aed

cithpaby aed bjggxeibatije rkiccr% Ar tlh iebpharhd xrh jo ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr lar

oabicitathd a eh ~aptibi~atjpy hevipjeghet# I apfxh tlat difitac cithpaby rkiccr lavh `hbjgh

liflcy ieocxhetiac ie hg~jhpief garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr% Ar rxbl# difitac cithpaby rkiccr

rljxcd `h bjeridhphd ar ae aethbhdhet rkicc rht% @y hea`cief ~hj~ch tj xrh vapijxr ieojpgatije

thblejcjfy tjjcr itl libl tj fatlhp aed ~pjbhrr ieojpgatije# difitac cithpaby rkiccr bae acrj

bjg~cighet tlh dhvhcj~ghet jo jtlhp aethbhdhet rkiccr aed ~phbjeditijer# rxbl ar bivib aed

~jcitibac kejchdfh fatlhpief aed abbhrr tj ieojpgatije%


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Oifxph 0%1

Phcatijerli~ `hthhe Aethbhdhet Phrjxpbhr aed Garr âptibi~atije,ar phochbthd ie ~art cithpatxph)

ârt phrhapbl lar h|agiehd tlh ~phrhebh jo phrjxpbh phqxiphghetr tlat aph ehbhrrapy

ojp garr ~aptibi~atije# rxbl ar r~hbioib rkiccr# ~phbjeditijer# aed kejchdfh ,Viclhcg# 0>>>;

Dhcci Bap~iei / Khthp# 1992; @pady# Yhpà# / Rblcj}gae# 1998; Lapfittai# 0>>2)% Vjpk ie tlir

oihcd lar phvhachd tlat tljrh itl liflhp chvhcr jo abbhrr tj aethbhdhet rkiccr jp kejchdfh icc

`h gjph cikhcy tj ~aptibi~ath% Vlich ~aptibi~atije ~phbjeditijer aed rkiccr aph jothe abqxiphd ar a

phrxct jo vapijxr cioh h|~hpihebhr xephcathd tj a ~hprjer garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr# tlhy bae

acrj `h chapehd ar a phrxct jo ae iethphrt jp dhriph ojp garr ~aptibi~atije ,Viclhcg# 0>>>; _hpà#

Rblcj}gae# / @pady# 1998; Cim~lapt# 1996)% Oifxph 0%1 iccxrtpathr tlh phcatijerli~ jo aethbhdhet

rkiccr# ~phbjeditijer# aed kejchdfh itl garr ~aptibi~atije aed lj tlhy rhpvh tj ieocxhebh

chvhcr jo ~aptibi~atije%


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Abbhrr tj phrjxpbhr jp ieocxhebh lar `hhe a phcia`ch ~phdibtjp jo garr ~aptibi~atije ojp

gaey yhapr% Tljrh itl liflhp chvhcr jo avaica`ch tigh# gjehy# jp rjbiac ieocxhebh fhehpaccy

~aptibi~ath at liflhp chvhcr tlae tljrh lj cabk rxbl phrjxpbhr ,Bjeay# 19; _hpà# Rblcj}gae# @pady# 1998; Cim~lapt# 1996)% Ie additije# ar ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr

`hbagh iebphariefcy iethfpathd ietj garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr# tljrh itljxt abbhrr tj tlh

thblejcjfibac tjjcr ojp bjggxeibatije jp ghdia bjerxg~tije aph chrr iebciehd tj ~aptibi~ath

,Ejppir# 0>>1; Vaprblaxhp# 0>>2; vae Dimk# 0>>8)% âptibi~atije itlie tlir difitac dividh

hevipjeghet lar `hhe phfxcapcy blapabthpi}hd ar ~pjliìtivh tj tljrh jo cjhp rjbijhbjejgib

rtatxr dxh tj tlh lifl bjrt jo ieojpgatije thblejcjfy aed Iethpeht abbhrr% Ljhvhp# ar bjrtr lavh

dpagatibaccy dhbpharhd riebh 0>>># tlh adj~tije jo ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr lar h|~jehetiaccy

iebpharhd agjef tlh ~x`cib% Ar a phrxct# abbhrr tj thblejcjfy ir chrr jo a bjebhpe tjday tlae it

lar `hhe ie yhapr ~art aed gay ~cay a chrrhp pjch ie ~phdibtief garr ~aptibi~atije% Dhr~ith tlir#

abbhrr h|irtr ar ae aethbhdhet ~phbjeditije ojp ~aptibi~atije%

^jcitibac aed bivib kejchdfh ir aejtlhp aethbhdhet phrjxpbh tlat bae ieocxhebh garr

~aptibi~atije% Tljrh itl liflhp chvhcr jo ~jcitibac aed bivib kejchdfh aph `htthp a`ch tj gakh

ieojpghd dhbirijer a`jxt tlhip abtivitihr ,Facrtje# 0>>1; Dhcci Bap~iei / Khthp# 199?; Gicehp#

0>>0; ^pijp# 0>>8# 0>>6)% H|ag~chr jo bivib aed ~jcitibac kejchdfh iebcxdh dhgjbpatib ~pjbhrr#

ieojpgatije a`jxt ~jcitibac chadhpr jp baedidathr# tlh ayr tj vjibh fpihvaebhr# aed kejchdfh

jo bxpphet hvhetr% Ojpgac bivib hdxbatije ~pjfpagr lavh `hhe rlje tj iebpharh ~jcitibac aed

bivib kejchdfh ie ~aptibi~aetr# aed# ar a phrxct# iebpharh ~aptibi~atije ,Oiekhc# 0>>2; Eihgi /

Mxee# 199


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difitac phacg# ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr aed tlh Iethpeht lavh `hhe xrhd ie eh ayr tj

bjggxeibath ieojpgatije tj tlh ~x`cib%

Ae iccxrtpativh h|ag~ch jo tlh hoohbtr jo iethfpatief difitac tjjcr ie ~jcitibac aed bivib

kejchdfh ~pjgjtije lar `hhe ie tlh xrh jo tlh ~jcitibac h`rithr tj ieojpg vjthpr aed

hebjxpafh hefafhghet ,Fi`rje aed Vapd# 0>>>; Rtpjghp'Facchy# 0>>>; Jhe aed Davir# 0>>>8; Lhpperje# Rtjkhr'@pje# aed Liedgae# 0>>6; Catighp 0>>9)% Ar

difitac thblejcjfihr oxptlhp dhvhcj~hd# ~jcitibac h`rithr `hfae tj hg~cjy rjbiac ghdia aed jtlhp

iethpabtivh hchghetr tj hebjxpafh a vapihty jo ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr% Rbljcapr

ophqxhetcy oied# ljhvhp# tlat jecy ~aptiraer xrxaccy virit ~jcitibac h`rithr# aed ar rxbl# cittch

hoojpt ir gadh je bag~aife h`rithr tj hebjxpafh xebjggitthd vjthpr tjapd liflhp chvhcr jo

~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije ,@ig`hp aed Davir# 0>>2; Ojjt aed Rblehidhp# 0>>?)% Tlir cabk jo

ievjcvhghet `y eje'~aptiraer iedibathr tlat tpaditijeac abtivitihr h|thedhd ietj tlh difitac phacg

giflt ejt `h attpabtivh jp abbhrri`ch tj tljrh ejt acphady ~jrrhrrief bivib aed ~jcitibac

kejchdfh# libl jecy rhpvhr tj ~hp~htxath tlh tpaditijeaccy lhcd ieocxhebh rtpxbtxphr%

Eje~aptiraer giflt ierthad ~aptibi~ath ie garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr ie tlh ~jcitibac djgaie

dioohphetcy tlae lj ~jcitibiaer aed fjvhpeghet jooibiacr lavh dhrifehd tlh ~aptibi~atjpy

hevipjeghet# aed ~jrri`cy xrief dioohphet thblejcjfihr jp a~~cibatijer tlae tljrh iethedhd `y tlh

~jcitibac hcith%

Rigicap tj tlh abtivh ~jcitibac aed bivib kejchdfh fatlhpief abtivitihr ghetijehd a`jvh#

tlh ~x`cibr h|~jrxph tj ieojpgatije ir aejtlhp ~phbjeditije ojp garr ~aptibi~atije% ]xkie# ht ac

,0>>?)# jxtcieh tlir ty~h jo aethbhdhet ~phbjeditije ojp garr ~aptibi~atije ie lat tlhy bacc

bjfeitivh hefafhghet% Bjfeitivh hefafhghet ir tlh gaeehp ie libl ~hj~ch ~ay atthetije tj jp

aph h|~jrhd tj bivib aed ~jcitibac ieojpgatije# `xt djet ehbhrrapicy takh jvhpt abtije itl irrxhr


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jo ~jcitibr aed ~x`cib aooaipr ,~~% 84)% Tljrh itl liflhp chvhcr jo h|~jrxph aed atthetije tj bivib

aed ~jcitibac irrxhr icc `h gjph iebciehd ojp ~aptibi~atije ,Dhcci Bap~iei / Khthp# 199?)%

Rblxdrje ,1999) hbljhr tlir j`rhpvatije `y ~pj~jrief tlh ~phrhebh jo tlh gjeitjpiac biti}he#

jp a biti}he tlat ir atthetivh tj ~x`cib irrxhr tlat ieocxhebh lir jp lhp cioh ie tlh gjdhpe Aghpibae

lifl'thbl ~aptibi~atije hevipjeghet ,~~% 211)% Tlh gjeitjpiac biti}he djhret takh abtije xetic

irrxhr diphbtcy aoohbt tlhg% Ierthad# tlh gjeitjpiac biti}he rtayr a~~pairhd jo ehr tlat giflt

aoohbt tlhg aed ir ~jirhd ojp abtije io abtije ir phqxiphd ,~~% 211)%

Ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr lavh rlje ~pjgirh ie hg~jhpief tlh h|~jrxph ~phbjeditije#

`xt a ~hprje jxcd ehhd aethbhdhet thbleibac aed bjggxeibatije rkiccr tj `h bjeehbthd tj

ieojpgatije ie tlh oiprt ~cabh% Eh ghdia bjxcd xedhpgieh tpaditijeac ieojpgatije fathkhh~hp

pjchr aed rhh tlh pirh jo a gjph divhprh# r~hbiaci}hd ieojpgatije hevipjeghet tlat bae `h taicjphd

tj tlh iedividxacr ehhdr aed iethphrtr ,Vicciagr / Dhcci Bap~iei# 0>>>; Lapfittai# 0>>>;

Ehfpj~jeth# 1998)% Ie additije# tlh Iethpeht ir ophqxhetcy phfapdhd ar ~pjgirief dxh tj tlh a`icity

tj oied eiblh iethphrtr jp rjbiac baxrhr ie libl tlhy `hcihvh ,Aedhprje# 0>>?)%

Ljhvhp# aothp tlh yhap 0>>># hvidhebh jo tlh xrh jo difitac tjjcr ojp ieojpgatije

h|~jrxph ~jiethd tjapd fpigghp jxtbjghr% Lapfittai ,0>>2) ojxed tlat ie tlh bjxprh jo ~jcitibac

kejchdfh fatlhpief abtivitihr jvhp tlh Iethpeht# tlh ~x`cib cabkhd rj~lirtibatije ie rhapbl aed

ieojpgatije phtpihvac rkiccr% Tlir phrxcthd ie a eappjhp paefh jo ieojpgatije tlat jxcd `h

bjerxghd `y xrhpr# tlxr phdxbief tlh ~jthetiac jo tlh Vh`% Vitl tlh a`icity tj bxrtjgi}h

ieojpgatije rtphagr# Kapgapk aed Eyh ,0>>0) rxffhrt tlat tlh Vh` bjxcd `h ~pjgjtief a

opafghetatije hoohbt baxrhd `y tlh cabk jo `pjad'iethphrt idhar ie ~x`cib ieojpgatije blaeehcr

aed jecieh ehr ghdia% Jtlhp rbljcapr arrhpt tlat ae hblj blag`hp bjxcd `h bphathd opjg tlir

r~hbiaci}atije jo ieojpgatije rtphagr# itl tlh ~x`cib girrief jxt je khy ~ihbhr jo ieojpgatije


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tlat aph bpitibac tj ojpgief j~ieijer aed ieojpgief garr ~aptibi~atije ,Rxerthie# 0>>6; Magihrje

/ Ba~~hcca# 0>>11; Bladibk# 0>>?)% Tlhrh rbljcapr phbjfei}h tlat tlh a`icity tj

abqxiph aed hvacxath ieojpgatije opjg rhvhpac rjxpbhr ir `hbjgief ae ig~jptaet ~apt jo garr

~aptibi~atije aed rxffhrt tlat hoojptr tj phghdiath tlhrh ~jthetiac blacchefhr rljxcd `h hg~cjyhd%

Oieaccy# cithpaby aed bjggxeibatije rkiccr lavh `hhe ojxed tj `h aethbhdhet tj garr

~aptibi~atije ,Viclhcg# 0>>>; Rhe# 1990; Rtphbk# 1991>)% Difitac cithpaby ir dhoiehd ar tlh a`icity tj hooibihetcy xrh

hchbtpjeib# ehtjpkhd tjjcr tj oied# hvacxath# bphath# dirtpi`xth aed ryetlhri}h hchbtpjeibaccy


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ghdiathd ieojpgatije% Ar dirbxrrhd ie tlh a`jvh rhbtijer# rbljcapr lavh iccxrtpathd ae iebpharief

ehhd ojp tlh ~x`cib tj faie a garthpy jo thblejcjfy aed ieojpgatije ~pjbhrrief rkiccr% Ar rxbl#

rhvhpac bjg~xtief# ieojpgatije# aed jtlhp thblejcjfy rkiccr tlat oacc xedhp tlh bathfjpy jo difitac

cithpaby lavh `hbjgh a eh aethbhdhet rkicc rht ojp garr ~aptibi~atije% Tlir ir hr~hbiaccy tpxh ar

~x`cib iertitxtijer iebpharh tlhip xrh jo ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr# ar rbljjcr iethfpath tlh

thablief jo tlhrh rkiccr ietj tlh bxppibxcxg# ar ~jcitibac bag~aifer aph iebphariefcy difitaccy

ghdiathd# aed ar bivib dirbjxprh iebcxdhr `itr aed `ythr aed ejt mxrt oabh'tj'oabh bjevhpratijer%

Oifxph 0%0 oxptlhp iccxrtpathr difitac cithpaby ar ae aethbhdhet rkicc tj garr ~aptibi~atije% Ie tlir

gjdhc# difitac cithpaby jpkr acjefridh jtlhp aethbhdhet bjeditijer aed rkiccr tj ieocxhebh tlh

chvhc jo a ~hprjer garr ~aptibi~atije% Vlich tlh vapijxr aethbhdhet ~phbjeditijer aed rkiccr gay

ieocxhebh habl jtlhp# I dj ejt arrxgh rj ie tlir gjdhc ojp tlh rakh jo riefcief jxt difitac cithpaby

ar ae aethbhdhet rkicc ojp rtxdy%

Difitac cithpaby dhpivhr opjg tlh tpaditijeac bjebh~t jo cithpaby= tlh a`icity tj phad aed

pith% Ljhvhp# a dhoieitije jo rig~ch phadief aed pitief arrxghr xeiojpgity agjef acc

~aptibi~aetr aed tjjcr aed djhr ejt abbjxet ojp tpaerojpgatijer ie caefxafh% Jef ,19


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fphathp ba~aìcitihr ojp tlh ~x`cib tj xedhprtaed bivib ieojpgatije aed `hbjgh ievjcvhd ie tlhip

bjggxeitihr%

Oifxph 0%0Phcatijerli~ `hthhe Difitac Cithpaby aed Garr âptibi~atije

,iebcxdief jtlhp aethbhdhet phrjxpbhr)

@hojph difitac cithpaby hghpfhd ar a phrhapbl ojbxr jo itr je# rbljcapr ie tlh apha jo

eh cithpabihr tlhjpi}hd tlat ~cxpac cithpaby rkiccr h|irt% Tlh xedhprtaedief jo ~cxpac cithpabihr

rtapthd tj ph~cabh tlh gjph tpaditijeac dhoieitije jo cithpaby# jp tlh rig~ch aìcity tj phad aed pith

,@aptje# 1994; Rtphht# 1998; Kphrr# 0>>2; Bj~h / Kacaet}ir# 0>>>; Reydhp# 0>>0)% ^cxpac

cithpabihr dj ejt mxrt ph~phrhet tlh aìcity tj iethp~pht aed bphath caefxafh ie gxcti~ch ojpgatr# `xt

acrj tlh garthpy jo tlh tjjcr `y libl ~hj~ch bjggxeibath aed tlh rjbiac bjeth|tr xedhp libl


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bjggxeibatije ir xrhd% Ar rxbl# cithpapy rbljcapr ophqxhetcy rxffhrt tlat tlhph ir ejt a riefch

jvhpapblief dhrbpi~tije jo cithpaby rkiccr abpjrr djgaier# ar tlhrh rkiccr aph rjbiaccy ritxathd aed

bjeth|txac ,Fhh# 0>>?)% Tlir ejtije jo

cithpaby iebcxdhr `jtl taefi`ch# gharxpa`ch rkiccr ,rxbl ar tlh aìcity tj phad aed pith) aed jtlhp

ietaefi`ch rkiccr ,tlh aìcity tj iethp~pht bjggxeibatijer àrhd je rjbiac bjeth|t jp tj tliek

bpitibaccy)% Ar caefxafh itrhco ir mxrt ar ig~jptaet ar tlh ghdia itl libl tlh caefxafh ir

hebjdhd aed dhbjdhd# tlir ojbxr apha bjeridhpr garthpy jo `jtl tlh tjjcr ojp bjggxeibatije aed

tlh ieojpgatije tlh tjjcr bjetaie%

0%8DJGAIER JO DIFITAC CITHPABY

Tlh cithpatxph je difitac cithpaby capfhcy tlhjpi}hr tlh dioohphet ty~hr jo rkiccr tlat aph

phqxiphd ojp a difitaccy cithpath ~hprje% Ar jo pitief tlir# oh hg~ipibac rtxdihr lavh `hhe

~phrhethd ie tlh cithpatxph je tlh j`rhpvhd ~phrhebh jo difitac cithpaby aed itr ieocxhebh je garr

~aptibi~atije% I phvihhd tlhjpihr je difitac cithpaby aed dhoiehd rhvhpac bjg~htheby aphar itl

libl I bae dhgjertpath tlh rtpheftl jo vapijxr difitac cithpaby rkiccr% Ie tlir tlhrir# I idhetioy ri|

djgaier jo difitac cithpaby rkiccr aed kejchdfh tlat ~hj~ch bae a~~cy tj tlhip garr ~aptibi~atije

abtivitihr= bjg~xthp rkiccr# ieojpgatije rkiccr# bjggxeibatije rkiccr# ~x`cibatije rkiccr#

ieejvativh tliekief# aed bxctxpac aed lirtjpibac kejchdfh% Ar jxtciehd ie Ta`ch 0%0# tlhrh ri|

djgaier hebjg~arr rhvhpac dirbphth thblejcjfy# ieojpgatije ~pjbhrrief# aed tliekief rkiccr tlat

aph ehbhrrapy ojp tlh hooibihet j~hpatije jo ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr% Garthpy ie tlhrh ri|

djgaier bjxcd fivh ae iedividxac ae advaetafh itl garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr tlpjxfl tlh


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0>?a; Iethpeatijeac Thblejcjfy Hdxbatije Arrjbiatije# 0>>0; Tpiccief /

Oadhc# 0>>9)% @arib ieojpgatije thblejcjfy bjg~htheby a~~hapr ie viptxaccy hvhpy rtxdy jo

difitac cithpaby ar it ir tlh ojxedatije x~je libl acc jtlhp difitac cithpaby rkiccr aph `arhd%

Ljhvhp# rbljcapr ejth tlat a garthpy jo j~hpatief thblejcjfy djhr ejt acjeh bphath tlh difitaccy

cithpath ~hprje% ^haprje aed Yjxef ,0>>0) ejth tlat thbleibac ba~a`icity ir jecy jeh ~apt jo tlh


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hqxatije# rtphrrief tlat gjph ietaefi`ch ayr jo tliekief aed abtief aed jtlhp kejchdfh je

tlh bxctxph jo thblejcjfy aed itr pirkr aed phapdr ir hqxaccy ehbhrrapy ,~~% 14'00)% Jtlhp

rbljcapr afphh itl tlir ehbhrrity jo gxcti'chvhc bjg~htheby ~art tlh abtxac thbleibac rkiccr

,Caekrlhap / Kej`hc# 0>>1>; Dhdh; 0>1>)% Bjg~xthp rkiccr aph jecy jeh digherije

jo difitac cithpaby# ac`hit ae ig~jptaet jeh% Dhr~ith gy atthg~t ie tlir tlhrir tj bphath pj`xrt

gharxphr jo bjg~xthp rkiccr# tlhrh rkiccr dioohp ar idhcy dxh tlh `cabk'`j|hd eatxph jo gaey

bjg~xtief ryrthgr% Ar rxbl# it ir cikhcy tlat ~hj~ch bae rticc ~aptibi~ath at a oaipcy lifl chvhc

itljxt dhh~ kejchdfh jo lj tlh ietpibabihr jo ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr aed ehtjpkr

oxebtije dje tj tlh bipbxit chvhc%

Rbljcapr lavh tlhjpi}hd tlat difitac cithpaby rljxcd acrj iebcxdh tlh eje'dirbphth rkiccr jo

abqxipief# ryetlhri}ief# aed mxdfief tlh qxacity jo ieojpgatije% Difitac cithpaby acrj iebcxdhr

lat I bacc lhph ieojpgatije rkiccr# jp tlh aìcity tj phtpihvh# aeacy}h# aed a~~cy ieojpgatije opjg

difitac ~catojpgr% @hbaxrh ieojpgatije lar `hbjgh iebphariefcy diooibxct tj divjpbh opjg tlh

ghdia aed thblejcjfihr tlat dhcivhp it# rbljcapr arrhpt tlat it ir hrrhetiac tj rigxctaehjxrcy kej

lj tj xrh difitac tjjcr ar hcc ar tlh ieojpgatije tlhy bjetaie ,@adhe# 0>>1; Reavhcy /

Bjj~hp# 1996)% Ficrthp ,1996)# lj ar tlh oiprt tj ~j~xcapcy xrh tlh thpg difitac cithpaby# ar

baphoxc tj ejth tlir dxac garthpy jo tjjcr aed ieojpgatije `y rayief difitac cithpaby ar mxrt ar

gxbl a`jxt garthpief idhar# aed ejt khyrtpjkhr% Ie additije# itl tlh jercaxflt jo ieojpgatije

avaica`ch je tlh Iethpeht# tlh aìcity tj hooibihetcy eavifath tlh dhcxfh jo data ir iebphariefcy

vacxa`ch ie daicy cioh ,Pxrlkjoo# 0>1>)%

Tlh ehhd tj bjggxeibath hoohbtivhcy jvhp gxcti~ch ghdia ir ae hqxaccy ig~jptaet djgaie

jo difitac cithpaby% Tlh djgaier jobjggxeibatijer rkiccr aed bphativh aed ~x`cibatije rkiccr

addphrr tlh aìcity tj phad aed pith hchbtpjeib th|tr aed bphath bjg~hccief ghrrafhr ie tlh


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difitac gxctighdia hbjryrthg%R~hbioibaccy# bjggxeibatijer rkiccr aph tljrh itl libl ~hj~ch

rhed aed phbhivh hchbtpjeib ghrrafhr ,bjg~htheby itl tlh ghaer jo bjggxeibatije)# lich

bphativh aed ~x`cibatije rkiccr aph tljrh itl libl ~hj~ch bphath aed dirtpi`xth gxctighdia

bjethet tj vapijxr axdihebhr ,bjg~htheby itl bphatief ieojpgatije)%Ghdia rbljcapr liflciflt

tlh dioohphet rtychr jo ieojpgatije aed ghrrafhr tlat bae `h bjevhyhd itl gxctighdia tjjcr%

Tlhy lavh ojxed tlat vart dioohphebhr ie iethp~phtatije aed bjeth|t h|irt `hthhe vapijxr

bjgìeatijer jo virxac# axditjpy# ahrtlhtib# aed iethpabtivh hchghetr tlat bae `h hg~cjyhd ie

tjdayr bjggxeibatijer ,Tyehp# 1992; Vicdh / Vicdh# 1991)%

Ar ghdia ojpgr bjevhpfh aed ie hoohbt bphath ehhp ojpgr jo bjggxeibatije aed h|~phrrije

,Mhekier# 0>>?`)# tlh difitaccy cithpath ~hprje ehhdr tj kej lj tj bjgìeh ghdia ie vapijxr

ayr tj bphath dioohphet ~x`cibatijer tlat ga|igi}h tlh rtpheftlr jo habl ghdixg% It ir itlie

tlir phacg tlat tpaditijeac cithpaby ir gjrt bcjrhcy acifehd= tlh aìcity tj phad aed pith ie vapijxr

gxctighdia bjeth|tr% Ar rxbl# tlh aìcity tj h|~phrr jehrhco difitaccy ir a vacxa`ch rkicc ojp garr

~aptibi~atije ar it hg~jhpr tlh ~x`cib tj lavh a gjph divhprh vjibh tlat bae ga|igi}h ghdia

hchghetr tj jehr advaetafh%

Ie additije tj thblejcjfy aed ieojpgatije rkiccr tlat aph hrrhetiac ojp difitac cithpaby#

rbljcapr rxffhrt tlat tljrh lj `xicd ghetac gjdhcr tj idhetioy ~pj`chgr# ly~jtlhri}h rjcxtijer#

aed vacxh ae h|~hpighetac attitxdh ie difitac hevipjeghetr aph fhehpaccy gjph rxbbhrroxc at tarkr

ievjcvief difitac thblejcjfihr ,Iethpeatijeac Thblejcjfy Hdxbtaije Arrjbiatije# 0>>0; Mhekier#

0>>?a; ^haprje / Yjxef# 0>>?; Ejptl Bhetpac Phfijeac Hdxbatijeac Ca`jpatjpy / Tlh Ghtipi

Fpjx~# 0>>2)% Rkiccr tlat gippjp tljrh jo tlh rbihetioib aed hefiehhpief bjggxeity oacc ie tlh

difitac cithpaby djgaie tlat I bacc ieejvativh tliekief% Ar ph~phrhethd ie tlh cithpatxph je `jtl

difitac cithpaby aed ieqxipy'àrhd rbihetioib cithpaby# ieejvativh tliekief rkiccr iebcxdh bpitibac


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tliekief# laìtr jo ithpativh aed h|~hpighetac abtivity# aed ievhetivh jp bphativh thedheby itl

thblejcjfy% ârt phrhapbl acrj rxffhrtr tlat rkiccr ie tlir djgaie hea`ch och|iìcity ie chapeief

eh thblejcjfihr# cikhcy dxh tj tlh a~~phbiatije ojp ithpatije aed ~pjfphrrivh ig~pjvhghet jo

gjdhcr ,Mhekier# 0>>?a; Aghpibae Arrjbiatije ojp tlh Advaebhghet jo Rbihebh# 199>)

Tlh oieac djgaie jo difitac cithpaby tlat I h|agieh bjggje tj tlh cithpatxph ir tlat jo

bxctxpac aed lirtjpibac kejchdfh% Tj ~phvhet thblejcjfy cjbk'ie jp xeojphrhhe ehfativh

bjerhqxhebhr# Aghpibaer ehhd tj kej tlh àrib thblejcjfy irrxhr aed bjeth|tr tlat abbjg~aey

tlh kejchdfh hbjejgy% Tlir iebcxdhr ae xedhprtaedief jo tlh pirkr arrjbiathd itl aey xrh jo

thblejcjfy# tlh ~jrriìcity jo cjrr jo ieojpgatije jp girtpaercatije lhe xrief difitac tjjcr ie

vapijxr rjbiac bjeth|tr# aed chfac jp rjbiac irrxhr tlat aoohbt thblejcjfy xrh ,^haprje / Yjxef#

0>>0; Mhekier# 0>>?a; Tpiccief / Oadhc# 0>>9)% ^pivaby aed tlh ig~cibatijer jo ae jecieh ~hprjea

ir aejtlhp khy kejchdfh apha# libl iebcxdhr ithgr rxbl ar kejief lj tj gaei~xcath tlh

vapijxr Oabh`jjk aed Titthp ~pivaby bjetpjcr aed ly tlhy gatthp% Kejief ~pivaby bjetpjcr

aed tlhip ig~cibatijer `hbjgh hr~hbiaccy ig~jptaet lhe thblejcjfihr blaefh tlhip dhoaxct

abbhrr jp iethpoabh# rxbl ar ie tlh barh jo Oabh`jjkr phbhet tpaeritije tj tlh Tighcieh ojpgat#

libl lad dpagatib rjbiac bjerhqxhebhr ojp tljrh lj hph chrr ieojpghd jo Oabh`jjkr

~pivaby bjetpjcr% Tlir bathfjpy acrj iebcxdhr ae xedhprtaedief jo tlh ~pjfpagghd eatxph jo

thblejcjfy# jp tlat acc thblejcjfihr lavh `hhe dhrifehd xedhp bhptaie ~apaghthpr tj rhpvh a

bhptaie ~xp~jrh% Pxrlkjoo ,0>1>) apfxhr tlat thblejcjfihr hg`jdy tlh vacxhr jo tlhip dhrifehpr

aed tlat ~hj~ch rljxcd kej tlhrh opaghjpkr ie jpdhp tj ghht tlhip ~hprjeac fjacr# ejt tlh

fjacr jo tlh dhrifehpr% @y adgjeirlief lir phadhpr tj chape tj ~pjfpag jp `h ~pjfpagghd#

Pxrlkjoo arrhptr tlat a `pjadhp kejchdfh jo tlh xedhpcyief rjbiac bjertpxbtr aed chapeief tlh

pharjer xedhp libl thblejcjfihr aph dhrifehd ir h|tphghcy vacxa`ch ojp tlh difitaccy cithpath


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~hprje% Tlir kejchdfh jxcd fivh ~hj~ch tlh a`icity tj xrh thblejcjfihr ie eh ayr aed

aetibi~ath tlh hoohbtr tlhy jxcd lavh je vapijxr bjggxeitihr jp je ~x`cib ~aptibi~atije%

0%?TLHJPHTIBAC OPAGHVJPK AED LY^JTLHRHR

Gy fjac ojp tlir tlhrir ir tj aeacy}h lj tlh ~jrrhrrije jo difitac cithpaby rkiccr

ieocxhebhr garr ~aptibi~atije ie Aghpiba% I abbjg~cirl tlir `y bjedxbtief rhvhpac ly~jtlhrir

thrtr tlat ~cabh difitac cithpaby ar ae aethbhdhet rkicc ojp vapijxr garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr% Tj

avjid r~xpijxr phrxctr# I bjetpjc ojp dhgjfpa~lib oabtjpr aed ~jcitibac idhetioibatije# acc jo libl

cikhcy ieocxhebh a ~hprjer ~pj~herity ojp garr ~aptibi~atije%

Oifxph 0%2

Tlhrir Tlhjphtibac Opaghjpk


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Gy ~pigapy apfxghet ie tlir tlhrir ir tlat difitac cithpaby ir ej ae aethbhdhet rkicc ojp

garr ~aptibi~atije% Ar rxbl# I rxffhrt tlat it rljxcd mjie tlh paekr jo jtlhp phqxiphd phrjxpbhr tlat

biti}her ehhd ojp hoohbtivh ~aptibi~atije% Oifxph 0%2 iccxrtpathr tlh gjdhc xedhp libl I gakh

tlhrh apfxghetr% Ar dhgjertpathd `y tlh ri| rgacc `j|hr je tlh chot ridh jo tlh gjdhc ie Oifxph

0%2# ri| digherijer jo difitac cithpaby bjg~jrh tlh bjg~chth difitac cithpaby bjebh~t tlat I

h|agieh ,libl ir iedibathd `y capfh bipbch)% I ly~jtlhri}h tlat liflhp chvhcr jo difitac cithpaby

icc ~phdibt liflhp chvhcr jo garr ~aptibi~atije% Tlir phcatijerli~ ir iedibathd `y tlh capfh appj

ie tlh bhethp jo tlh gjdhc% I acrj ly~jtlhri}h tlat `hbaxrh jo tlh iebpharhd difitac ghdia

hevipjeghet rxppjxedief gjdhpe Aghpibae ~jcitibr# difitac cithpaby ir gjph phchvaet ojp ~jcitibac

~aptibi~atije lhe bjg~aphd tj tlh tlphh djgaier jo tpaditijeac garr ~aptibi~atije ,rjbiac

ghg`hprli~# bivib# aed ~jcitibac)% Ie additije tj tlir ~pigapy phcatijerli~# I arrxgh tlat rhvhpac

iedh~hedhet bjetpjc vapia`chr iebcxdief rjbijhbjejgib rtatxr aed ~jcitibac idhetioibatije icc

ieocxhebh tlir phcatijerli~ ,iedibathd `y fpay jvacr)% Xrief data opjg rhvhpac difitac cithpaby

iedibatjpr ~pjvidhd `y tlh 0>10 Thblejcjfy Xrh Rxpvhy# I iccxrtpath tlh aethbhdhet difitac

cithpaby rkiccr tlat rtpjefcy chad tj garr ~aptibi~atije% Ie additije# gy tlhrir rhhkr tj hrta`cirl

`arhcieh iedibatjpr tlat bae `h xrhd tj tpabk difitac cithpaby tphedr jvhp tigh%


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0%?%1 Phrhapbl Qxhrtijer

I ark tlh ojccjief ~pigapy phrhapbl qxhrtije tj fxidh tlir rtxdy= Tj lat dhfphh ir

difitac cithpaby a ~phdibtjp jo garr ~aptibi~atije: Ie additije# ar difitac cithpaby lar yht tj `h

rtxdihd ie'dh~tl itlie tlh phacg jo ~aptibi~atije# I ark tlh ojccjief qxhrtijer tj fxidh tlh

bjertpxbtije jo tlh gharxphr xrhd ie tlir tlhrir= Vlat difitac cithpaby rkiccr aph xrhd ie daicy

cioh: Aph aey difitac cithpaby rkiccr phqxiphd ojp garr ~aptibi~atije ,i%h%# aph aethbhdhettj

~aptibi~atije):

0%?%0 Ly~jtlhrhr

Tj ~pjvidh hvidhebh ojp tlh phcatijerli~r `hthhe difitac cithpaby aed garr ~aptibi~atije#

I thrt tlh ojccjief ly~jtlhrhr ie tlir tlhrir=

L1= Kejchdfh jo bxctxpac aed lirtjpibac irrxhr jo thblejcjfy ir bjpphcathd tlh gjrt

itl liflhp chvhcr jo garr ~aptibi~atije lhe bjg~aphd tj tlh jtlhp oivh djgaier

jo difitac cithpaby

L0= Difitac cithpaby rkiccr tlat aph xrhd ojp bphativity aed bjethet ~x`cibatije aph

bjpphcathd itl liflhp chvhcr garr ~aptibi~atije lhe bjg~aphd tj bjg~xthp#

ieojpgatije# aed bjggxeibatije rkiccr

L2= Difitac cithpaby ir tlh rtpjefhrt ~phdibtjp jo tpaditijeac garr ~aptibi~atije lhe

bjg~aphd tj rtpheftl jo ~jcitibac idhjcjfy aed rjbiac dhgjfpa~libr

L4= Jecieh ~aptibi~atije ir ieocxhebhd tlh gjrt `y difitac cithpaby rkiccr lhe bjg~aphd

abpjrr tlh ojxp djgaier jo garr ~aptibi~atije

L8= Liflhp chvhcr jo difitac cithpaby ~phdibt liflhp chvhcr jo ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije


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BLA^THP2GHTLJDR

2%1GHTPIB DH_HCJ^GHET AED RTXDY DHRIFE

2%1%1 Rxpvhy Dhrife

Tj bjcchbt hg~ipibac data ojp tlir tlhrir# I bphathd a eatijeaccy ph~phrhetativh rxpvhy tj

bjg~aph chvhcr jo difitac cithpaby tj garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr% Riebh gxbl jo tlh ~phvijxr

jpk ie difitac cithpaby tj dath lar `hhe tlhjphtibac# I phqxiphd a rht jo `arhcieh iedibatjpr itl

libl I bjxcd thrt gy ly~jtlhrhr% Ar rxbl# I bphathd a rhpihr jo rxpvhy iedibatjpr tlat bjpphr~jed

tj tlh ri| difitac cithpaby djgaier tlat I dirbxrrhd ie Bla~thp 0= bjg~xthp rkiccr# ieojpgatije

rkiccr# bjggxeibatije rkiccr# ~x`cibatije rkiccr# ieejvativh tliekief# aed bxctxpac aed lirtjpibac

kejchdfh% Tlhrh qxhrtijer hph ieojpghd `y ~phvijxr jpk tlat tlhjpi}hd aed bathfjpi}hd

difitac cithpaby rkiccr ,h%f%# Eatijeac Phrhapbl Bjxebic# 1999; ^haprje / Yjxef# 0>>0; Ejptl

Bhetpac Phfijeac Hdxbatijeac Ca`jpatjpy / Tlh Ghtipi Fpjx~# 0>>2; Mhekier# 0>>?a; Hrlht'

Ackacai# 0>>4; Lapfittai# 0>>8; Gaptie# 0>>8# 0>1>)% 89 rh~apath iedibatjpr jo rkiccr aed

kejchdfh phcathd tj difitac cithpaby hph iebcxdhd je tlh rxpvhy% @hbaxrh habl djgaie ar ejt

xeiojpgcy ~pijpiti}hd agjef acc tlh rtxdihr# I aethd tj avjid chavief aey khy rkicc jxt jo tlh

gharxph aed iebcxdhd iedibatjpr ojp acc djgaier tlat I ojxed bjerirthetcy tlpjxfljxt tlh

cithpatxph% I ghpfhd tlh ri| djgaier ietj ae jgei`xr iedh| ie jpdhp tj thrt gy ly~jtlhrhr% Rxpvhy

phr~jedhetr hph arkhd tj aerhp qxhrtijer opjg a paefh jo 1 ,ejt at acc rkicchd) tj 8 ,vhpy

rkicchd*h|~hpt) je habl jo tlh 89 iedibatjpr jo rkiccr aed kejchdfh% Habl jo tlhrh iedibatjpr ar

ieojpghd `y ~art tlhjpy je difitac cithpaby# I j~hpatijeaci}hd tlhg ietj dirbphth tarkr tlat

gharxph bjg~hthebh jp kejchdfh itl ~aptibxcap difitac cithpaby abtivitihr% Habl jo tlh

iedibatjpr tlat I xrhd tj gharxph difitac cithpaby ir dhtaichd ie A~~hedi| I%


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Rigicap tj difitac cithpaby# I dhvhcj~hd rxpvhy qxhrtijer tj gharxph phr~jedhet chvhcr jo

garr ~aptibi~atije ie ojxp djgaier% Tlh gharxphr tlat I xrhd h|~aed x~je tlh bivib aed ~jcitibac

~aptibi~atije rxpvhy qxhrtijer xrhd `y ^xteag ,0>>>) ie lir bcarrib@jcief Acjeh rtxdy# libl

hph r~hbioibaccy dpae opjg tlh ghtljdjcjfy ie tlh Pj~hp Rjbiac aed ^jcitibac Tphedr Data

rtxdy# 1962'1994 ,Pj~hp# 1994)% I h|~aedhd tlhrh iedibatjpr ie tlh ^xteag*Pj~hp rxpvhy opjg

phqxipief a dibljtjgjxr phr~jerh ,h%f%# Did yjx ~aptibi~ath ie \ abtivity: Yhr*ej) tj ierthad

accjief phr~jedhetr tj iedibath tlh chvhc jo tlhip abtivity je a rbach opjg 1 tj 8% Tlh exghpib

rbjphr ph~phrhethd ej abtivity ie tlh cart yhap ,1) tj ophqxhet abtivity*rhpvhd ar a chadhp jp

jpfaei}hp ,8) je 4< garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr itlie ojxp djgaier% Ie additije tj tlh qxhrtijer

tlat hph a~~cihd diphbtcy opjg tlh Pj~hp ghtljdjcjfy ,rhh A~~hedi| III)# I addhd gxcti~ch

jpifieac qxhrtijer tlat oxptlhp faxfh garr ~aptibi~atije# ~aptibxcapcy tljrh tlat ievjcvh Iethpeht

aed bjg~xthp'ghdiathd abtivity% Tlir iebcxdhd a `atthpy jo qxhrtijer tlat I dhvhcj~hd tlat

r~hbioibaccy dirbxrr jecieh'jecy rjbiac abtivitihr% Habl jo tlh iedibatjpr tlat I xrhd tj gharxph

garr ~aptibi~atije ir dhtaichd ie A~~hedi| II%

Tlh bjg~chth rxpvhy ir ~pjvidhd ie A~~hedi| I_% Phr~jedhetr acrj aerhphd 1>

qxhrtijer je tlhip dhgjfpa~lib aed `abkfpjxed ieojpgatije% Ie additije tj tlh difitac cithpaby

aed ~aptibi~atije iedibatjpr# I acrj dhvhcj~hd a vapihty jo jtlhp jpifieac qxhrtijer ojp tlir rxpvhy

tlat faxfhd phr~jedhet attitxdhr aed `hlavijpr tjapd thblejcjfy hdxbatije# garr ~aptibi~atije#

aed tlh vacxh tlhy faie opjg thblejcjfy ie tlhip daicy civhr% Ljhvhp# gaey jo tlhrh qxhrtijer

hph ejt xrhd diphbtcy ie tlir tlhrir%


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2%1%0 Tlh Difitac Cithpaby Iedh|hr aed J~hpatijeac Dhoieitijer

Tj gharxph tlh bjebh~t jo difitac cithpaby# I bphathd tlh jgei`xr Difitac Cithpaby Iedh|

,DCI)% Tlir iedh| ir bjg~jrhd jo tlh 40 iedibatjpr jo difitac cithpaby bjcchbthd ie tlh 0>10

Thblejcjfy Xrh Rxpvhy ghetijehd ie tlh rhbtije a`jvh% Tlh iedh| fivhr habl phr~jedhet a DCI

rbjph tlat ir ~pj~jptijeath tj lj tlhy phr~jedhd tj tlh 40 iedibatjpr jo difitac cithpaby rkicc aed

kejchdfh% Tlh DCI ar ojxed tj `h liflcy phcia`ch ,Bpje`ablr = %91>)% Ar tlh DCI ir ae

additivh rbach# girrief vacxhr itlie aey iedibatjp bjxcd dpagatibaccy rkh a phr~jedhetr rbjph

tjapd tlh cj hed jo tlh rbach% Tj gitifath tlir# tlh ghdiae vacxh ojp a ~aptibxcap iedibatjp ie

tlh rag~ch ph~cabhd girrief vacxhr `hojph tlh DCI ar bjertpxbthd%

Ie additije tj tlh DCI# I bphathd ri| additijeac iedh|hr tlat j~hpatijeaci}h r~hbioib

bathfjpihr jo rkiccr aed bjertitxth tlh `pjadhp bjebh~t jo difitac cithpaby# libl aph jxtciehd ie

Ta`ch 2%1% Rigicap tj tlh DCI# habl jo tlhrh iedibatjpr ar ojxed tj `h liflcy phcia`ch aed I

ph~cabhd aey girrief vacxhr ie ae iedibatjp itl tlh ghdiae vacxh ojp tlat ~aptibxcap iedibatjp%

Tlhrh iedh|hr aph xrhd tj oxptlhp h|~cjph phcatijerli~r `hthhe tlhrh gjph r~hbioib djgaier jo

difitac cithpaby aed garr ~aptibi~atije% Dhtaicr je tlh r~hbioib rxpvhy iedibatjpr tlat hph xrhd tj

bjertpxbt tlhrh iedh|hr aph avaica`ch ie A~~hedi| I%


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Ta`ch 2%1

J~hpatijeac Rx`'Iedh|hr= Djgaier jo Difitac Cithpaby

,rhh A~~hedi| I ojp gjph dhtaicr)


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2%1%2 Tlh Garr âptibi~atije Iedh|hr aed J~hpatijeac Dhoieitijer

I bphathd tlh jgei`xr Tpaditijeac âptibi~atije Iedh| tj gharxph jvhpacc garr

~aptibi~atije ie bjggxeity aed ~jcitibac aooaipr% Tlir iedh| bjgìehr tlphh ty~hr jo tpaditijeac

garr ~aptibi~atije= rjbiac ghg`hprli~ ~aptibi~atije# bivib ~aptibi~atije# aed ~jcitibac

~aptibi~atije% Ie tlir gharxph# I atthg~t tj h|bcxdh hghpfhet ojpgr jo rjbiac hefafhghet tlat

jbbxp ie ae jecieh'jecy r~abh% Tlir ir djeh ie jpdhp tj ba~txph tlh hoohbtr jo difitac cithpaby je

tlh gjph tpaditijeac ojpgr jo garr ~aptibi~atije aed bjg~aph phrxctr tj jecieh ojpgr jo

~aptibi~atije% Ie jpdhp tj bjg~aph tj hghpfief ojpgr jo jecieh ~aptibi~atije# I dhoieh tpaditijeac

garr ~aptibi~atije ar garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr tlat aph ejt ~hpojpghd rjchcy jecieh# phochbtief

abtivitihr tlat h|irthd `hojph tlh dhvhcj~ghet jo tlh Iethpeht% Vitl tlh advhet jo tlh Iethpeht#

ljhvhp# lar bjgh ae xeavjida`ch bpjrrjvhp jo tlh jecieh aed joocieh ~aptibi~atjpy

hevipjeghetr# aed I arrxgh a dhfphh jo iethpgiefcief ir xeavjida`ch `hthhe tlhrh bathfjpihr%

Tlh Tpaditijeac âptibi~atije Iedh| ,TÎ) bjgìehr 24 iedibatjpr jo ~aptibi~atije ie tlh

tlphh djgaier jo tpaditijeac ~aptibi~atije ,rjbiac ghg`hprli~# bivib# aed ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije)%

Tlhrh iedibatjpr hph dpae opjg qxhrtijer je tlh 0>10 Thblejcjfy Xrh Rxpvhy# itl habl

iedibatjp gharxpief tlh chvhc jo ~aptibi~atije ie a r~hbioib abtivity% Tlh TÎ j~hpatijeaci}hr tlhrh

iedibatjpr jo ~aptibi~atije jetj a exghpib rbach# itl a liflhp vacxh iedibatief a liflhp chvhc jo

~aptibi~atije ie a ~aptibxcap abtivity% Tlh TÎ ar ojxed tj `h liflcy phcia`ch ,Bpjeàblr =

%906) lhe acc 24 iedibatjpr hph bjgìehd% Phgjvief aey iedibatjp opjg tlh iedh| jxcd ejt

baxrh a rifeioibaetcy liflhp jp cjhp phciaìcity bjhooibihet%

I acrj bphathd tlphh rh~apath iedh|hr ojp tlh tlphh ty~hr jo garr ~aptibi~atije tlat

bjg~jrh tlh TÎ= Tlh Rjbiac Ghg`hprli~ âptibi~atije Iedh|# tlh Bivib âptibi~atije Iedh|# aed

tlh ^jcitibac âptibi~atije Iedh|% Tlhrh tlphh iedh|hr gharxph tlh bjertitxhet ~aptr jo tlh TÎ


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aed accj ojp fphathp r~hbioibatije jo tlh ieocxhebh tlat difitac cithpaby lar je tlh vapijxr ojpgr

jo ~aptibi~atije% Dhtaicr je tlhrh tlphh iedh|hr aph ojxed ie Ta`ch 2%0% Ojp habl iedibatjp ie tlh

TÎ aed itr tlphh bjertitxhet rx`'iedh|hr# girrief vacxhr hph ph~cabhd itl tlh ghdiae rbjph

ojp a ~aptibxcap iedibatjp ie jpdhp tj gitifath rkhehrr tjapd a rbjph jo }hpj io a ~aptibxcap barh

h|liìtr girrief vacxhr%

Dpaief opjg tlhjpy tlat rxffhrtr tlat eh ojpgr jo garr ~aptibi~atije giflt `h gjvief

tj jecieh'jecy r~abhr# I acrj bphathd tlh Jecieh âptibi~atije Iedh|# libl gharxphr tlh dhfphh

tlat ~hj~ch ~aptibi~athd ie jecieh'jecy rjbiac abtivitihr% Dhoiehd# jecieh ~aptibi~atije ir vjcxetapy

abtivity ie libl ae iedividxac takhr ~apt ie jp rlaphr ie abtivitihr ojp ~hprjeac fpjtl aed

bjggje iethphrtr# `xt djhr rj rjchcy jvhp tlh Iethpeht aed jtlhp ehtjpkhd hchbtpjeib

bjggxeibatijer% Tlir iebcxdhr abtivitihr rxbl ar ghhtief eh ~hj~ch jecieh# bjeehbtief itl

opihedr jecieh# aed rlapief bjggje iethphrtr itl jtlhpr jecieh% Tlh Jecieh âptibi~atije Iedh|

ir gharxphd itl 9 rh~apath iedibatjpr opjg tlh rxpvhy tlat oacc itlie tlir dhoieitije% It ir

~jrri`ch tlat tlh Jecieh âptibi~atije Iedh| phciaìcity bjhooibihet giflt `h cjhp tlh jtlhp tlphh

rx`'djgaier `hbaxrh jo tlh ejvhcty jo tlir gharxph= tlhrh iedibatjpr lavh ejt yht `hhe xrhd ie a

rtxdy jo garr ~aptibi~atije aed phqxiph oxptlhp aeacyrir tlat bjghr itl additijeac rtxdy%


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2%0DATA BJCCHBTIJE=TLH 0>10THBLEJCJFY XRH RXP_HY

I xrhd phrxctr opjg tlh 0>10 Thblejcjfy Xrh Rxpvhy ar gy ~pigapy data rjxpbh% Tlh

rxpvhy bjcchbthd ieojpgatije je phr~jedhet difitac cithpaby rkiccr ar hcc ar tlhip garr

~aptibi~atije `hlavijpr aed attitxdhr%

Tlh rxpvhy ar adgieirthphd jvhp tlh Iethpeht `y xrief Ghblaeibac Txpk `y

Aga}je%bjg ,ltt~=**%gtxpk%bjg)# a rhpvibh tlat hea`chr phqxhrthpr tj ~ay phr~jedhpr tj

bjg~chth rgacc tarkr# iebcxdief rbihetioib rxpvhyr% Phr~jedhetr hph phbpxithd tlpjxfl tlh

rhpvibh aed aerhphd rxpvhy qxhrtijer ieridh jo a h` `pjrhp `y bcibkief phr~jerhr a~~pj~piath

tj tlhip bljibh% Phr~jedhetr hph ejt bjeehbthd tj tlh ievhrtifatjp ie aey ay aed hph

phbpxithd `y Ghblaeibac Txpk aothp vihief a hcbjgh ghrrafh `y tlh ievhrtifatjp%

Tj qxacioy ojp tlh rxpvhy# phr~jedhetr hph phqxiphd tj `h a phfirthphd ghg`hp jo tlh

Ghblaeibac Txpk rhpvibh# `h a Xeithd Rtathr phridhet# aed `h jvhp 1< yhapr jcd% Ie additije#

phr~jedhetr hph phqxiphd tj lavh ae a~~pjvac patief jo at chart 98( itl ~art jpk ~hpojpghd

je tlh Ghblaeibac Txpk rhpvibh# a bjetpjc gharxph kh~t `y tlh Ghblaeibac Txpk rhpvibh tj

hebjxpafh qxacity jpk agjef phr~jedhetr% Phr~jedhetr hph bjg~herathd itl a ejgieac ohh

ojp tlhip ievjcvhghet x~je bjg~chtief tlh hetiph rxpvhy# ~aid diphbtcy `y Ghblaeibac Txpk tj tlh

phr~jedhet%

Tlh rxpvhy ar caxeblhd je Oh`pxapy 010 aed bcjrhd je Gapbl 18# 0>10% Tlh

rxpvhy ~pjvidhd a paedjg rag~ch ri}h jo 11 vacid phr~jerhr%


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2%2AEACYRIR GHTLJDR

I hg~cjyhd tlh Difitac Cithpaby Iedh|# Tpaditijeac ^aptibi~atije Iedh|# aed Jecieh

^aptibi~atije Iedh| ghetijehd ie tlh rxpvhy bjertpxbtije ghtljdjcjfy rhbtije tj h|agieh tlh

ieocxhebh jo difitac cithpaby ar ae aethbhdhet rkicc ojp garr ~aptibi~atije% I joohp a rhpihr jo

dhrbpi~tivh rtatirtibr opjg tlh rxpvhy tj ~pjvidh a rea~rljt ietj tlh bxpphet rtath jo difitac

cithpaby aed ~aptibi~atije ie itr vapijxr ojpgr ie tlh Xeithd Rtathr% Ie additije tj tlh dhrbpi~tivh

aeacyrir# I thrthd oivh ly~jtlhrhr `y xrief a rhpihr jo JCR phfphrrije aed bjpphcatije gjdhcr ie

libl I dhgjertpathd tlh rtpheftl `y libl difitac cithpaby aed itr rx`'djgaier jo bjg~htheby

ieocxhebh tlh dioohpief ty~hr jo ~aptibi~atije ie tlh Xeithd Rtathr tjday% I bjetpjcchd ojp

dhgjfpa~lib aed ~jcitibac idhetioibatije oabtjpr tj iebpharh tlh r~hbioibatije jo tlh phcatijerli~

`hthhe difitac cithpaby aed ~aptibi~atije% Tlhrh bjetpjc vapia`chr iebcxdh fhedhp# afh# hdxbatije

chvhc# hg~cjyghet rtatxr# ljxrhljcd iebjgh# ~apty idhetioibatije# aed rtpheftl jo ~jcitibac

idhjcjfy%

2%2%1 Admxrthd Rxggapy Rbachr ojp Dhrbpi~tivh Ghaer Bjg~apirje

Ojp tlh dhrbpi~tivh bjg~apirje `hthhe djgaier jo difitac cithpaby aed garr

~aptibi~atije# I bphathd admxrthd rxggapy rbachr% Tlhrh rxggapy rbachr# libl aph acc gharxphd

itl vacxhr jo 1 tj 8# hph dhpivhd opjg tlh jpifieac iedh|hr ghetijehd ie rhbtijer 2%1%0 aed

2%1%2% Tlir tpaerojpgatije ar ehbhrrapy ie jpdhp tj bjg~aph tlh ri| difitac cithpaby djgaie

iedh|hr# ar habl iedh| bphathd ie rhbtije 2%1%0 lar a dioohphet paefh jo vacxhr% Tlir acrj a~~cihr

tj tlh ojxp iedh|hr jo ~aptibi~atije bphathd ie rhbtije 2%1%2% Rxggapy gharxph iedh|hr aph jecy

xrhd ojp bjg~apativh ~xp~jrhr ie tlh dhrbpi~tivh aeacyrir aed aph ejt xrhd tj thrt ly~jtlhrhr ie

tlir tlhrir% Tj gakh tlhrh admxrtghetr# habl rxggapy rbach ar arrifehd a vacxh abbjpdief tj a


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tj'rth~ ~pjbhrr% Oiprt# I bacbxcathd tlh ghae rbjph ojp habl iedibatjp tlat a~~haphd ie ae iedh|%

Rhbjed# riebh habl iedibatjp ar rbjphd je tlh ragh rbach jo 1 tj 8# I bacbxcathd tlh ghae rbjph

jo acc iedibatjpr a~~hapief itlie ae iedh| aed arrifehd tlir phrxct ar tlh rxggapy rbach vacxh

,ph~phrhethd ar RxgRbc)% Oifxph 2%1 iccxrtpathr tlh hqxatije `y libl tlh rxggapy rbachr hph

arrifehd vacxhr joRxgRbc# itl e hqxac tj tlh tjtac exg`hp jo iedibatjpr a~~hapief ie habl

iedh|% A tjtac jo 6 difitac cithpaby rxggapy rbachr ,1 jgei`xr rbach aed ? rx`'djgaier) aed 8

~aptibi~atije rxggapy rbachr hph bphathd ojp tlir bjg~apirje ,1 jg`i`xr rbach aed 4 rx`'

djgaie rbachr)%

RxgRbc 7

| i

i71

e

e

Oifxph 2%1

Rxggapy Rbach _acxh Hqxatije# RxgRbc,xrhd ojp habl rxggapy rbach)

Ojp difitac cithpaby# habl rxggapy rbach ar admxrthd tj ph~phrhet a paefh jo cj difitac

cithpaby ,rbjph jo 1) tj lifl difitac cithpaby ,rbjph jo 8)% Ojp tlh gharxph jo garr ~aptibi~atije

aed itr ojxp djgaier# habl rxggapy rbach ar admxrthd tj ph~phrhet a paefh jo cj ~aptibi~atije

,rbjph jo 1) tj lifl ~aptibi~atije ,rbjph jo 8)% I dirbxrrhd tlh ghae rbjphr jo tlh rhvhe rxggapy

difitac cithpaby rbachr ,admxrthd rxggapihr jo tlh oxcc iedh| aed ri| bjertitxhet iedh|hr) aed

iccxrtpathd j`rhpvhd dioohphebhr `hthhe djgaier jo difitac cithpaby rkiccr% Rigicapcy# I phvihhd

tlh rbjphr jo tlh oivh rxggapy ~aptibi~atije rbachr ,tlh admxrthd rxggapy tpaditijeac

~aptibi~atije rbach aed tlh ojxp rx`'djgaier jo ~aptibi~atije) aed rlj tlh j`rhpvhd dioohphebhr

`hthhe ty~hr jo ~aptibi~atije abbjpdiefcy%


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2%2%0 Dhrbpi~tivh Aeacyrir aed Dhgjfpa~lib Bjg~apirjer

I pae a rhpihr jo ophqxhebihr dirtpi`xtijer aed dioohphebh jo ghaer thrtr tj ~pjvidh

dhrbpi~tivh aeacyrhr jo ~x`cib chvhcr jo difitac cithpaby aed garr ~aptibi~atije ie tlhip vapijxr

ojpgr% Tlhrh gharxphr aph bpjrr'bjg~aphd itl bjggje rjbiac dhgjfpa~libr rxbl ar fhedhp#

afh# hdxbatije# aed iebjgh% Tlir rhbtije liflcifltr tlh vapijxr dioohphebhr ie `jtl difitac cithpaby

aed garr ~aptibi~atije agjef rjbiac dhgjfpa~lib fpjx~r ie tlh Xeithd Rtathr%

Tj j`rhpvh dioohphebhr `hthhe tlh ri| djgaier jo difitac cithpaby ar hcc ar tlh ojxp

djgaier jo ~aptibi~atije# I bjg~aphd tlh ghaer jo tlh rhvhpac rxggapy rbach gharxphr bphathd

ie Rhbtije 2%1% Tj iccxrtpath dioohphebhr jo rxggapy rbach rbjphr `hthhe bjggje dhgjfpa~lib

fpjx~r itlie tlh ~x`cib# I xrhd AEJ_A aed iedh~hedhet rag~chr t'thrt aeacyrhr tj dhthpgieh

dioohphebhr ie ghae rbjphr jo tlh rxggapy gharxphr `arhd je fpjx~ ghg`hprli~% Ie tlir

rhbtije# I liflciflthd dioohphebhr ie tlh rxggapy rbach rbjphr ojp difitac cithpaby aed garr

~aptibi~atije `hthhe fhedhp# hdxbatije chvhc# aed afh%

2%2%2 Ly~jtlhrir Thrtief aed Aeacyrir

Tj thrt tlh ly~jtlhrhr ie tlir tlhrir# I hg~cjyhd a rhpihr jo jpdieapy chart'rqxaphr

phfphrrijer aed ^haprjer P bjpphcatijer tj dhthpgieh tlh rtpheftl aed diphbtije jo tlh ieocxhebh

jo difitac cithpaby je tlh vapijxr djgaier jo garr ~aptibi~atije% Tlh bjebh~tr jo difitac cithpaby

aed garr ~aptibi~atije aph aeacy}hd ar gharxphd `y tlh jgei`xr Difitac Cithpaby Iedh|# tlh

jgei`xr Tpaditijeac ^aptibi~atije Iedh|# aed tlh bjertitxhet ~aptibi~atije djgaie iedh|hr

dirbxrrhd ie Rhbtije 2%1%2% Ojp habl aeacyrir# jeh jo tlh ~aptibi~atije iedh|hr rhpvhr ar tlh

dh~hedhet vapia`ch ie tlh hqxatije%


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Ojp tlh oiprt aeacyrir# I bjg~aphd habl djgaie jo difitac cithpaby tj tlh Tpaditijeac

âptibi~atije Iedh| xrief ìvapiath ^haprjer P aeacyrhr tj arrhrr tlh rtpheftl jo habl jo tlh ri|

iedividxac rx`'bathfjpihr jo difitac cithpaby je garr ~aptibi~atije% @y xrief tlh ^haprjer P

bjhooibihetr# I ag a`ch tj rhh tlh rtpheftl jo bjpphcatije `hthhe a ~aptibxcap difitac cithpaby

djgaie aed chvhcr jo tpaditijeac garr ~aptibi~atije% Xrief tlir ghtljd# I bjg~aph tlh ^haprjer

P bjhooibihetr tj rhh libl difitac cithpaby djgaie ieocxhebhr garr ~aptibi~atije ie tlh rtpjefhrt

gaeehp% Habl jo tlh ri| djgaier jo difitac cithpaby ir liflcy bjpphcathd itl habl jtlhp ,i%h%# habl

ìvapiath bjg~apirje dhgjertpatief jvhp a %?>> ^haprjer P bjhooibihet)% Tlir ghtljd accjr gh

tj dhgjertpath tlh rtpheftl jo difitac cithpaby djgaier lich avjidief ghtljdjcjfibac vijcatijer

itl JCR phfphrrije gjdhcr%

Ie tlh rhbjed aeacyrir# I thrt tlh ieocxhebh jo difitac cithpaby je tlh jgei`xr Tpaditijeac

âptibi~atije Iedh| xrief ae JCR phfphrrije gjdhc tlat iebcxdhr dhgjfpa~lib aed ~jcitibac

idhetioibatije bjetpjc vapia`chr% Ie tlh oieac aeacyrir# I thrt tlh ieocxhebh jo difitac cithpaby je tlh

iedividxac ~aptibi~atije iedh|hr xrief a rhpihr jo JCR phfphrrijer# ie libl tlh `hta bjhooibihetr

ojp habl vapia`ch aph bjg~aphd abpjrr djgaier% Ojp habl aeacyrir# tlh jgei`xr Difitac Cithpaby

Iedh| rhpvhr ar ae iedh~hedhet vapia`ch tj ~phdibt chvhcr jo ~aptibi~atije acjefridh a rhpihr jo

bjetpjc vapia`chr% Tlhrh bjetpjcr iebcxdh afh# fhedhp# hdxbatije chvhc# hg~cjyghet rtatxr#

ljxrhljcd iebjgh# ~apty idhetioibatije# aed rtpheftl jo ~jcitibac idhjcjfy%


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BLA^THP4DHRBPI^TI_H DIOOHPHEBHR IE DIFITAC CITHPABY AED GARR ^APTIBI^ATIJE

Ie tlir bla~thp# I ~pjvidh a rea~rljt jo tlh bxpphet chvhcr jo tlh difitac cithpaby rkiccr jo

Aghpibaer aed iccxrtpath lj jothe Aghpibaer hefafh ie garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr% Xrief data

opjg tlh 0>10 Thblejcjfy Xrh Rxpvhy# I liflciflt dioohphebhr ie difitac cithpaby rkiccr aed garr

~aptibi~atije itlie tj khy dhgjfpa~libr= fhedhp aed afh% Tlhrh aeacyrhr aph dpae opjg tlh

admxrthd rxggapy rbachr jo habl jo tlh ri| djgaier jo difitac cithpaby aed ojxp djgaier jo garr

~aptibi~atije ,ghetijehd ie fphathp dhtaic ie rhbtije 2%1%4)% Dioohphebhr jo ghaer `hthhe fpjx~r

aph aeacy}hd itl iedh~hedhet rag~chr t'thrtr aed jeh'ay AEJ_A thrtr%

Tlh dhrbpi~tivh rtatirtibr ie tlir bla~thp rlj tlat yjxefhp ~hj~ch aph `htthp rkicchd itl

difitac tjjcr# gachr lavh a rciflt advaetafh ie chvhcr jo difitac cithpaby# aed jtlhp dhgjfpa~libr

rxbl ar hdxbatije chvhc dj ejt rifeioibaetcy iedibath dioohphebhr ie difitac cithpaby% Tlhrh oiediefr

iccxrtpath rjgh jo tlh bxpphet irrxhr oabief difitac cithpaby abqxiritije aed hdxbatije ie tlh Xeithd

Rtathr% ^pigapicy# ar difitac cithpaby lar `hbjgh ae aethbhdhet rkicc rht ojp garr ~aptibi~atije

abtivitihr# tlhrh oiediefr jxcd iedibath tlat fpjx~r rxbl ar jcdhp adxctr aed ohgachr jxcd `h

gjph diradvaetafhd lhe it bjghr tj ~aptibi~atjpy abtivitihr% Garthpy jo difitac cithpaby rkiccr

icc `h hrrhetiac tj hoohbt rjbiac blaefh jp tj hvhe mjie a rjbiac fpjx~ ar ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr

aph iebphariefcy xrhd ie tlh ~aptibi~atjpy hevipjeghet% Ar gjph ieojpgatije'lhavy mj`r `hbjgh

tlh ejpg ie tlh 01rt

Bhetxpy kejchdfh hbjejgy# it icc acrj `h iebphariefcy ig~jptaet ojp

~hj~ch jo acc afhr aed hdxbatije chvhcr tj lavh a lifl chvhc jo difitac cithpaby%

I acrj iccxrtpath lj tlh ~x`cib ar hefafhd ie garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr ie 0>11'0>10

xrief j`rhpvhd admxrthd ghae rbjphr itlie ~aptibi~atije djgaier% Tj h|~cjph tlh dhfphh tj

libl jecieh ~aptibi~atije ~atthper bjg~aph tj gjph tpaditijeac ojpgr jo garr ~aptibi~atije# I

rjpt tlh ojxp djgaier jo ~aptibi~atije ietj tj bathfjpihr= tpaditijeac ~aptibi~atije ,bjerirtief jo


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4>0; Caekrlhap / Kej`hc#


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8>

0>>


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81

4%1%0 Ghe Lavh Liflhp Chvhcr jo Difitac Cithpaby

Oifxph 4%0 iccxrtpathr tlh dioohphebh ie difitac cithpaby rkiccr ,ar gharxphd `y tlh jgei`xr

admxrthd rxggapy rbach) rh~apathd `y fhedhp% Xrief ae iedh~hedhet rag~chr t'thrt# tlh

dioohphebh ie ghae rbjphr `hthhe ghe aed jghe ar rtatirtibaccy rifeioibaet at tlh ~ 3 %>>>

chvhc%

Oifxph 4%0

Difitac Cithpaby `y Fhedhp,`arhd je rxggapy rbach ghae rbjph; tjtac e 7 11)

Vlich it ir `hyjed tlh rbj~h jo tlir tlhrir tj r~hbxcath tlh pharjer ojp dioohphebhr

`hthhe fhedhpr# it a~~hapr tlat gachr lavh a rciflt advaetafh ie difitac cithpaby rkiccr% Ljhvhp#

tlir fa~ ir ejt h|tphghcy idh# aed bjxcd ~jthetiaccy bcjrh ar ieojpgatije thblejcjfy rkiccr

`hbjgh gjph ~pijpiti}hd ie tlh hbjejgy aed ar hdxbatijeac ieitiativhr hebjxpafh ~hj~ch tj hethp

baphhpr tlat phqxiph liflhp chvhcr jo difitac cithpaby# rxbl ar rbihebh# thblejcjfy# hefiehhpief# aed

gatlhgatibr ,RTHG) baphhp oihcdr%

4%1%2 Yjxef ^hj~ch Lavh Liflhp Chvhcr jo Difitac Cithpaby

Yjxef ~hj~ch lavh `hhe ~j~xcapcy keje ar tlh eht fhehpatije jp ar difitac eativhr

aed aph ophqxhetcy phfapdhd tj lavh liflhp chvhcr jo difitac cithpaby tlae jcdhp afh bjljptr% Tlh

data ie tlir tlhrir rlj ej h|bh~tije tj tlir tphed% Dioohphebhr `hthhe ghae rbjphr agjef afh

fpjx~r phvhacr a djeapd diphbtijeac tphed ie difitac cithpaby ghae rbjphr ar afh iebpharhr%


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80

Oifxph 4%2 liflcifltr tlir j`rhpvatije# itl yjxefhp ~hj~ch h|li`itief liflhp ghae rbjphr jo

difitac cithpaby tlae tljrh jo jcdhp bjljptr%

Oifxph 4%2

Difitac Cithpaby `y Afh,`arhd je rxggapy rbach ghae rbjph; tjtac e 7 11)

Tj thrt ojp rifeioibaet dioohphebhr `hthhe ghae difitac cithpaby rbjphr `y afh fpjx~# I pae

a jeh'ay `hthhe'rx`mhbtr AEJ_A thrt ,O 7 29%>4; ~ 3 %>>1) je difitac cithpaby rkiccr fpjx~hd

`y ae afh oabtjp% ^jrt ljb bjg~apirjer xrief tlh Taglaehr T'0 thrt# libl iedibath a tpxh

dioohphebh jo ghaer io tlh bjg~apirje ir rtatirtibaccy rifeioibaet# rljhd tlat tlh ghae rbjph tlh

18 jp fphathp)

lhe bjg~apief ghae rbjphr `hthhe fpjx~r itl tlh h|bh~tije jo tlphh bjg~apirjer= 21'4> tj

41'8># 41'8> tj 81'?># aed 81'?> tj jvhp ?1%


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82

Bjg~apirje Rif% Rtd% Hppjp

1 %>>> %>?0

1 %>>> %>9>> %10 tj 81'?> %>>> %10 tj 81'?> %411 %142

41'8> tj ?1+ %>0? %028

81'?> tj ?1+ %484 %049

Ta`ch 4%1

Difitac Cithpaby Dioohphebhr jo Ghaer `hthhe Afh Fpjx~rJeh'ay AEJ_A ~jrt'ljb thrt; Taglaehr T'0

Rifeioibaet bjg~apirjer at ~ 3 >%>8 aph rladhd ie fpay

Phfapdchrr jo tlh cabk jo rifeioibaet dioohphebhr `hthhe jcdhp afh fpjx~r# tlhrh phrxctr

rlj tlat yjxefhp ~hj~ch lavh liflhp chvhcr jo difitac cithpaby% Ar difitac cithpaby ir ae

aethbhdhet rkicc ojp garr ~aptibi~atije# tlhrh data iedibath tlat yjxef ~hj~ch lavh ae advaetafh

ie tlhip aìcity tj ~aptibi~ath%

4%1%4 Jtlhp Dhgjfpa~lib Dioohphebhr

Fhedhp aed afh ~pjvidh tj fjjd h|ag~chr jo difitac cithpaby divirije agjef

dhgjfpa~lib fpjx~r% Vlhe thrtief jtlhp dhgjfpa~libr# ljhvhp# fpjx~ dioohphebhr aph hitlhp

ejt rtatirtibaccy rifeioibaet% Tlir ljcdr tpxh ojp hdxbatije# hg~cjyghet chvhc# aed bity ri}h

,xpàe*rx`xpàe*pxpac)%


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84

4%0GARR ÂPTIBIÂTIJE IE TLH XEITHD RTATHR#0>11'0>10

4%0%1 ^hj~ch Bljjrh Jecieh âptibi~atije jvhp Jtlhp Djgaier jo Garr âptibi~atije

Tlir tlhrir gharxphr ojxp dioohphet djgaier jo garr ~aptibi~atije aed lj tlhy aph

ieocxhebhd `y difitac cithpaby rkiccr% Xrief tlh admxrthd rxggapy rbachr ojp tlhrh ojxp djgaier# I

bjg~aphd chvhcr jo j`rhpvhd ~aptibi~atije abpjrr djgaier# ar iccxrtpathd ie Oifxph 4%4% Vlich

~aptibi~atije ir phcativhcy cj ie acc ojxp djgaier ,rbjpief `hthhe 1 aed 0 je a 1'8 rbach)# jecieh

~aptibi~atije a~~hapr tj `h gxbl liflhp tlae tlh jtlhp tlphh djgaier jo ~aptibi~atije%

Oifxph 4%4

Garr âptibi~atije Djgaie Rxggapy Iedh| Ghae Rbjphr,àrhd je rxggapy rbach ghae rbjphr; e 7 11)

@arhd je tlh j`rhpvhd ghae rbjphr# jecieh ~aptibi~atije ir acgjrt laco'~jiet liflhp ie

ophqxheby tlae tlh jtlhp tlphh djgaier# libl# je a 1'8 rbach# iedibathr a capfh dhfphh jo

vapiatije% Riebh tlh tlphh djgaier jo rjbiac ghg`hprli~# bivib# aed ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije

ph~phrhet gjph tpaditijeac ojpgr jo garr ~aptibi~atije# I arrhpt tlat jecieh ~aptibi~atije lar

`hbjgh a eh oavjpith djgaie jo ~aptibi~atije agjef tlh ~x`cib ojp rjbiaci}atije aed ghhtief

jtlhpr% I acrj apfxh tlat tlir gay ejt iedibath tpjx`ch ojp tlh jtlhp tlphh djgaier jo ~aptibi~atije%

Jecieh ~aptibi~atije bjxcd hebjxpafh ~aptibi~aetr tj hefafh ie jtlhp ojpgr jo ~aptibi~atije itl


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88

ljg tlhy ghht aed iethpabt jecieh% Ie additije# ~hj~ch bjxcd chape a`jxt abtivitihr ie jtlhp

~aptibi~atije djgaier jecieh%

I aet tj ejth# ljhvhp# tlat tlhrh data iedibath tlatrjgh abtivity ir ~phrhet ie acc

djgaier# hvhe tljxfl habl djgaie a~~hapr tj `h rbjphd cj% Io tlh ~x`cib hefafhd ie ej

abtivity# tlh ghae rbjphr jxcd `h gxbl bcjrhp tj 1%> tlae tlhy a~~hap% Ej ~aptibi~atije itlie a

djgaie jxcd phqxiph phr~jedhetr tj aerhp 1# libl iedibathr ehvhp je tlh rxpvhy ,Rhh

A~~hedi|hr II aed I_ ojp gjph dhtaicr je rxpvhy qxhrtije rbjpief% Vlich tlir ir ejt a cjtjo

abtivity# it bhptaiecy rxffhrtr tlat ~hj~ch lavh `hhe at chart rjghlat abtivh dxpief tlh cart yhap

riebh liflhp rbjphr ,i%h%# 2 jp 4) je tlir iedh| jxcd bjpphr~jed tj rbjpief lifl je acciedibatjpr%

Rbjpief vhpy lifl je tlir rbach jxcd `h bcjrh tj ig~jrri`ch# ar a lifl rbjph bjpphr~jedr tj

~hj~ch ~aptibi~atief ophqxhetcy ie hvhpy abtivity bjetaiehd itlie tlhrh rbachr ,habl rbach paefief

opjg 9 tj 14 rh~apath abtivitihr)% Ar rxbl# I ieohp tlat ~hj~ch aph ~aptibi~atief ie acc djgaier# `xt

ejt ehapcy tj tlh dhfphh tlhy aph ~aptibi~atief ie tlh jecieh djgaie# libl ir gxbl liflhp%

Vitl daicy cioh `hief `xry aed dhgaedief ojp gaey Aghpibaer# it ir xedhprtaeda`ch tlat

garr ~aptibi~atije chvhcr aph ejt h|tphghcy lifl% Tlh bxctxphr jo jpk aed ljgh dj ejt dhgaed

a pj`xrt rjbiac cioh jp bjertaet ievjcvhghet ie ~licaetlpj~ib jp ~jcitibac rhpvibh abtivitihr%

Rlxdrje ,1999) apfxhr tlat tlir ir abtxaccy ejpgac# itl ~hj~ch tjday dhchfatief gxbl jo tlhip

~jcitibac aed rjbiac aooaipr tj jtlhpr tlat bae `h phr~jeri`ch ojp tlhg je a daicy `arir% Tlir lar

accjhd ojp r~hbiacirtr ie tlh bivib aed ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije phacg# rxbl ar ~jcitibiaer# ~jcitibac

aidhr# aed `xphaxbpatr# tj ojbxr je abtivitihr jo fjvhpeaebh aed rjbiac blaefh% Tlir iret tj ray

tlat tlh ~x`cib ir ieatthetivh# ljhvhp% Rlxdrje arrhptr tlat tlh gjeitjpiac biti}he ir ej

~phrhet# jp tlh biti}he tlat ~ayr atthetije tj bxpphet aooaipr aed icc `hbjgh abtivh ie bivib jp

~jcitibac aooaipr jecy aothp tlhip ~aptibi~atije `hbjghr ehbhrrapy# rxbl ar lhe ritxatijer `hbjgh


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8?

diph aed ae iedividxac ir r~xpphd tj vjcxethhpirg jp ~jcitibac abtivity ojp a ~aptibxcap irrxh tlat

tlhy baph a`jxt% Ie tlh ghae tigh# ~hj~ch icc ierthad dhchfath tlhrh bivib aed ~jcitibac tarkr tj

r~hbiacirtr# accjief tlh eje'r~hbiacirtr tj civh aed jpk itljxt tjj gxbl garr ~aptibi~atije%

4%2DIRBXRRIJE JO DHRBPI^TI_H RTATIRTIBR

Ar dhgjertpathd ie tlh eh|t bla~thp# I oied tlat difitac cithpaby ir ae aethbhdhet rkicc ojp

garr ~aptibi~atije% Tlh `phakdje jo j`rhpvhd chvhcr jo difitac cithpaby aed ~aptibi~atije `y

dhgjfpa~lib ie tlir bla~thp iccxrtpath rjgh jo tlh blacchefhr arrjbiathd itl garr ~aptibi~atije

ie a difitac afh= a ~hprje ehhdr ~pj~hp difitac rkiccr ie jpdhp tj ~aptibi~ath% Fa~r ie chvhcr jo

difitac cithpaby agjef dhgjfpa~lib fpjx~r rlj a difitac cithpaby advaetafh ojp rjgh# `xt acrj

~pjvidh a `cxh~piet ojp oi|ief tlir difitac cithpaby dividh% Tlh data rlj tlat yjxefhp ~hj~ch aph

liflcy advaetafhd lhe it bjghr tj difitac cithpaby rkiccr% Ghe acrj lavh a rciflt difitac

advaetafh% Tlhrh fpjx~r icc cikhcy bjetiexh tj ieocxhebh bivib aed ~jcitibac aooaipr ie fphathp

ayr bjg~aphd tj tlhip bjxethp~aptr ar tlhy hemjy liflhp chvhcr jo difitac cithpaby rkiccr% Hoojptr

tj gitifath tlhrh dioohphebhr# rxbl ar thblejcjfy hdxbatije ieitiativhr aed thblejcjfy tpaieief

tapfhthd tj r~hbioib dhgjfpa~libr bjxcd lhc~ oxptlhp dhvhcj~ tlhrh difitac cithpaby rkiccr tj tlh

~jiet tlhy `hbjgh bjertaet agjef dhgjfpa~lib fpjx~r%

Vlich difitac cithpaby ir ejt tlh jecy aethbhdhet ~phbjeditije ojp garr ~aptibi~atije# it bae

bhptaiecy lhc~ rjghjeh ~aptibi~ath lhe tlhy ohhc bjg~hcchd tj dj rj% Tpaditijeac ~aptibi~atije

ieopartpxbtxph# aethbhdhet rkiccr# aed rjbiac dyeagibr bjebhpeief ~jcitibac jp rjbiac ieocxhebh rticc

cikhcy dhthpgieh rjbiac blaefh aed ~jcitibr tj a fphat dhfphh% Ljhvhp# itl tlh iebpharief

iethfpatije jo difitac tjjcr ietj tlh ~aptibi~atjpy hevipjeghet# tpaditijeac ieocxhebh lihpapblihr


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86

giflt `h phehfjtiathd ar tigh fjhr je% Phfapdchrr# tljrh itl difitac cithpaby rkiccr icc cikhcy `h

gjph ieocxhetiac ie bjggxeibatief tlhip ehhdr aed iethphrtr ar hcc ar bjeehbtief itl jtlhpr%

Tlh irrxh phgaier# ljhvhp# tlat ~hj~ch itl difitac cithpaby rkiccr aph `htthp hqxi~~hd ojp

garr ~aptibi~atije# aed tlat tlh data opjg tlh bjg~apirjer ie tlir bla~thp rlj vapyief chvhcr jo

rkiccr agjef tlh difitac cithpaby djgaier% Tlir ir hr~hbiaccy tpxh phfapdief tlh dhaptl jo bphativh

~x`cibatije aed rkiccr tlat ar j`rhpvhd% Ar tlh ~x`cibatije rkiccr djgaie lar a lifl ieocxhebh je

garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr# I gakh tlh apfxghet tlat tljrh itl tlhrh gjph ietaefi`ch# bphativh

rkiccr icc hemjy a liflhp dhfphh jo rxbbhrr lhe atthg~tief bivib jp ~jcitibac blaefh% Ljhvhp#

riebh tlhrh rkiccr a~~hap chrr ophqxhetcy tlae dirbphth# thbleibac bjg~xthp aed ieojpgatije rkiccr#

tlhph ir a ehhd ojp gjph hdxbatije aed hg~jhpghet ie tlir apha% ^jritivh hoohbtr ~pjvidhd `y

difitac cithpaby bjxcd hvhe bappy jvhp tj a ~hprjer baphhp jp daicy cioh# actljxfl tlir ir ae apha ojp

oxtxph rtxdy%


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8

Ta`ch 8%1 iccxrtpathr tlh iedividxac ìvapiath ^haprjer P bjpphcatijer ojp tlir aeacyrir% I

dhthpgieh tlh iedividxac difitac cithpaby djgaier aed lj tlhy aph bjpphcathd itl tpaditijeac aed

jecieh ~aptibi~atije# itl a liflhp ^haprjer P bjhooibihet iedibatief a rtpjefhp phcatijerli~% Ie

tlh aeacyrir ie Ta`ch 8%1# tpaditijeac ~aptibi~atije ir gharxphd xrief tlh jgei`xr Tpaditijeac

âptibi~atije Iedh|# libl iebcxdhr rjbiac ghg`hprli~# bivib# aed ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije

rigxctaehjxrcy% Jecieh ~aptibi~atije ir gharxphd xrief tlh jgei`xr Jecieh âptibi~atije Iedh|%

Dxh tj tlh lifl chvhc jo bjpphcatije `hthhe tlh difitac cithpaby iedh~hedhet vapia`chr ,^haprjer

P jvhp %?>> ojp hvhpy bjg~apirje)# I ag xea`ch tj hethp tlhrh djgaier iedividxaccy ietj a

bjevhetijeac JCR phfphrrije gjdhc%

Ojp tlir gjdhc# I bjetpjcchd ojp rtpheftl jo ~jcitibac idhjcjfy ar a ojcdhd bjebh~t% Ie jtlhp

jpdr# I ar ejt iethphrthd ie lhtlhp rjghjeh ar bjerhpvativh jp ci`hpac# `xt ierthad lhtlhp

tlhy lad rtpjef idhjcjfibac chaeiefr jp ejt% Tlh idhjcjfy rtpheftl vapia`ch ar bjdhd ar 1 ojp

cj chvhc jo idhjcjfibac chaeief# 0 ojp ~hj~ch lj idhetioy hitlhp ar bjerhpvativh jp ci`hpac# aed 2

ojp ~hj~ch lj idhetioy ar vhpy bjerhpvativh jp vhpy ci`hpac% Dpaief opjg ~art tlhjpy ie

~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije# I aetibi~ath tlat a ~hprjer rtpheftl jo ~jcitibac idhjcjfy icc dpa tlhg

tjapd garr ~aptibi~atije% Ie tlh jtlhp bjetpjcr rhbtije# I iebcxdhd dhgjfpa~lib vapia`chr jo

afh aed hdxbatije ar hcc%


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?1

Tpaditijeac Jecieh

Bjg~xthp Rkiccr %110-- %0?>--

Ieojpgatije Rkiccr %1?4-- %218--

Bjggxeibatije Rkiccr %11?-- %099-- %02?

Afh '%>89- '%1?1- '%>6>-

_acxhr ie ^haprjer P Bjhooibihetr% e 7 11-# -- iedibathr rifeioibaebh at tlh 98( aed 99( chvhc# phr~hbtivhcy

Ta`ch 8%1

^haprjer P Bjhooibihetr= Difitac Cithpaby Djgaier je Garr ^aptibi~atije[Tpaditijeac ^aptibi~atije Iedh| iebcxdhr rjbiac ghg`hprli~# bivib# aed ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atijeW

Oiediefr aed Ly~jtlhrir Thrtr

Habl jo tlh bjpphcatijer `hthhe difitac cithpaby aed ~aptibi~atije djgaier ar

rtatirtibaccy rifeioibaet% Ie acc bathfjpihr# difitac cithpaby ar gjph liflcy bjpphcathd itl jecieh

~aptibi~atije tlae tpaditijeac ~aptibi~atije% Lirtjpibac aed bxctxpac kejchdfh ph~phrhetr tlh

djgaie jo difitac cithpaby itl tlh liflhrt ieocxhebh je `jtl tpaditijeac aed jecieh ~aptibi~atije

,^haprjer P= %09> tpaditijeac; %29< jecieh)% Tlir ir ojccjhd bcjrhcy `y bphativh aed ~x`cibatije

rkiccr ,%042 tpaditijeac; %2 jecieh)% Bjg~xthp rkiccr ,%110 tpaditijeac; %0?> jecieh)# ieojpgatije

rkiccr ,%110 tpaditijeac; %0?> jecieh)# bjggxeibatije rkiccr ,%110 tpaditijeac; %0?> jecieh)# aed

ieejvativh tliekief rkiccr ,%110 tpaditijeac; %0?> jecieh) acc rlj a rifeioibaet bjpphcatije tj `jtl

tpaditijeac aed jecieh ~aptibi~atije# `xt tj a hakhp dhfphh tlae tlh jtlhp djgaier% Tlh rtpheftl


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jo idhjcjfy vapia`ch ir jecy rcifltcy phcathd tj garr ~aptibi~atije ie tlir gjdhc ,%>96 tpaditijeac;

ejt rifeioibaet ojp jecieh ~aptibi~atije)% Riebh tlir gjdhc ir ejt oxccy ~jcitibac ie eatxph# idhjcjfy

rtpheftl ~cayr chrr jo a pjch% Tlh jtlhp bjetpjc vapia`chr aph rifeioibaetcy bjpphcathd aed dir~cay

rifeioibaet# `xt fhehpaccy hakhp# phcatijerli~r%

Tj thrt tlh Ly~jtlhrir 1# I bjg~aph tlh ^haprjer P bjhooibihetr agjef tlh difitac

cithpaby djgaier% I ly~jtlhri}h ~hj~ch itl liflhp agjxetr jo kejchdfh jo tlh irrxhr oabief

rjbihty phcathd tj thblejcjfy icc `h gjph iebciehd tj ~aptibi~ath% Tlir ly~jtlhrir ir bjeoipghd#

ar bxctxpac aed lirtjpibac kejchdfh lar tlh liflhrt ^haprjer P bjhooibihetr agjef tlh ri|

difitac cithpaby djgaier%

I acrj h|~hbt tlat bphativh aed ~x`cibatije rkiccr icc `h liflcy bjpphcathd itl

~aptibi~atije# gjph rj tlae bjg~xthp# ieojpgatije# aed bjggxeibatije rkiccr% Tj thrt Ly~jtlhrir

0# I h|agieh tlh ^haprjer P bjhooibihetr ojp tlhrh ojxp djgaier% Tlh data rlj tlat ~hj~ch itl

tlh advaebhd ba~a`icity tj h|~phrr jehrhco# tj rlaph idhar itl gxctighdia# aed tj bphath bjethet

tlat bae `h ~hprxarivh aed hefafief icc `h gjph iebciehd tj ~aptibi~ath# hr~hbiaccy jecieh% I bae

bjeoipg tlir ly~jtlhrir%

Tlhrh tj ly~jtlhrhr rx~~jpt tlh apfxghet tlat tlh ri| djgaier jo difitac cithpaby aph

~phrhet ie liflhp chvhcr jo ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr% Tlir ir ~aptibxcapcy tpxh jo tlh rkiccr tlat aph

gjph bphativh ,~x`cibatije) aed ~pjvidh a fphathp bjeth|t jo tlh xrh jo thblejcjfy ie rjbihty

,rjbiac aed lirtjpibac kejchdfh)% Actljxfl rljief cjhp chvhcr jo phcatijerli~ tj ~aptibi~atije#

tlh djgaier itl cjhp rbjphr ,bjg~xthp# ieojpgatije# bjggxeibatije) ~pjvidh ehbhrrapy rkiccr

ojp liflhp'jpdhp ~x`cibatije aed bjethet'rlapief rkiccr% Additijeac rtxdihr tlat `htthp r~hbioy tlir

phcatijerli~ `hthhe difitac cithpaby djgaier bjxcd `h xrhoxc ojp tlh rjbiac rbihebhr ie

dhthpgieief tlh hoohbtr jo difitac cithpaby je vapijxr rjbiac iertitxtijer aed abtivitihr%


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8%0DIFITAC CITHPABY IR TLH RTPJEFHRT ^PHDIBTJP JO LIFLHPCH_HCR JO

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Brookes eLearning Strategy 2008-11: Personal learning environments for digitally literate learners Richard Francis 10-02-09

In the United States STATS IN BRIEF...literate (e.g., percentage of native-born versus non-native-born adults who are not digitally literate). Second, the Brief examines the socio-demographic

How do you trick children to become more digitally literate? With zombies of course! - Kari Morley

Technology, determinism and learning: exploring different ways of being digitally literate

The digitally literate learner and the appropriation of new technologies and media for education

Developing digitally literate staff and students rsc northern summer conference presentation june 2014

LALOR SECONDARY COLLEGE Personal Digital Device Policy ... policy has been developed to establish a community of confident, positive and digitally literate learners who ... can continue

GHANA EDUCATION SERVICE - Avenuegh.com · allow learners to become critical thinkers, problem-solvers, creators, innovators, good communicators, collaborators, digitally literate,

UNDERGRADUATE PROGRAMME SPECIFICATION€¦ · for staff to bring their work into the learning environment. ... digitally and information literate, thus equipping the engineers of

THE COURIER - Ashbury Senior Computer Community Center · Regina Quarterman Leon Stevenson A Digitally Literate Person: Possesses the variety of skills – technical and cognitive

U.S. Foundation Funding for Australia · foundations and government has now become a triangle with the digitally literate public. People expect to be able to get information on virtually

Literate Analysis Presentation

Information and People: Media and Literacy · thinking skills are essential in the process of becoming information literate, digitally literate, ... There are no prerequisite classes

Building the Blackboard foundations for a digitally literate university

Developing digitally literate staff and students: experiences from LSE

JISC Project Plan Template - University of Exeter · that illustrate what digital scholarship means in Exeter’s strategic contexts (Table 1) and what counts as a digitally literate

Literate Maruku

THE COURIER - Ashbury Senior Computer Community Center · 2019-12-15 · Regina Quarterman Leon Stevenson A Digitally Literate Person: Possesses the variety of skills – technical

Developing digitally literate staff and students within your organisation

Literate environments

Pre-Literate Class Curriculum - Minnesota Literacy Councilmnliteracy.org/sites/default/files/pre-literate_teaching... · Pre-Literate Class Curriculum Pre-Literate Beginners: Students

In association with The evolution of the sales representative · digitally-literate sales rep will continue to be particularly valuable for newly-launched products and those in a

Literate environment analysis1

Literate environment presentation

Bring every citizen, school, business and administration on-line - quickly create a digitally literate and entrepreneurial Europe ensure an inclusive information

Literate Environment