the distribution of protected areas in relation to the needs ......morges, switzerland, 1975 the...

The Distribution of Protected Areasin Relation to the Needs

of Biotic Community Conservationin Eastern Africa

A Paper presented at the Regional Meeting onCoordinated System of National Parks and Reserves in Eastern Africa

Seronera Lodge, Serengeti National Park, Tanzania14-19 October 1974

by

Hugh F. LampreyIUCN Consultant

IUCN Occasional Paper No. 16

International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural ResourcesMorges, Switzerland, 1975

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PROTECTED AREAS

IN RELATION TO THE NEEDS OF BIOTIC COMMUNITY CONSERVATION

IN EASTERN AFRICA

A Paper presented at the Regional Meeting onCoordinated System of National Parks and Reserves in Eastern Africa

Seronera Lodge, Serengeti National Park, Tanzania14-19 October 1974

by

Hugh F. LampreyIUCN Consultant

IUCN Occasional Paper No. 16

International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

Morges, Switzerland, 1975

FOREWORD

IUCN has launched a programme aimed at ensuring that representativesamples of the various types of natural biomes and ecosystems areconserved in a coordinated system of national parks and relatedprotected areas. Such action was called for in Recommendation 1 ofthe Second World Conference on National Parks (Grand Teton NationalPark, U.S.A., September 1972).

As part of this programme Dr. Hugh Lamprey, IUCN/WWF consultant,undertook a survey of areas in eastern Africa within the frameworkof UNEP Project No. 0603-73-001. The results of his work are setdown in the present paper. The survey was carried out during mostof 1974 and covered nine countries: Botswana, Ethiopia, Kenya,Malawi, Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia.

The report on the survey and related recommendations for action wereconsidered by the Regional Meeting on Coordinated System of NationalParks and Reserves in Eastern Africa held at Seronera Lodge,Serengeti National Park, Tanzania, 14-19 October 1974. The versionpresented here incorporates suggestions made at that meeting. Whilstit will be included in the Proceedings of the Seronera meeting whichwill appear in the IUCN Supplementary Paper series, the report isbeing issued separately as IUCN Occasional Paper No. 16 because ofits broad interest as a source document.

Grateful acknowledgement is made to the Fund of UNEP and to WWF forfinancial support of Dr. Lamprey's work.

3

CONTENTS

FOREWORD

I. INTRODUCTION

II. CLASSIFICATION OF BIOTIC COMMUNITIES

III. THE PARKS AND RESERVES

IV. CONSERVATION OF BIOTIC COMMUNITIES IN EASTERN

AND CENTRAL AFRICA - CHECKLIST

V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Africa General

B. East Africa - regional

C. Central Africa - regional

D. Southern Africa - regional

E. Botswana

F. Ethiopia

G. Kenya

H. Malawi

I. Somalia

J. Sudan

K. Tanzania

L. Uganda

M. Zambia

N. General

3

7

7

9

12

48

54

55

56

56

57

58

59

59

60

61

63

64

65

66

5

Botswana . . .

Ethiopia

Kenya

Malawi

Somalia

Sudan

Tanzania

Uganda . . .

Zambia

69

71

73

75

77

79

81

83

85

MAPS

I. INTRODUCTION

This paper aims to review the extent to which the biomes and theirimportant biotic communities in nine eastern and central Africancountries are protected by their inclusion in national parks and gameand forest reserves. It consists largely of tabulated andabbreviated information and it enumerates the countries and their parksand reserves in which the different communities are represented.Short notes provide additional information on the special importanceof the conservation areas and on their security. In cases where aconspicuous community is not represented or is inadequately representedin a protected area, this is indicated.

Maps of the vegetation of each country are combined with maps showingthe distribution of parks and reserves. Owing to the small scale usedthis can give only an approximate representation of the inclusion ofthe major communities within the protected areas. Similarly, theprotection of natural ecosystems in an African region can only bereviewed superficially in a paper of this length. Nevertheless it ishoped that the most important gaps in the conservation coverage of theregion can be identified. Above all there is a need to draw attentionto biotic communities which are vulnerable to irreversible change andto possible extinction. Experience has shown that progressiveecological changes are usually degrading and lead to a reduction inspecies diversity or biological productivity or both. Such changesshould not be confused with successional processes which are cyclicalor with the relatively rare instances of recovery towards more diverseand productive associations.

The objectives of biological conservation have been discussed else-where (e.g. Lamprey 1972) and the subject will not be pursued inthis paper. It is assumed that the maintenance of the highestpossible degree of endemic diversity is the main objective and thispaper reviews the extent to which this is achieved by the existingsystem of parks and reserves. The conservation of biomes andecosystems in as natural a state as possible has become recognized asa virtual imperative and is incorporated in the O.A.U. AfricanConvention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.

II. CLASSIFICATION OF BIOTIC COMMUNITIES

A review of the state of conservation of the biotic communities ofa region necessitates the adoption of a practical scheme of classifi-cation. As yet none exists which portrays adequately the full rangeof diversity of ecosystems, and the construction of a comprehensivescheme presents almost insuperable difficulties. For practicalpurposes our classification has to be based on major vegetation typescharacterized by a combination of physiognomic and floristic features(mainly dominant tree and shrub species and genera), However it isimportant to recognize the limitations of this system as a means ofidentifying all biotic communities.

7

8

The information available on which to base an assessment of theprotection of existing communities is inadequate and unevenlydistributed. There are floristic lists, descriptions and maps formost countries or regions, based mainly on the woody plants. In thedescriptions and maps the authors have tended to use. their own class-ification and terminology. Nevertheless, present knowledge onvegetation has been used to construct a vegetation map of Africa(AETFAT: Keay 1958) on a scale of 1:10,000,000, in which most (butnot all) of these individual approaches have been reconciled. Asecond map of African vegetation on a larger scale (AETFAT: White 1974)is in press. These maps can only show the distribution of the largerblocks of vegetation with a relatively low degree of resolution butmuch of their merit lies in the largely successful attempt at aunified classification across the African continent.

There are excellent works on the birds and mammals of several countriesand regions and more locally on the reptiles and amphibians. A smallnumber of ecological surveys of varying degrees of detail have beencarried out, incorporating integrated accounts of plant and animalcommunities but for the most part biogeographical information tends tobe sharply divided into the botanical and the zoological. It is onlyin recent years that the ecosystem approach has prevailed with its aimof describing the whole range of organisms and their functional relation-ships with each other and their environment. Information oninvertebrate fauna and micro-organisms is particularly sparse.

Our ability to identify biotic communities is limited by the extentand detail of the ecological exploration of the area concerned.Although we can recognize and define the broader categories of bioticcommunity on the basis of a relatively small number of conspicuousplants and animals, at a higher level of resolution we will probablyfail to identify numerous small and local ecosystems.

A related problem is the recognition and documentation of variationin the botanical composition within biomes and also in the relativedominance of the component species, particularly in those biomes whichhave wide geographical ranges. Such variation may be due to topography,soil, drainage, local climate, fire distribution and frequency, or thedirect and indirect effects of man. There will also be geneticvariation within species across the geographic range of an extensivebiome. The process of evolutionary divergence resulting frompartial or total genetic isolation may lead to speciation, particularlywhere a biome is represented by several island ecosystems as in thecase of the montane and Afro-alpine communities of eastern Africa.Each community tends to possess its own complement of endemic speciesand races as well as many that are common to other areas or to thebiome as a whole. The mountain massifs of eastern Africa areparticularly good examples of localized endemism in plants and animals.

The conclusion that must be drawn from our knowledge of the ecologicaland genetic variation within biomes is that no two sample areas areexactly alike. The implications this has for the selection of areasfor the protection of biotic communities, are discussed below.

The system of classification of biomes and their sub-types used inthis review is based as closely as possible on that of IUCN (1973) butwith modifications which are intended to adapt it to the vegetation of

Africa and to the terminology usually applied to it. Some difficultyhas been experienced in fitting certain localized biomes into theclassification system and there is the inevitable uncertainty aboutequating a vegetation zone with its ecological equivalent in the otherhemisphere. However, provided that the system is applied with thefull knowledge of its limitations, it can serve the purpose of identifyingthe main biomes and communities and in plotting their distributions.

III. THE PARKS AND RESERVES

In the past, the survival of indigenous ecosystems has most commonlyoccurred in areas which have remained undeveloped through historicalaccident or owing to the existence of serious obstacles to development.Many such areas have been included in national parks and reserves butmost commonly in those cases where the community has included spect-acular wildlife or scenery. The possibility of exploitation fortourism has been a strong incentive for the maintenance of many naturaland near-natural areas. On the other hand some national parks andreserves have been specifically established for the protection ofindividual species or communities of special interest.

Thus, while some biotic communities have been given protectionfortuitously and others by design, as yet there has been no deliberateaction or policy to ensure the survival of all known habitats. Theneed to initiate such a policy is very urgent. Some ecosystems remaintotally unprotected. The only regular breeding habitats of the lesserflamingo, Lake Natron and Central Island in Lake Rudolf, have noconservation status. The estuarine and littoral habitat of the dugongis unprotected and dugongs apparently do not normally occur in thesmall marine parks and reserves in Kenya. None of the breeding beachesof marine turtles is protected.

Some ecosystems have been depleted to the point of extinction byfelling or by ecological degradation due to excessive grazing and/orburning. The coastal rain forests of eastern Africa are an example.Although the greatest general hazard to biotic communities is theinsidious destruction of vegetation and consequently of wildlifehabitat as well, over very large areas the habitat has survived butsome wildlife populations have been greatly reduced or even exterminatedby excessive hunting. The roan antelope and the greater kudu havebecome localized and rare in northern Tanzania and southern Kenya throughhunting.

The first step in achieving the protection of a biotic community isin most cases the declaration of a legally established national parkor reserve which will protect it against human interference. Theinclusion of a habitat in a designated conservation area will clearlynot guarantee its actual protection if conservation measures are notenforced. The failure of law enforcement is regrettably the cause ofvery great hazard to some habitats in eastern Africa. Even in themost rigorously managed parks and reserves, poaching, felling and actualencroachment remain serious problems.

9

10

The urgent need to declare new protected areas, even in extensivehabitats that still appear relatively unaffected by human influence,is indicated by the accelerating incursion which is taking place intoformerly uninhabited and unfrequented areas. The increasing needsand incentives of expanding human populations in search of meat,timber, fuel and agricultural land will inevitably result in the re-duction or degradation of existing natural habitats. The activitiesof charcoal burners in all types of woodland in eastern Africa arecausing the destruction of vegetation and animal habitat oversignificant areas.

While essential resources and land for cultivation must be madeavailable, there is the urgent necessity to ensure that viableexamples of all communities remain protected. At present noeffective mechanism appears to exist to ensure that individualbiomes and ecosystems are not seriously depleted or even totallydestroyed. This situation may be partly due to the absence ofeffective land-use planning at the national level or to the failureto implement planning. Frequently, however, the requirements ofbiological conservation have been omitted from national policy orhave been given little or no priority. The implementation of policieswhich fulfil the aims of the O.A.U. Convention on the Conservation ofNature and Natural Resources calls for the acceptance of the conceptof biotic community conservation by governments, far sighted anddetailed land-use planning based on ecological knowledge and also onpublic education. The basic principle that no biotic communityshould be threatened with extinction, serious depletion ordegradation, remains to be given active support.

The existence of a legally established park or reserve does not ensurethe survival of the habitats it contains. It is the policy of someForest Departments to harvest valuable timber trees from allaccessible forests. Only in a few instances have forest naturereserves for the conservation of natural flora and fauna beenestablished and these have tended to be very small. The notableexception is the large S.W. Mau montane forest nature reserve inKenya. In some forest areas nature reserves have been discontinued.In a paper presented to the 19th meeting of the Specialist Committeeon Forest Research of the East African Community in 1971, Dr. W.G. Dysonmade a strong recommendation to the Chief Conservators of Forests foradditional measures to preserve forest types and particular treespecies. His recommendations have not been implemented and the threatto the survival of many tree communities in East Africa has increasedsince 1971.

In some instances the existence of a national park has been apparentlydetrimental to the ecosystems it contains. The protection of elephantpopulations in East Africa within several large national parks hasresulted in the virtual removal of large areas of the indigenouswoodlands and thickets, to the disadvantage of other wildlife speciesand to the elephants themselves. This situation has presented a verydifficult management problem and it is hoped that time will restorewhat may possibly be a temporary imbalance between elephant populationsand their habitats.

11

With the possible exceptions mentioned above the long term conservationof indigenous biotic communities will depend mainly on the protectionthey receive from their inclusion in national parks and reserves.Appropriate management rather than passive protection will undoubtedlybe necessary to maintain many communities, but their inclusion in apark or reserve can provide the controlled conditions under which suchmanagement can be undertaken. There is considerable threat to themaintenance of some national park ecosystems from gross ecologicaldisturbance originating outside the parks themselves. An example isthe change in the flood regime of the Kafue flood-plain in Zambia whichwill result from the construction of the Kafue dam downstream.

12

REMARKS; CONSERVATION STATUS

Secure

Secure

Secure

Endemic afro-alpine flora.

Secure

Endemic afro-alpine flora.

Secure

Other areas of afro-alpine

flora unprotected.

Secure. Endemic flora




Forest threatened by deforesta-

tion by agriculturalists.

Mountain nyala habitat.

Forest virtually eliminated.

Status uncertain.

AREA,

PARK OR RESERVE

Mt. Kenya N.P.

Mt. Kilimanjaro N.P.

Ruwenzori F.R.

Simien N.P.

Bale Mt. F.R.

Mt. Kenya N.P.

Mt. Elgon N.P.

Mt. Kilimanjaro N.P.

Ruwenzori F.R.

Bale Mt. G.R.

(proposed N.P.)

Simien N.P.

Nafka G.R.

COUNTRY

Kenya

Tanzania

Uganda

Ethiopia

Kenya

Tanzania

Uganda

Ethiopia

SUB-TYPE

(a) alpine tundra

(b) heath and

moorland

(including

peat bogs)

(a) rain forest

BIOME

1. Afro-alpine

2. Montane

IV. CONSERVATION OF BIOTIC COMMUNITIES IN EASTERN AND CENTRAL AFRICA - CHECKLIST

13

Status uncertain.

Forest extensive. Secure.

Small segment of mountain.

Secure

Large forest area partially

protected by forest reserve.

The nature reserve is the

largest area of fully pro-

tected montane forest in

eastern Africa.

Forests severely reduced by

agriculturalists.

The montane forest areas are

managed for timber production

except where inaccessible.

They have been partly replaced

by exotic conifers and eucalypts.

Much agricultural encroachment

has occurred in natural forest.

Full protection through nature

reserves in several areas is

recommended.

Relict patches of forest.

Secure if present fire control

is maintained.

Forest and Brachystegia woodland/

fire climax grassland nearly

replaced by introduced conifers,

but intact in gullies.

Harrar Wildlife

Sanctuary

Mt. Kenya F.R. & N.P.

Mt. Elgon F.R. & N.P.

Aberdare F.R. & N.P.

Western Mau F.R.

(incl. S.W. Mau

Nature Reserve)

Eastern Mau and

Chepalungu F.R.

The montane areas

of Kenya have 25

forest reserves

with total area

of approx. 10,000

km2 .

Nyika Plateau N.P.

South Vipya F.R.

Kenya

Malawi

14


Forest secure. Illegal timber

exploitation. Fire control

essential to maintain remaining

forest. Some rain forest

outside reserve (see 2(d)).

Small areas of forest survive.

Secure. Ridge top only.

Some relict forest patches

remain.

Status uncertain. Forest intact.

Status uncertain.

Status uncertain.

Two small segments of forest

along access roads included

in park.

Forest greatly reduced on west

of mountain for conifer planting.

Locally settled and heavily

poached. Little wildlife

survives.

Includes Mt. Meru Crater and

Ngurdoto Crater. Black rhino

population seriously depleted

by poaching. Otherwise secure.

AREA,

PARK OR RESERVE

Mt. Mlanje F.R.

Zomba Plateau F.R.

Dedza Mt. F.R.

Mangochi F.R.

Imatong Mt. F.R.

Jebel Marra F.R.

Illingus Mts. F.R.

Kilimanjaro N.P.

Kilimanjaro F.R.

Kilimanjaro G.R.

Arusha N.P.

COUNTRY

Malawi

(continued)

Sudan

Tanzania

SUB-TYPE

(a) rain forest

(continued)

BIOME

2. Montane

(continued)

Forest severely opened by fire

and grazing. Doubtfully secure.

Montane rain forest within 150 km

of sea and below 1500m. Forest

has a high proportion of endemic

plants and animals. Many small

reserves, vulnerable to disturb-

ance. Threatened by felling

for agriculture.

Small reserves, exploited for

timber.

Very small forest areas. Habitat

of red colobus subspecies.

Small forest area (sub-montane).

Only habitat of another red

colobus subspecies.

Ngorongoro Conser-

vation Area

Coastal mountain

Forest Reserves:

N. & S. Pare Mts.

Usambara Mts.

Nguru Mts.

Uluguru Mts.

Nguu Hills

West Kilombero

Rubeho Mt. & Southern

Highland F.R.

Mbizi Mts. F.R.

(Lake Rukwa area)

Uzungwa Mts. F.R.

n.b. Montane and sub-montane Forest Reserve in Tanzania greatly

fragmented; it is particularly vulnerable to poaching and en-

croachment, its conservation security doubtful.

Secure. Very important faunal

and floral area.

Large areas replaced by conifers.

South-west Uganda; habitats of

relict mountain gorilla popula-

tion. Status uncertain.

Uganda

Ruwenzori Mts. F.R.

Mt. Elgon F.R.

Kayonza F.R.

Impenetrable F.R.

Kikeno F.R.

15


Protected montane areas in

north-east Uganda. Secure.

Protected montane areas in

east Uganda. Secure.

Relict forest patches. Con-

tiguous with Malawi Nyika.

Secure if fire controlled.

The Ethiopian Highlands are

predominantly of this type.

The Kenya Highlands consist

partly of montane grassland,

probably derived from forest.

Widely distributed in protected

and unprotected montane and sub-

montane areas. Derived from

forest through fire. Nyika

Plateau extends into Zambia.

Status uncertain

Secondary montane grassland

present in the five montane

areas.

AREA,

PARK OR RESERVE

Kidepo N.P.; Zulia,

Morongole & Timu

Forest Reserves

Moroto, Napak &

Kadam Forest Reserves

Nyika N.P.

Simien N.P.

Bale Mt. G.R.

Aberdare N.P.

Nyika N.P.

S. Vipya Plateau

Mt. Mlanje

Gulf of Aden Mts.

(Ard Miri & Al Mado)

Jebel Marra F.R.

Imatong Mts. F.R.

Jebel Hamoyet

Jebel Obkeik

Illingus Mts. F.R.

COUNTRY

Uganda

(continued)

Zambia

Ethiopia

Kenya

Malawi

Somalia

Sudan

SUB-TYPE

(a) rain forest

(continued)

(b) grassland

BIOME

2. Montane

(continued)

16


and unprotected montane areas.


and unprotected montane areas.

Small areas of montane grassland.

Grassland widely distributed in

protected and unprotected

montane areas. Larger part of

Nyika Plateau is in Malawi.

Extensive. Secure.

Extensive. Secure.

Extensive. Secure.

Small area. Secure.

Secure.

Small areas protected.

Extensive. Secure

Local. Probably secure.

Ngorongoro, Southern

Highlands, Mahari Mts.,

Mpanda Highlands

Livingstone Mts.,

Rubeho Mts., Elton

Plateau, Loliondo

Hills

Kidepo N.P., Zulia,

Morongole, Timu,

Moroto, Napak &

Kadam Forest Reserves

Nyika N.P.

Mt. Kenya F.R. & N.P.

Aberdare F.R.

Ngorongoro Conser-

vation Area

Mt. Meru F.R.

Kilombero Scarp F.R.

Livingstone Mts. F.R.

Ruwenzori F.R.

South Vipya

Plateau F.R.

Tanzania

Uganda

Zambia

Kenya

Tanzania

Uganda

Malawi

(c) bamboo forest

(Arundinaria)

bamboo

(Oreobambos)

17


Relict patches occur here and

elsewhere in Ethiopian Highlands.

Present in small stands through-

out montane area.

Central core of volcano covered

by closed forest of Juniperus.

Secure. Forms small closed

forests.

Secure. Small patches of forest

(5,000 - 7,000 ft.). Also forms

heathland of dwarf trees above

7,000 ft.

Status uncertain. Small relict

stands present.

Scattered forest patches, on all

montane areas. Status uncertain.

Closed forest in Meru Crater.

Secure.

Small scattered stands.

AREA,

PARK OR RESERVE

Simien Mt. N.P.

(Juniperus)

Mt. Kenya & Aberdare

N.P.s and F.R.s

Suswa Volcano

(unprotected)

Nyika Plateau N.P.

(Juniperus)

Mlanje Mt. F.R.

(Widdringtonia)

Mlanje Mt. F.R.

Gulf of Aden Mts.

(Ard Miri & Al Mado)

(Juniperus)

Gaan Libah N.P. & G.R.

Juniperus: recorded

only in one area of

Red Sea Hills (un-

protected)

Arusha N.P.

(Mt. Meru Crater)

Ngorongoro Conser-

vation Area

COUNTRY

Ethiopia

Kenya

Malawi

Somalia

Sudan

Tanzania

SUB-TYPE

(d) African cedar

(Juniperus and

Widdringtonia)

BIOME

2 Montane

(continued)

18

.

Closed forest. Secure.

Present in small stands

throughout montane area of

Tanzania.

Present as small stands and

individual trees throughout

montane area.

Most easterly forest of Congo &

W. African type. Being seriously

reduced by felling for agriculture.

Similar to Kakamega F.R. Being

felled for illegal settlement

and for replacement by conifers

for new pulp mill.

Relict groundwater forest.

Secure if not altered by dense

elephant population.

Intermediate between medium level

and montane forest. Small areas

threatened by deforestation.

Merges with Kagera R. swamp

forest, Lake Victoria. Conserva-

tion status uncertain.

Mt. Meru F.R.

(Juniperus)

Mt. Elgon F.R.

Ruwenzori F.R.

Kidepo N.P.

Montane F.R.s in

E. and N.E. Uganda

Kakamega & South

Nandi Forest Reserves

N. Nandi F.R.

Lake Manyara N.P.

Nguu and Nguru

Forest Reserves

Minziro F.R.

Uganda

Kenya

Tanzania

3. Humid forest

(a) medium level

19


All subject to encroachment by

by agriculturalists, except

Rubondo I. which is also a

Game Reserve.

Congo Forest type. Habitat of 11

primate spp. Security uncertain;

being settled by agriculturalists.

Small nature reserve (inadequate).

Exploited for timber.

Exploited for timber extraction.

Small nature reserve maintained

in forest.

"Only well preserved reasonably

extensive example in Malawi"...

"Elsewhere, below 1370 m. tiny

relict patches ... occur"

(Chapman and White, 1970).

Remnant patch of lowland rain

forest present. Being exploited

for timber and felled for agri-

culture.

AREA,

PARK OR RESERVE

Lake Victoria Island

Forest Reserves:

Kome, Maisome and

Rubondo Islands

Kibale F.R. & G.R.

Budongo F.R.

Matandwe F.R.

Arabuko-Sokoke

Forest Reserve

COUNTRY

Tanzania

(continued)

Uganda

Malawi

Kenya

SUB-TYPE

(a) medium level

(continued)

(b) low level

BIOME

3. Humid forest

(continued)

20

"the rain forest association is

being continually depleted on

coastal lands by the combination

of fire, logging and cultivation,

but at present relatively intact

stands must cover nearly 100

square miles" (Moomaw, 1960).

In 1974, further depleted.

The "Nature Reserve" does not

protect any rain forest area.

Full protection needed immediately

to prevent extinction.

Very small remnants of coastal

rain forest survive but difficult

to identify among the dry forest

and forest-woodland intermediate

types.

Small areas. Not protected.

Includes oil and raphia palms.

"Rare in Malawi" (Chapman and

White).

Local in swamp areas. Conser-

vation status uncertain.

Small area.

Lake Victoria shore.

Raphia palm swamp forest.

Unprotected. Possibly vulnerable

to excessive felling.

Mida-Gedi N.R.

Witu F.R.

Shimba Hills N.R.

(Above areas in-

adequately protected;

"Nature Reserve"

indicated in

Arabuko-Sokoke but

not gazetted.)

Vicinity of Lake

Victoria

Nkota Kota G.R.

Kagera River G.R.

Nyamirembe G.R.

Mto wa Mbu

Tanzania

Kenya

Malawi

Sudan

Tanzania

(c) Swamp forest

21


N. of Lake George. Secure.

Swamp forests of lake creeks

near Lake Victoria. Probably

secure.

"Swamp forest occurs throughout

the high-rainfall belt from

Mwinilunga, Kabompo and Balovale

in the N.W. to Mbala and Isoka

in the N.E. and SW to Mpika,

Serenje, Mkushi and Kabwe

Districts" (Fanshawe 1969).

Small areas along Tana and Tsavo

Rivers. Secure.

Unprotected.

Only habitat of

the Tana R. mangabey and colobus.

Protection urgently needed.

Forest patches small. Subject to

clearing for agriculture.

"Widespread along the banks of

rivers and lakes" (Chapman and

White, 1970).

Widespread along rivers in S.

Sudan.

AREA,

PARK OR RESERVE

Ruwenzori N.P.

Forest Reserves of

the area between

Kampala and L. Wamala.

North Luangwa N.P.

Kafue N.P.

Tsavo N.P.

Tana River Forest

Nkota Kota G.R.

Bodigeru G.R.

Nimule N.P.

Kidepo N.P. (proposed)

Southern N.P.

COUNTRY

Uganda

Zambia

Kenya

Malawi

Sudan

SUB-TYPE

(c) swamp forest

(continued)

(d) riverine and

groundwater

forest

BIOME

3. Humid forest

(continued)

22

Streams entering L. Tanganyika.

Orangi, Grumeti & Balangeti Rivers.

Groundwater forest at base of scarp.

Riverine forest local.

This type occurs along most rivers

in south and west Tanzania.

Ishasha River. Extensive along

rivers in Uganda; relict patches

on Nile in Kabalega N.P.

Common along streams in north-

western Zambia; also occurs in

north-east.

Secure.

Classified also under type 7.

Extensive

Small areas flanking rivers and on

hilltops. Vulnerable to fire and

cutting by pastoralists.

Small area in north-west of Park.

On lower slopes of Rift scarp;

contiguous with montane forest.

Secure.

Gombe Stream N.P.

Serengeti N.P.

Lake Manyara N.P.

Selous G.R.

Ruwenzori N.P.

Liuwa Plain N.P.

South Luangwa and

North Luangwa N.P.s

Chobe N.P.

Harrar Wildlife

Sanctuary

Masai Mara Reserve

Nairobi N.P.

Lari F.R.

Tanzania

Uganda

Zambia

Botswana

Ethiopia

Kenya

(a) medium level

4. Dry

evergreen

forest

23


Dry forest on recent lava flows.

Secure.

Small areas flanking Mara River

and on hilltops in north of Park.

Vulnerable to fire and elephants.

AREA,

PARK OR RESERVE

Kibwezi F.R. and

Tsavo West N.P.

Serengeti N.P.

COUNTRY

Kenya

(continued)

Tanzania

SUB-TYPE

(a) medium level

(continued)

BIOME

4. Dry

evergreen

forest

(continued)

n.b. Other small areas of dry forest might perhaps be included in

category 6 below. But they probably represent remnants from

formerly extensive dry forest areas.

Numerous small relict areas

within category 6 could be

included here.

Currently being felled for agri-

culture and logging. Important

component, Brachylaena, nearly

eliminated. Manilkara and

Afzelia greatly reduced. This

forest type is the only known

habitat of the owl Otus irene

and one of very few habitats

of Clark's weaver and the

Sokoke pipit.

Manilkara-Diospyros association.

"This forest has been all but

destroyed in the south and is

rapidly disappearing in the

north as well. Fire and

cultivation ... are chiefly

responsible". (Moomaw, 1960).

Arabuko-Sokoke F.R.

(includes small

ungazetted nature

reserve)

Boni Forest.

Unprotected

Uganda

Kenya

Kenya

(b) low level

(b) low level

(coastal)

24

Relict patches survive but are on

the point of extinction. The sub-

type needs immediate protection.

Relict patches of dry evergreen

forest exist on coast near Kenya

border (unprotected) as well as

within the Mkomazi G.R.

Brachylaena dry forest

protected in small stands.

Secure.

Secure.

Secure.

Unprotected. Subject to continuous

reduction for agriculture. Total

protection needed.

Secure. Very similar to typical

Itigi type of Tanzania.

Major wildlife habitat. Threatened

by increasing settlement in the

Park.

Sub-type extensive W. Uganda.

Wildlife generally scarce.

Coastal strip.

Unprotected

Mkomazi G.R.

Tanga Region

Forest Reserves

Chobe N.P.

Sioma Ngwezi N.P.

Liuwa Plain N.P.

The Itigi thicket

Sumbu N.P.

Ruwenzori N.P.

Several small forest

reserves

Tanzania

Botswana

Zambia

Tanzania

Zambia

Uganda

(a) Baikiaea

forest

(b) Itigi type

thicket/

forest

(a) medium level

5. Dry deciduous

forest

6. Forest savanna

mosaic; savanna

derived from

forest, incl.

thicket clump

savanna

25


Now being felled for softwood

planting.

Small areas on edge of

Moyowosi flood plain.

Termed transition woodland by

Chapman and White, 1970. Secure.

Secure.

Termed "Lake basin chipya" by

Fanshawe, 1969. Extensive.

Ditto. Also occurs as small

isolated stands throughout

Northern Province.

Status uncertain.

Unprotected. Extensive type along

Kenya coast. Main association:

Afzelia-Albizia. Hyphaene palms

numerous.

The greater part of the coastal

vegetation of Tanzania and of the

islands of Pemba, Zanzibar and

Mafia is referable to this type.

Habitat of Zanzibar colobus and

duiker.

AREA,

PARK OR RESERVE

Buhindi F.R.

(S. shore of L.

Victoria).

Unprotected

Mt. Mlanje F.R.

Vipya Plateau F.R.

Lake Bangweulu

Lake Mweru

Kwale F.R.

Boni Forest

Several small forest

reserves on mainland

COUNTRY

Tanzania

Malawi

Zambia

Kenya

Tanzania

SUB-TYPE

(a) medium level

(continued)

(b) low level

(coastal)

BIOME

6. Forest/savanna

mosaic

(continued)

26

Extensive type along south coast.

Woodland areas small. Habitat of

endemic sable antelope population.

Habitat of rare and local Sokoke

pipit and Clark's weaver.

Threatened by deforestation.

Secure. Good example of miombo

flora and fauna.

Status uncertain.

Status uncertain.

Status uncertain.

Status uncertain.

The western third of the park.

Extensive. Habitat of typical

miombo fauna including sable

antelope. Important wildlife

habitat.

With forest elements and oil palm,

is the habitat of the eastern

chimpanzee and several other

primate spp. Secure, but small.

Important wildlife area.

Secure. Recently established from

former G.R.(see also biome type 10).

Shimba Hills N.R.

Arabuko-Sokoke F.R.

Kasungu N.P.

Southern N.P.

Ashana G.R.

Numatina G.R.

Mt. Barizunga G.R.

Ruaha N.P.

Gombe Stream N.P.

Katavi N.P.

Somalia

Kenya

Malawi

Sudan

Tanzania

(a) Brachystegia

and/or

Isoberlinia

woodlands

(Miombo)

7. Broad-leaved

relatively

moist woodlands

and savannas

27


Southern portion of Park. Secure.

Very extensive in south of Reserve.

Important wildlife area. Largest

protected miombo area.

Secure. Large. Important wildlife

area.

Secure. Large.

Forest reserve covers the greater

part of the Brachystegia woodlands

of western Tanzania. This type

is exploited for the timber of

Pterocarpus and for beeswax and

honey.

Otherwise remains intact.

Large areas of the Brachystegia

woodland of southern Tanzania are

also protected in Forest Reserves.

This reserve protects the largest

known area of Brachystegia micro-

phylla (Upland Miombo). Not

exploited.

Secure. The western parts of both

parks consist of miombo woodland.

Secure. Extensive.

Includes small miombo area.

AREA,

PARK OR RESERVE

Mikumi N.P.

Selous G.R.

Ugalla G.R.

Rungwa G.R.

Forest Reserves:

Western and southern

Tanzania

Salanka F.R.

(Kondoa area)

South Luangwa and

North Luangwa N.P.s

Kafue N.P.

Sumbu N.P.

COUNTRY

Tanzania

(continued)

Zambia

SUB-TYPE

(a) Miombo

(continued)

BIOME

7. Broad-leaved

relatively moist

woodland/savanna

(continued)

28

Type extensive from Meru to

Machakos areas, but much felled

for cultivation and charcoal

burning.

Roan antelope habitat.

Secure but very small.

Small area in north-west of Park;

extension of larger area near

Musoma, L. Victoria shore. Secure.

Small isolated area. Secure.

Seven small Forest

Reserves in the

Machakos area

Lambwe Valley G.R.

Serengeti N.P.

Tarangire N.P.

Kenya

Tanzania

(b) Combretum

woodland/

savanna

n.b. This type forms ecotone between miombo and grassland in many

areas in W. Tanzania.

Secure, but tree density greatly

reduced by elephants.

Small area in Park. Secure.

Very extensive type in N.W.

Uganda. Secure.

Extensive type in N. Uganda and

S. Sudan. Unprotected. No

immediate conservation problem.

Remnant in north of Park. Might

survive or increase if protected

from fire.

Kabalega N.P.

Kidepo N.P.

Several small Forest

Reserves

Serengeti N.P.

Uganda

Uganda)

Sudan )

Tanzania

(c) Butyrosper-

mum savanna

(d) Terminalia

woodlands

29

)


Tree density much reduced by

elephants and fire.

Tree density much reduced by

elephants and fire.

Hyphaene occurs in woodlands

fringing the pans in the north and

west of reserve (see biomes 11 & 12).

Hyphaene palms present in small

stands near rivers. Also numerous

and locally dense in forest-savanna

mosaic on coast, on coral sands.

Borassus palm woodland local

near mouth of Tana River.

Both Hyphaene and Borassus are

listed by Burtt, Davy & Hoyle 1958.

Conservation status probably secure.

Hyphaene stands present in coastal

forest-savanna mosaic, in south.

Large stands of Borassus.

Borassus and Hyphaene widespread

and common in S. Sudan.

Borassus woodland in river

valley. Secure.

AREA,

PARK OR RESERVE

Kabalega N.P.

Two small Forest

Reserves in same area

Makgadikgadi G.R.

Tsavo N.P.

Tana River

Bubasci G.R.

Kidepo N.P.

(proposed)

Tarangire N.P.

COUNTRY

Uganda

Botswana

Kenya

Malawi

Somalia

Sudan

Tanzania

SUB-TYPE

(d) Terminalia

woodlands

(continued)

(e) Palm

woodlands

(Hyphaene and

Borassus)

BIOME

7. Broad-leaved

relatively moist

wood1and/savanna

(continued)

30

Borassus woodland along lower

Mbalageti River. Secure.

Hyphaene woodlands on Mkata

Plain.

Hyphaene stands. Secure.

Borassus stands. Secure.

Large stands of Borassus along

Kidepo River. Secure.

Present in the "Borassus palm

belt" in Lango District.

Hyphaene stands locally frequent.

This type occurs in south of

Park; extensive in north and

east Botswana.

Type extensive. Some areas

severely checked by elephants

but generally secure.

Type occurs in south and

north-east of Park. Secure.

Small area. Secure.

Serengeti N.P.

Mikumi N.P.

Lake Manyara N.P.

Ugalla River G.R. &

Katavi N.P.

Kidepo N.P.

South Luangwa N.P. &

Kafue N.P.

Chobe N.P.

South Luangwa N.P.

and North Luangwa N.P.

Kafue N.P.

Lochinvar N.P.

Uganda

Zambia

Botswana

Zambia

(a) Mopane

(Colophospermum

mopane)

8. Broad-leaved

relatively

dry woodlands

and savannas

31


Conservation status of both

reserves uncertain. Type

extensive in W. Ethiopia;

climatic ecotone between

montane and Acacia savanna.

Secure.

Status uncertain. Habitat

of white rhino.

Status uncertain.

This type is the climatic ecotone

between Sahelian Acacia savanna

and the Sudan Zone Isoberlinia

woodlands.

Secure. This type represents

the wide zone of climatic fluc-

tuation between the Brachystegia

woodlands and Acacia woodlands.

Secure.

Extensive. Secure.

Extensive. Secure.

Dry bamboo (Oxytenanthera)

present in large thickets within

the moist savanna.

Probably secure.

AREA,

PARK OR RESERVE

Chire G.R. and

Gash-Setit G.R.

Dinder N.P.

Nimule N.P.

Shambe G.R.

Nxai Pan N.P.

Katavi N.P.

Selous G.R.

Matandu F.R.

Mago Wildlife

Reserve

Omo N.P. (proposed)

COUNTRY

Ethiopia

Sudan

Sudan

Botswana

Tanzania

Ethiopia

SUB-TYPE

(b) Ethiopian

climate

ecotone

dry savanna

(c) Sudan/Sahel

climate

ecotone

dry savanna

(d) Southern eco-

tone dry

savanna

(e) Dry bamboo

thicket

BIOME

8. Broad-leaved

relatively dry

woodland/savanna

(continued)

32

Oxytenanthera thickets in

Brachystegia woodland; near

1500 m. Widespread but local.

Oxytenanthera thickets occur

in Brachystegia woodland

between Mpanda and Lake

Tanganyika. Extensive.

Small stands exist in Katavi

N.P. & Nkamba F.R.

Very dense area of E. candelabra.

Secure.

Euphorbia nyikae and E. robechii.

Small stands and many scattered

trees in dry Acacia bush.

E. candelabra. Scattered in

rocky areas of Brachystegia.

E. candelabra. Small stands.

E. nyikae. Large stand on

Ngorongoro Crater wall.

Both types extensive in dry

woodland elsewhere.

E. candelabra. In stands and

as component in Capparis

thicket clump savanna. Secure.

Misuku and Kaseye

F.R.s

Katavi N.P. and

Nkamba F.R.

Nakuru N.P.

Tsavo N.P.

Kasungu N.P.

Serengeti N.P.

Ngorongoro Conser-

vation Area

Ruwenzori N.P.

Malawi

Tanzania

Kenya

Malawi

Tanzania

Uganda

Euphorbia

candelabra

Euphorbia

nyikae

Euphorbia

robechii

9. Euphorbia

33


This type probably not

threatened.

Local in alkaline pans

fringing Galana River.

Fringing vegetation of salt

pans and creeks on coast,

where it is unprotected.

Small stands on shore of

Lake Ndutu.

Fringing vegetation of Lake

Massek and present in upper

Olduvai Gorge.

Fringing vegetation of coastal

salt pans, where is is unprotected.

Secure. Sub-types: a, b, n, u, v.



Secure. Sub-types a, n, u, v, with

Terminalia sericia and Grewia spp.

See also under grasslands (biome 12).

Acacia elements much reduced and

locally eliminated by elephants.

Sub-types: a, b, l, g, n.

AREA,

PARK OR RESERVE

Rift Valley Lakes

N.P. (proposed)

Tsavo N.P.

Kenya coast

Serengeti N.P.

Ngorongoro Conser-

vation Area

Tanzania coast

Gemsbok N.P.

Central Kalahari G.R.

Khutse G.R.

Makgadikgadi G.R.

Tsavo N.P.

COUNTRY

Ethiopia

Kenya

Tanzania

Botswana

Kenya

SUB-TYPE

(a) Acacia-Commiphora

woodland/bush

(b) A. tortilis woodland

(c) A. senegal/A. hockii

woodland

(d) A. xanthophloeia

woodland

(e) A. seyal flood-

plain woodland

(f) A. drepanolobium

(g) A. reficiens

(h) A. sieberiana

(i) A. albida

BIOME

10. Saltbush

thicket

(Suaeda)

11. Acacia

dominated

dry wood-

lands and

savannas

34

Secure. Sub-types: b, f, d, m.

Probably secure. Sub-types: b, h.

Seriously over-grazed by live-

stock. Sub-types: a, b, d, f.

Secure. Sub-types: a, b.

Contiguous with Serengeti N.P.

in Tanzania. Secure. Sub-types:

a, b, c, d, e, f, m, n, o.

Status uncertain. Sub-types:

a, b.

Small area of type 8.


Recently gazetted; by-laws

awaited. Sub-types a, b, g

and 1 (in riverine woodland).




Status uncertain.

Status uncertain.

Nairobi N.P.

Amboseli N.P.

Masai Amboseli G.R.

Meru N.P.

Masai Mara G.R.

Marsabit N.R.

Maralal Game

Isiolo Buffalo

Springs G.R.

Kora and Rahole G.R.s

Awash N.P.

Awash West Wildlife

Reserve

Alledeghi W.R.

Gewane W.R.

Mille-Sardo Wild

Ass Reserve

Ethiopia

(j) A. lahai

(k) A. nubica

(l) A. elatior

(m) A. kirkii

(n) A. mellifera

(o) A. gerardii

(p) A. clavigera

(q) A. abyssinica

(r) A. stuhlmanni

(s) A. etbaica

(t) A. zanzibarica

(u) A. giraffae

(v) A. uncinata

35


Status uncertain.

Status uncertain.

Status uncertain.

Status uncertain.

Status uncertain.

Secure. Western part of Park;

sub-types: a, b.

Area selected for irrigated

sugarcane plantations.

Sub-types: a, b. Provides part

of the habitat of migratory pop-

ulations of eland, tiang and cob.

Extensive but conservation status

uncertain; adjoins Gambella W.R.

and Tedo Controlled Hunting Area

of Ethiopia.

Secure. Sub-types: a, b, c,

d, e, f, h, i, m, n, o, p, s.

Together with the edaphic grass-

lands of the Plains supports the

greatest ungulate populations in

Africa.

AREA,

PARK OR RESERVE

Yob W.R.

Mago W.R.

Stefanie W.R.

Gambella W.R.

Proposed National

Parks: Rift Valley

Lakes, Omo, Mago,

Nachisar and Danakil

Dinder N.P.

Bodigeru G.R.

Boma G.R.

Serengeti N.P.

COUNTRY

Ethiopia

(continued)

Sudan

Tanzania

BIOME

SUB-TYPE

11. Acacia dom-

See previous

inated dry

two pages

woodland/savanna

(continued)

36

37

Secure. Sub-types: a, b, d,

e, f, h, m, n, r, t.

Secure. Sub-types: a, b, d,

i, h, f.

Secure. Sub-types: d, q.

Secure. Sub-types: a, b, i

(eastern part of Park).

Secure. Sub-types: b, e, f.

Vulnerable to fire on highlands

(type j) and over-grazing in

low areas. Sub-types: a, b,

d, e, f, j, k.

Not secure; much illegal

settlement. Sub-types: a, b,

d, e, f.

Vulnerable to effects of fire

and overgrazing by livestock.

Sub-types: a, b, f, n, d, e.

Important wildlife area. Secure.

Sub-types: a, b.

Comparatively small part of the

conserved flood-plain grassland is

in Chobe N.P., the larger part in

Moremi G.R. Elsewhere the grass-

lands are vulnerable to overgrazing

by livestock. A greater area of

the Okavango Delta needs protection.

Tarangire N.P.

Lake Manyara N.P.

Arusha N.P.

Ruaha N.P.

Mikumi N.P.

Ngorongoro Conser-

vation Area

Maswa G.R.

Mkomazi G.R.

Kidepo N.P.

Chobe N.P. and

Moremi G.R.

Uganda

Botswana

(a) edaphic seasonal

flood plains.

Delta grasslands.

Lake shore grass-

lands .

12. Grasslands


Mainly halophytic, or degraded

halophytic, grasslands and halo-

phytic herbaceous semi-desert

(Blair-Rains and McKay, 1968).

The fringes of the pans (north and

west) consist of savanna (scattered

shrub and tree; shrub/tree and

dense shrub - see biome 11).

Small areas only (e.g. Uaso Nyiro

R. delta, north of Lake Natron).

Unprotected in Malawi.

Habitat of Nile lechwe. Status

uncertain.

Habitat of Nile lechwe. Status

uncertain.

Important wildlife habitat. Part

of Mkata R. flood plain lies in

the Park. Secure.

Important wildlife habitat.

Secure.

Major wildlife habitat. Western

corridor of Park. Secure, but

subject to poaching.

AREA,

PARK OR RESERVE

Makgadikgadi 6.R.

Unprotected

Zeraf G.R.

Fanyikang Is. G.R.

Mikumi N.P.

Katavi N.P.

Serengeti N.P.

COUNTRY

Botswana

(continued)

Kenya

Malawi

Sudan

Tanzania

SUB-TYPE

(a) flood plains,

delta and

lake shore

grasslands

(continued)

BIOME

12. Grasslands

(continued)

38

Alkaline lakeshore grasslands,

subject to long periods of

inundation as at present.

Subject to years of inundation

as at present, when wildlife

(mainly topi and puku)

populations are greatly reduced

by loss of habitat and poaching.

An important area, still

unprotected.

Important bird habitat including

the very large Hagana heronry (in

A. seyal stands). Unprotected.

Unprotected. Important wildlife

areas, subject to poaching.

Unprotected. Isolated population

of topi (Damaliscus)subject

to serious poaching.

Unprotected. Important wildlife

area. Habitat of puku (Kobus

vardoni) and abundant bird life.

Unprotected.

Abundant bird life.

Lake shore grasslands. Secure.

Lake Manyara N.P.

South-west shore of

Lake Rukwa

Wembere flood plain

Malagarasi and

Moyowosi flood plains

Buhoro Flats

Kilombero flood plain

Lake Opeta flood

plain

Ruwenzori N.P.

Uganda

39


Status uncertain. Important

wildlife area.

Unprotected.

Two small parks. Secure if

water levels are not altered

artificially by new dam.



Secure.

Secure. Black lechwe habitat.

Black lechwe habitat.

Secure. Red lechwe habitat.

Unprotected.

Important wildlife area adjacent

to Mara G.R. and Serengeti N.P.

(Tanzania). Unprotected.

Subject to overgrazing in past.


Secure.

AREA,

PARK OR RESERVE

Semliki River

Delta G.R.

Lake Wamala

grasslands

Kafue Flats:

Lochinvar and

Blue Lagoon N.P.s

Kafue N.P.

Isangano N.P. (Lake

Bangweulu)

Bangweulu N.P.

(proposed)

Liuwa Plain N.P.

Kedong Valley

Loita Plains

Amboseli N.P.

Serengeti Plains

COUNTRY

Uganda

(continued)

Zambia

Kenya

Tanzania

SUB-TYPE

(a) flood plains,

delta and

lake shore

grasslands

(continued)

(b) edaphic

alkaline

volcanic ash

grasslands

BIOME

12. Grasslands

(continued)

40

Major wildlife area. Part of

migratory range of very large

ungulate population.


Controlled hunting but subject

to serious poaching. Unprotected.

Grassland areas within the Acacia

savanna.

Important wildlife area. Secure.

Important wildlife areas. Con-

trolled hunting areas. Subject

to overgrazing by livestock.

Woodlands virtually eliminated

by fire and elephants.

Woodlands locally eliminated

by fire and elephants.

N.E. edge of the Okavango Delta

swamp (otherwise largely unprotected)

is in the Reserve, which will

shortly be extended to include

Chief's Island and intervening areas.

Small area. Secure.

Unprotected.

Unprotected.

Serengeti N.P. and

Ngorongoro Conser-

vation Area

N. Masai Steppe

Plains:

Ardai, Engaruka,

Shambarai, Sanya,

Ngaserai

Nairobi N.P.

Kenya Masai Steppe,

Athi and Kapiti

Plains; Kitengela,

Kipeto and Senya

Plains.

Kabalega N.P.

Kidepo N.P.

Moremi G.R.

Amboseli N.P.

Lorian Swamp

Lotikiri Swamp

Kenya

Uganda

Botswana

Kenya

(c) grasslands

derived from

forest and

woodland (mainly

fire-induced).

13. Swamp

41


Unprotected.

Includes part of Lake Malombe swanps.

Unprotected.

Unprotected.

Includes some marshland.

Status uncertain.

Status uncertain.

Unprotected.

Unprotected.

Unprotected.

Unprotected.

Unprotected.

Unprotected.

Unprotected.

Small swamp areas protected.

Secure. Habitat of black lechwe.

AREA,

PARK OR RESERVE

Lake Chilwa Swamps

Liwonde N.P.

Elephant Marsh (Shire R.)

Shire Swamps

Vwaza N.P. (Proposed)

Zeraf G.R.

Shambe G.R.

Wembere Swamp

Moyowosi Swamp

Malagarasi Swamp

Ugalla Swamp

Kilombero Swamp

Bahi Swamp

Kagera Swamp

Selous G.R.

Isangano N.P.

(Bangweulu Swamp)

COUNTRY

Malawi

Sudan

Tanzania

Zambia

BIOME

13. Swamp

(continued)

42

Secure. Habitat of Kafue lechwe.

Secure. Habitat of red lechwe.

Secure. Kafue lechwe. Abundant

bird life.

Status uncertain.

As yet ungazetted. Status

uncertain.

Secure. Includes shore of Lake

Rudolf.

Small sub-desert area in Reserve.

(a) for elephant, giraffe and rhino

only.

(b) for rhino and ostrich

only. Status uncertain.

Conservation status uncertain

Unprotected. Small area in rain

shadow of Pare and Usambara Mts.

Status uncertain.

Unprotected

Kafue N.P.

Liuwa Plain N.P.

Blue Lagoon and

Lochinvar N.P.s

Stefanie W.R.

Mille-Sardo Wild

Ass Reserve

Omo, Mago, Danakil

and Dahlak proposed

National Parks.

East Rudolf N.P.

Marsabit N.R.

2 partial reserves.

Red Sea Hills G.R.(proposed)

Lake Manka area

Mille-Sardo Wild Ass Reserve

Chalbi and Koroli Deserts

Ethiopia

Kenya

Somalia.

Sudan

Tanzania

Ethiopia

Kenya

14. Sub-desert

15. Desert

43


Unprotected

Secure. Elsewhere unprotected.

Several small areas unprotected.

Extensive areas. Unprotected.

Unprotected.

Unprotected.

Bird Sanctuary.

Unprotected.

Unprotected.

Unprotected.

Unprotected.

Unprotected.

Crater Lake. Bird sanctuary.

Unprotected. Kabalega N.P. does

not extend into Lake Mobutu.

Ruwenzori Park does not extend

into Lakes Amin and George.

AREA,

PARK OR RESERVE

South-eastern Sahara;

Wadi Howar Addax and

Oryx Reserve (proposed)

Watamu Marine N.R.

Lake Ngami

Lake Tana

Lake Naivasha

Lake Victoria

Lake Malawi

Lakes Malombe,

Chiuta and Chilwa

Lake Victoria

Lake Tanganyika

Lake Duluti

Lake Victoria )

Lake Kyoga

)Lake Mobutu

)Lake Amin

)Lake George

)

COUNTRY

Sudan

Kenya

Somalia

Tanzania

Botswana

Ethiopia

Kenya

Malawi

Tanzania

Uganda

BIOME

15. Desert

(continued)

16. Mangrove

17. Freshwater

lakes

44

Unprotected.

Unprotected.

Unprotected.

Lake shore only in Mweru Wantipa N.P.

Lake shore only in Sumbu N.P.

As yet ungazetted and unprotected.

Includes Lakes Shala and Abiata,

both important wildlife areas.

None of the alkaline lakes

elsewhere in Ethiopia receive

protection.

Secure if sewage pollution is

stopped.

Unprotected. These lakes, together

with those in Tanzania and Ethiopia

are the habitat of the greater and

lesser flamingo - the only habitat

of the latter.

Park will include water area.

Weakly alkaline only. Important

fish and crocodile habitat.

Lake Manyara. Secure. Very

important bird habitat.

Two small alkaline lakes. Secure.

Ngorongoro Crater and Empakai

Crater. Important bird habitats.

Lake Bangweulu

Lake Kariba

Lake Mweru

Lake Mweru Wantipa

Lake Tanganyika

Rift Valley Lakes N.P.

(proposed)

Lake Nakuru N.P.

Lakes Hannington, Baringo,

Elmenteita, Magadi and N.

tip of Natron

Lake Rudolf East N.P.

Lake Manyara N.P.

Serengeti N.P.

Ngorongoro Conser-

vation Area

Zambia

Ethiopia

Kenya

Tanzania

18. Alkaline lakes

45


Unprotected. Almost the sole

breeding habitat of the lesser

flamingo.

Unprotected. Lake Rukwa is a

very important bird habitat.

Creeks, channels and bays.

Unprotected. Habitat of dugong.

Unprotected. Dugong habitat.



Unprotected.

Dugong probably not present.


AREA,

PARK OR RESERVE

Lake Natron

Lakes Eyasi, Balangida,

Balangida Lelu and Rukwa

Lamu area

Tana River mouth

Galana River mouth

Kilifi Creek

Umba and Mwena R. mouths

Mida Creek: Watamu

Marine N.R.

Giuba R. mouth

COUNTRY

Tanzania

(continued)

Kenya

Somalia

BIOME

18. Alkaline lakes

(continued)

19. River

estuaries

n.b. Other coastal areas in Somalia are reported as dugong habitat. A survey is

urgently needed.

Unprotected. Possible dugong

habitat.

Ndoya, Kombe, Msimbazi,

Mkulumuzi, Kokindu, Pangani,

Msangazi, Mligaji, Mvavi, Wami,

Ruvu, Ndilila & Rufiji rivermouths

Tanzania

46

At present unprotected. No reefs

elsewhere are protected.

Small area. Secure.

Small area. Secure.

Dahlak Islands (proposed N.P.)

Malindi Marine N.P.

Watamu Marine N.P.

Ethiopia

Kenya

20. Coral reefs

n.b. Remainder of extensive reefs in Kenya are unprotected.

Reefs unprotected.

Reefs unprotected and severely

damaged. Protection needed

urgently.

Unprotected.

Unprotected like all the other

Ethiopian islands in the Red Sea.

Important for sea bird nesting.

Unprotected. Important sea bird

nesting islands.

Unprotected. Important sea bird

nesting island.

Very important sea bird nesting

island. Unprotected, like all

other coral islands in Tanzania.

Unprotected, although a number are

used by turtles for nesting.

Indian Ocean marine turtle pop-

ulations are unlikely to survive

unless protected beaches are

established.

Red Sea Coast

Extensive reefs

Dahlak Islands (proposed N.P.)

Kiunga and Lamu Is.

Whale Island

Fungu Kizimkazi (Latham I.);

many inshore coastal Is.

Sand beaches

Somalia

Sudan

Tanzania

Ethiopia

Kenya

Tanzania

Ethiopia, Kenya,

Somalia, Sudan,

Tanzania

21. Coral islands

22. Beaches

47

48

V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS1

This section lists 24 biomes and sub-types that are judged, on the basisof the information presented in the previous section, to be in need ofprotection and includes recommendations for their conservation. Theseecosystems are listed under three main priority categories as follows:

A. Seriously threatened: in need of immediate protection.

B. Locally threatened, but secure or extensive elsewhere.

C. Extensive, but not protected by park or reserve status.

The composite category A/B indicates that one important biotic communityand animal habitat in the biome concerned (the Tana River Forest) isseriously threatened. A fourth category (D) would include all bioticcommunities which are in no need of additional protection at present.

It should be noted that the recommendations need to be interpreted inthe context of overall land-use planning and are not intended to suggestthat extensive biomes should be preserved in their entirety but ratherthat viable areas of each should be included within parks or reserves.

The region within which these recommendations are intended to apply isthat covered by the nine countries invited to participate in theRegional Meeting on a Coordinated System of National Parks and Reservesin Eastern Africa, 14-19 October 1974 (Somalia, Ethiopia, Sudan, Kenya,Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia and Botswana). The region should beregarded as an administrative entity rather than an ecological one andit is clear that a review of the conservation status of biomes within itcannot be undertaken without regard for the status of the same biomes inthe areas surrounding it. Thus, this review cannot stand on its own butmust be complemented by further reviews of the state of nature conserva-tion in the following countries: Egypt, Libya, Chad, Central AfricanRepublic, Zaire, Rwanda, Burundi, Angola, South West Africa, South Africa,Rhodesia and Mozambique.

Category A.

Biome no. 2, sub-types a, c and d. Montane communities.

A relatively small proportion of the montane forest area in easternAfrica is included in national parks. A large proportion of thisbiome is contained in forest reserves but these are subject toexploitation for timber and to extensive reduction for the planting ofsoftwoods (e.g. Kilimanjaro and Elgon). Others are insecure against

1. The introductory paragraphs for this section were added on therecommendation of the Working Party which considered this paper as thebasis for certain resolutions on the protection of biotic communitiesin eastern Africa.

49

encroachment and cultivation (e.g. the Mau and Cherangani Forests inKenya, the Bale Forest in Ethiopia, Mt. Mlanje Forest in Malawi, theUsambara and Uluguru Forests in Tanzania). The protection of allmontane forest floristic types should be ensured by the declaration ofnature reserves of adequate area in all forest reserves.

Biome no. 3. Sub-type a. Medium level humid forests.

This is a very restricted relict community in eastern Africa withvirtually all areas included in forest reserves (Kakamega, South andNorth Nandi Forests in Kenya; Bugoma, Kibale and Budongo in Uganda).These forests are subject to timber extraction or to felling foragriculture and softwood plantations. The few existing nature reservesthey contain are too small and inadequate to protect their complete floraand fauna. There is an urgent need to increase the protection of theseforests by additional areas of nature reserve in which no exploitationtakes place.

Biome no. 3. Sub-type b. Low level humid forest.

Very small areas of coastal rain forest have survived and their area isbeing continuously reduced. The Witu and Arabuko-Sokoke Forests on thecoast of Kenya, with the only remaining viable stands, are being exploitedfor timber or being felled for agriculture. It is recommended that allsurviving coastal rainforest be totally protected.

Biome no. 4. Sub-type a. Medium level dry evergreen forest.

This type is reduced to small areas in Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda,where it should be totally protected. Dry evergreen forest receivesprotection in these countries as relict stands in the Serengeti andNairobi National Parks and the Masai Mara Reserve and also in severalsmall forest reserves. In Ethiopia this type is extensive butapparently protected only by the Harrar Wildlife Sanctuary.

Biome no. 4. Sub-type b. Low level dry evergreen forest.

Only relict patches and one probably viable stand of coastal dry foresthave survived in East Africa. The Arabuko-Sokoke forest in Kenyacontains the viable stand mentioned. It is exploited for timber andshould now be totally protected. It is the only known habitat of theowl Otus irene.

Biome no. 7. Sub-type a. Coastal Brachystegia woodland.

From southern Tanzania to Malawi, Zambia, Rhodesia and Mozambique, themain Brachystegia woodland biome is extensive and is adequately protectedin several large forest and game reserves and national parks. On thecoast of Kenya a variant of this type, of very restricted range, occursin close association with dry evergreen forest. It is of particularbiological interest since, through the virtual absence of fire, it has adense shrub layer, unlike the greater part of the Brachystegia woodlandfurther south. It is probably a relict of a more widespread type on the

50

Kenya coast and is the only known habitat of two passerine bird species.It occurs in the Boni Forest (unprotected) and the Arabuko-Sokoke Forestand the Shimba Hills National Reserve, but in small stands. Thiscommunity needs further protection, particularly through the establish-ment of a reserve in the Boni Forest and an enlarged nature reserve inthe Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Reserve.

Biome no. 13. Swamps.

Very few extensive swamps in eastern Africa are included in parks orreserves. The two great swamp areas of the Okavango Delta in Botswanaand the Sudd in Sudan are protected partially by very small reservesand there is an urgent need to include larger areas of these in nationalparks or reserves. In addition to the Sudd and the Okavango, thefollowing swamp areas require protection:- Kenya: Lorian and LotikiriSwamps; Malawi: Lake Chilwa and Shire Swamps; Tanzania: Wembere,Moyowosi, Malagarasi, Ugalla, Kilombero, Bahi and Kagera Swamps.

Biome no. 15. Desert.

The only existing reserve in a desert area is the Mille-Sardo Wild AssReserve in Ethiopia. There is considerable urgency to establish a gamereserve in the Wadi Howar area of north-western Sudan to provide pro-tection for addax and scimitar-horned oryx as well as other desertwildlife. Exploration of the desert biome is necessary to identifyother areas where reserves could be established.

Biome no. 19. River estuaries, creeks and sea-grass beds.

The estuaries, bays and sea-grass beds of the Lamu area of Kenya andelsewhere on the coast of eastern Africa are not included in any park orreserve and should be protected urgently. An additional reason forconserving these areas is the occurrence of threatened populations ofdugongs. The findings of the IUCN dugong investigation group willassist in the selection of park or reserve areas.

Biome no. 20. Coral reefs.

Along the coastline of eastern Africa there are only three very smallmarine national parks, all in Kenya. The remainder of the veryextensive reefs is still unprotected along the entire coast from Egyptto Mozambique, although the Badana National Park shortly to be establishedin southern Somalia will protect one section. It is recommended thatadditional marine national parks be established urgently in the coastalregion of eastern Africa to protect reefs, especially where they aresubject to destruction by the use of dynamite for fishing in certaincountries.

Biome no. 22. Sand beaches.

No sand beaches are protected outside Tanzania where there is onecoastal game reserve (Sadani). The nesting beaches of marine turtles

51

remain virtually unprotected along the whole coastline. The currentsurvey being carried out by Dr. J. Frazier (sponsored by the EastAfrican Wildlife Society) will indicate the sites that should beprotected.

Category A/B.

Biome no. 3. Sub-type d. Riverine and groundwater forest.

Protected by several parks in eastern Africa except in the case of theTana River Forest, Kenya, the only habitat of the Tana River colobus andmangabey. This forest, which is now reduced to about 30 km2, isvulnerable to felling for shifting agriculture and requires immediateprotection.

Category B.

Biome no. 3. Sub-type c. Swamp forest.

A very small proportion of the total area of swamp forest in Zambia andMalawi is protected in national parks and reserves. This biomerequires additional protection throughout the region.

Biome no. 5. Sub-type b. Dry deciduous forest; Itigi thicket.

The Itigi thicket in central Tanzania, to which the so-called Itigi-typethicket of northern Zambia is floristically similar, is an unique andrestricted biome. It has no conservation status and is subject tofelling for agriculture. Although not in immediate danger, this areashould be wholly or partly protected by the declaration of a game orforest reserve. The similar thicket in Zambia is fully protected inthe Sumbu and Mweru-Wantipa National Parks.

Biome no. 6. Sub-type b. Forest-savanna mosaic at low level.

This type is extensive on the coasts of Kenya and Tanzania with a smallarea in southern Somalia. It represents the transition from forest tosavanna and is present in various forms from near-forest to near-savannawoodland, depending on the stage of degradation from the original foresttype. The Boni Forest of the northern coastal area of Kenya is aparticularly dense example of this type and should be protected by theestablishment of a forest or game reserve. It is an excellent wildlifehabitat with large populations of topi, zebra and elephant. Fellingfor charcoal production is probably the greatest threat to the area.

Biome no. 7. Sub-type d. Terminalia moist savanna.

A restricted community occurring in association with Combretaceoussavanna in northern Tanzania and in Uganda. Much reduced by fire andelephants. May require management protection (by the exclusion of fireand elephants) where it occurs in the Serengeti National Park inTanzania and the Kabalega National Park in Uganda.

52

Biome no. 12. Sub-type a. Flood-plain grasslands.

A very small proportion of the flood-plain area of eastern Africa isincluded in parks or reserves. The plain bordering the Sudd swampsin Sudan has one small reserve the security of which is uncertain. InZambia, part of the Kafue and Bangweulu flood-plains are protected asis part of the grassland area bordering the Okavango Delta in Botswana.In Tanzania the flood-plains of Buhoro, Kilombero, Wembere, Moyowosi,Malagarasi and Lake Rukwa are unprotected with the result that theirwild mammal populations are subject to uncontrolled illegal hunting.

Biome no. 14. Sub-desert.

A very small proportion of the sub-desert area of eastern Africa isincluded in parks and reserves. The only secure area appears to be theEast Rudolf National Park in Kenya. The great vulnerability of thesub-desert biome to over-grazing, poaching and other misuse indicatesthat a much larger area of this type should be protected.

Biome no. 16. Mangroves.

On the coast of eastern Africa two small areas of mangrove are includedin national reserves in Kenya, giving them partial protection. Severalmangrove areas in Kenya and Tanzania should receive full protection.The largest of these, the Rufiji Delta, provides the greatest scope forinclusion in a national park.

Biome no. 17. Fresh water lakes.

The open water of all the fresh water lakes in eastern Africa (exceptsome very small ones) is excluded from national parks and reservesalthough adjoining land areas may have park status. This is a majoromission with potentially serious consequences for the conservation ofaquatic flora and fauna, particularly in Uganda.

Biome no. 18. Alkaline lakes.

Although several alkaline lakes are fully or partially protected (Nakuru,Ndutu, Empakai and Manyara), Lake Natron, the breeding place of thelesser flamingoes and many of the greater flamingoes in eastern Africa,is unprotected. The following alkaline lakes (which collectively formthe habitat of flamingoes) are not protected by national park or reservestatus:- Ethiopia: Lakes Zwai, Langano, Abiata, Shala, Awasa, Abaya,Chamo; Kenya: Lakes Rudolf, Baringo, Hannington, Magadi; Tanzania;Lakes Natron, Eyasi, Balangida, Balangida Lelu.

Category C.

Biome no. 7. Sub-type c. Butyrospermum moist savanna.

This type is extensive in northern Uganda and southern Sudan. It isnot included in any form of park or reserve.

53

Biome no. 11. Sub-types b, c. Grasslands including Acacia-dominatedsavannas

The semi-arid grasslands of eastern Africa, with the exception of therelatively small areas included in some national parks are undergoingecological degradation primarily due to overgrazing by livestock.Overgrazing and, locally, bad agricultural practices, are resulting inserious soil erosion. The loss of productivity over the whole ofsemi-arid eastern Africa is probably the most serious conservationproblem of the region. It necessitates far-reaching controls upongrazing practices throughout the semi-arid zone.

54

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G. KENYA

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Malawi Government, 1965. The Physical Environment of NorthernMalawi, with special reference to soils and agriculture.With map, 1:500,000. Malawi: Natural Regions and Areas.Sheet 1, Northern Malawi. Sheet 2, Central Malawi.Sheet 3, Southern Malawi.

Wye College, 1972. Malawi Project. (Nyika Plateau ecologicalsurvey). Final report.

Bally, P.R.O., 1964. Recent floristic and faunistic changes inthe Somali Republic with particular reference to specialiseddesert forms. IUCN Bull. N.S. 1 (11): 6-7.

Bally, P.R.O. 1968. Conservation of vegetation in Africa southof the Sahara: Somali Republic South. Acta phytogeogr.Suec. 54.

Boaler, S.B. and Hodge, C.A.H. 1962. Vegetation stripes inSomaliland. J. Ecol. 50: 465-474.

I. SOMALIA

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Funaioli, U., Funaioli, S. and Alberto, M. 1961. Statut actueldes ongulés en Somalie. Mammalia 25 (1): 97-111.

Funaioli, U., Funaioli, S. and Alberto, M. 1966. The mammalianfauna of the Somali Republic. Status and conservationproblems. Monitore zool. ital. 74 (Suppl.): 285-347.

Gilliland, H.B. 1952. The vegetation of eastern BritishSomaliland. J. Ecol. 40: 91-124.

Hemming, C F . 1968. Conservation of vegetation in Africa southof the Sahara: Somali Republic North. Acta phytogeogr.Suecica 54: 141-145.

Pichi-Sermolli, R.E.G. 1957. Una carta geobotanica dell'Africaorientale (Eritrea, Etiopia, Somalia). Webbia 13: 15-132.

J. SUDAN

Andrews, F.W. 1948. The Vegetation of the Sudan. Agriculturein the Sudan. (Tothill). London.

Andrews, F.W. 1950 (Vol. 1), 1952 (Vol. 2), 1956 (Vol. 3).The Flowering Plants of the Sudan.

Bond, W.R.G. 1919. Distribution of Sudan acacias. Sudan Notesand Records 2: 81-90.

Broun, A.F. and Massey, R.E. 1929. Flora of the Sudan. London.

Chipp, T.F. 1929. On the flora of the Imatong Mountains.Kew Bull.

Crowfoot, G.M. 1928. Flowering Plants of the Northern and CentralSudan. Leominster, U.K.

Darnoud, J.P. 1860. Aquatic plants of the Upper Nile. (InFrench). Le Caire, Bull. Inst. Egy. 3.

Drar, M. 1947. The plants of Jebel Marra, Sudan. (In Arabic).Monthly Agric. Rev. (Egypt) 3(4): 10-21.

Drar, M. 1948. The plants of Erkowit (a Hadendoa Region of E.Sudan). (In Arabic). Monthly Agric. Rev. 4(2): 21-29.

Drar, M. 1948. The plants of the Sudd Region. (In Arabic).Monthly Agric. Rev. 5(2): 20-25.

Halwagy, R. 1962. The incidence of the biotic factor in northernSudan. Oikos 13 (1).

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Happold, D.C.D. 1967. Guide to the natural history of KhartoumProvince. III. Mammals. Sudan Notes and Records 48: 1-22.

Happold, D.C.D. 1969. The mammalian fauna of some jebels in thenorthern Sudan. J. Zool. Lond. 157: 133-145.

Harrison, M.N. and Jackson, J.K. 1958. Ecological classificationof the vegetation of the Sudan. Forests Bull. No. 2. (NewSeries), Ministry of Agriculture, Khartoum.

Jackson, J.K. 1951. Mount Lotuke, Didinga Hills. Memoirs ofForestry Division, No. 3. Ministry of Agriculture, Sudan.

Jackson, J.K. 1956. Vegetation of the Imatong Mountains, Sudan.J. Ecol. 44: 341-374.

Jackson, J.K. 1957. Changes in the climate and vegetation in theSudan. Sudan Notes and Records 38. Khartoum.

Kassas, M. 1954. The mist oasis of Erkowit, Sudan. J. Ecol. 42:180-194.

Kassas, M. 1957. Ecology of the Red Sea Coastal Land. J. Ecol.45: 187-203.

Mackenzie, P.Z. 1954. Catalogue of wild mammals of the Sudanoccurring in the natural orders Artiodactyla and Perisso-dactyla. Khartoum Sudan Museum (Natural History) Publ. No. 4.

Obeid, M. and Mahmoud, A. 1969. The vegetation of KhartoumProvince. Sudan Notes and Records. 50: 134-159.

Shaw, W.B.K. 1931. Flora of the Libyan Desert. Kew Bull. 4:161.

Shaw, W.B.K. 1934. Flora of the Libyan Desert. Kew Bull. 7:281.

Smith, J. 1944. The grass-acacia cycle in Gederaf and note on fireprotection. Rep. Soil Cons. Comm., McCorquodale: 87-90.

Smith, J. 1949. Distribution of tree species in the Sudan inrelation to rainfall and soil texture. Bulletin No. 4Agricultural Publications Committee. Khartoum.

Willimott, S.G. 1957. Soils and vegetation of the Boma Plateauand Eastern District, Equatoria Province. Sudan Notes andRecords 38.

Zaphiro, D. 1949. Notes on Loelli game. Sudan Wildlife and Sport1(1): 6-17.

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K. TANZANIA

Brenan, J.P.M. and Greenway, P.J. 1949. Checklist of the treesand shrubs; Tanganyika Territory. I.F.I., Oxford.

Fosbrooke, H.A. 1972. Ngorongoro; the Eighth Wonder. London.

Gilbert, V.C. 1970. Plants of Mount Kilimanjaro. Typed report.Office of Environmental Interpretation: U.S. National ParkService, Washington D.C.

Gillman, C. 1949. A vegetation-types map of Tanganyika Territory.Geogr. Rev.

Greenway, P.J. 1965. The vegetation and flora of Mt. Kilimanjaro.Tanganyika Notes and Records 64: 97-107.

(In same issue: Notes on mammals of Kilimanjaro: G.S. Child;Birds of the forest and alpine zones: H.F. Lamprey;The forest glades of Kilimanjaro: P.J. Wood. Bibliographyof Kilimanjaro.).

Herlocker, J. and Dirschl, H.J. 1972. Vegetation of NgorongoroConservation Area, Tanzania. Canadian Wildlife Service,Report Series No. 19.

Lamprey, H.F. 1963. Ecological separation of the large mammalspecies in the Tarangire Game Reserve, Tanganyika. E. Afr.Wildl. J. 1: 63-92.

Lamprey, H.F. 1964. Estimation of the large mammal densities,biomass and energy exchange in the Tarangire Game Reserveand the Masai Steppe in Tanganyika. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 2: 1-46.

Leopold, A.S. 1970. Research Policy in the Tanzania NationalParks. Tanzania National Parks.

Moreau, R.E. 1935. A synecological study of Usambara, TanganyikaTerritory, with particular reference to birds. J. Ecol. 23:1-43.

Napper, D.M. 1966. Grasses of Tanganyika with keys. GovernmentPrinter, Dar es Salaam.

Pearsall, W.H. 1957. Report on an ecological survey of theSerengeti National Park, Tanganyika. Oryx 4 (2): 72-136.

Phillips, J.F.V. 1929. Some important vegetation communities inthe Central Province of Tanganyika Territory. S. Afr. J. Sci.26: 332-372.

Phillips, J.F.V. 1931. A sketch of the floral regions of Tangan-yika Territory. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Afr. 19: 363-372.

64

Polhill, R.M. 1968. Conservation of vegetation in Africa south ofthe Sahara: Tanzania. Acta phytogeogr. Suec. 54: 166-178.

Russell, E.W. 1969. Management Policy in the National Parks.Tanzania National Parks.

Serengeti Research Institute: Annual Reports 1969-1972/3.Tanzania National Parks.

Swynnerton, G.H. 1951. A checklist of the land mammals of theTanganyika Territory and the Zanzibar Protectorate.J. E. Afr. Nat. Hist. Soc. 20 (6 & 7): 274-392.

L. UGANDA

Bere, R.M. 1962. The Wild Mammals of Uganda. London.

Cott, H.B. 1961. Scientific results of an inquiry into the ecologyand economic status of the Nile crocodile in Uganda and NorthernRhodesia. Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond. 29.

Cott, H.B. 1968. Nile crocodile faces extinction in Uganda.Oryx 9.

Eggeling, W.J. 1947. Observations on the ecology of the Budongorain forest. J. Ecol. 34: 20-87.

Eggeling, W.J. 1952. Indigenous Trees of the Uganda Protectorate.(2nd Edition revised by I.R. Dale).

Field, C.R. and Laws, R.M. 1970. The distribution of the largerherbivores in the Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda.J. Anim. Ecol. 7.

Harker, K.W. 1961. An Illustrated Guide to the Grasses of Uganda.Government Printer, Entebbe.

Langdale-Brown, I., Osmaston, H.A. and Wilson, J.G. 1964. TheVegetation of Uganda. Government of Uganda.

Lind, E.M. 1956. Studies of Uganda swamps. Ug. J. 20: 13.

Lind, E.M. and Tallantire, A.C. 1962. Some Common FloweringPlants of Uganda. London.

Osmaston, H.A. 1968. Conservation of vegetation in Africa south ofthe Sahara: Uganda. Acta phytogeogr. Suec. 54: 148-151.

Parker, I.S.C. and Watson, R.M. 1970. Crocodile distribution andstatus in the major waters of western and central Uganda in1969. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 8.

65

Petrides, G.A. and Swank, W.G. 1965. Population densities and therange carrying for large mammals in Queen Elizabeth NationalPark, Uganda. Zool. Afr. 1.

Pitman, C.R.S. 1934. The Mabira Forest. Ug. J. 1: 7.

Ross, R. 1955. Some aspects of the Subalpine zone of Ruwenzori.Proc. Linn. Soc. 165: 136-140.

Snowden, J.D. 1933. A study in altitudinal zonation in SouthKigezi and on Mounts Muhavura and Mgahinga. Uganda J. Ecol.21: 7-27.

Snowden, J.D. 1953. The Grass Communities and Mountain Vegetationof Uganda. Crown Agents, London.

Uganda National Parks Handbook 1971 (5th Ed.). Uganda NationalParks, Kampala.

M. ZAMBIA

Ansell, W.F.H. 1960. Mammals of Northern Rhodesia. GovernmentPrinter, Lusaka.

Benson, C.W. and White, C.M.N. 1957. Check List of the Birds ofNorthern Rhodesia. Government Printer, Lusaka.

Boughey, A.S. 1957. The vegetation types of the Federation.Proc. Rhod. Sci. Ass. 45: 73-91.

Boughey, A.S. 1964. Deciduous thicket communities in NorthernRhodesia. Adansonia 4 (2): 239-261.

Cole, M.M. 1963. Vegetation and geomorphology in NorthernRhodesia. Geol. J. 129 (3): 290-305.

Cottrell, C.B. and Loveridge, J.P. 1966. Observations on theCryptosepalum forest of the Mwinilunga district of Zambia.Proc. and Trans. Rhod. Sci. Ass. 51: 77-120.

Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and National Parks. AnnualReports.

Fanshawe, D.B. 1959. Geographical extent of open forests andwoodlands. Techn. Doc. 11. Meeting of Specialists C.S.A. onOpen Forests of Trop. Africa, Ndola.

Fanshawe, D.B. 1960. Evergreen forest relics in Northern Rhodesia.Kirkia 1: 120.

66

Fanshawe, D.B. 1960. The origin of Baikiaea forest. ForestNewsletter 60: 17.

Fanshawe, D.B. 1969. The Vegetation of Zambia. GovernmentPrinter, Lusaka.

Lawton, R.M. 1964. The ecology of the Marquesia acuminataforests and the related chipya vegetation type of N.W.Rhodesia. J. Ecol. 52 (3): 467.

Martin, J.D. 1932. The mukushi forests of N. Rhodesia.Agric. Dept. 2nd Annual Report: 71-76.

Martin, J.D. 1938. The vegetation of the Kalahari sands ofN.W. Rhodesia. Unpublished ms.

Trapnell, C.G. 1937. Soils, vegetation and agricultural systemsin N.W. Rhodesia. Government Printer, Lusaka.

Trapnell, C.G. 1943. Soils, vegetation and agriculture ofN.E. Rhodesia. Government Printer, Lusaka.

Trapnell, C.G. 1958. The effects of fire in Brachystegia-Isoberlinia woodlands. Rept. E.A.A.F.R.O. 55.

Trapnell, C.G. 1959. Ecological results of woodland burningexperiments in N. Rhodesia. J. Ecol. 47: 129-168.

White, F. 1962. Geographic variation and speciation in Africawith particular reference to Diospyros. Syst. Assn. Publ.4: 71-103.

White, F. 1962. Forest Flora of Northern Rhodesia. London.

White, F. 1965. The savanna woodlands of the Zambesian andSudanian domains. Webbia 19: 651-681.

White, F. 1968. The conservation of vegetation in Africa south ofthe Sahara: Zambia. Acta phytogeogr. suec. 54: 208-215.

Wild, H. 1952. The vegetation of S. Rhodesia termitaria.Rhod. Agric. J. 49 (5): 280-292.

N. GENERAL

Curry-Lindahl, K. 1969. The New African Conservation Convention.Oryx 10 (2): 116-126.

Dasmann, R.F. 1973. Classification and Use of Protected Naturaland Cultural Areas. IUCN Occasional Paper No. 4.

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Lamprey, H.F. 1974. Management of flora and fauna in nationalparks. In Second World Conference on National Parks(Ed. Elliott, Sir Hugh), pp. 237-257. IUCN, Morges, Switzerland.

Organization of African Unity. 1969. African Convention on theConservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Publ.Secretariat of O.A.U., Addis Ababa.

IUCN. 1973. A Working System for Classification of World Vege-tation. IUCN Occasional Paper No. 5.

Red Data Book. Vol. 1, Mammalia.

Red Data Book. Vol. 2, Aves.

Red Data Book. Vol. 3, Amphibia & Reptilia.

Red Data Book. Vol. 4, Pisces (Freshwater Fish)

Red Data Book. Vol. 5, Angiospermae.

IUCN.

The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources(IUCN) is an independent international body, formed in 1948, which has itsheadquarters in Morges, Switzerland. It is a nion of sovereign states,government agencies and non-governmental organizations concerned with theinitiation and promotion of scientifically-based action that will ensureperpetuation of the living world - man's natural environment - and thenatural resources on which all living things depend, not only for theirintrinsic cultural or scientific values, but also for the long-termeconomic and social welfare of mankind.

This objective can be achieved through active conservation programmes forthe wise use of natural resources in areas where the flora and fauna are ofparticular importance and where the landscape is especially beautiful orstriking, or of historical, cultural or scientific significance. IUCNbelieves that its aims can be achieved most effectively by internationaleffort in co-operation with other international agencies, such as UNESCO,UNEP and FAO.

The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) is an international charitable organizationdedicated to saving the world's wildlife and wild places, carrying out thewide variety of programmes and actions that this entails. WWF was estab-lished in 1961 under Swiss law, with headquarters also in Morges.

Since 1961, IUCN has enjoyed a symbiotic relationship with its sisterorganization, the World Wildlife Fund, with which it works closely through-out the world on projects of mutual interest. IUCN and WWF now jointlyoperate the various projects originated by, or submitted to them.

The projects cover a very wide range, from education, ecological studiesand surveys, to the establishment and management of areas as national parksand reserves and emergency programmes for the safeguarding of animal andplant species threatened with extinction as well as support for certain keyinternational conservation bodies.

WWF fund-raising and publicity activities are mainly carried out by NationalAppeals in a number of countries, and its international governing body ismade up of prominent personalities in many fields.

the distribution of protected areas in relation to the needs ......morges, switzerland, 1975 the...

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