The Eagle’s Webbed Feet

•A Maritime History of the United StatesThe Eagle’s Webbed Feet

A Maritime History of the United StatesA Maritime History of the Uniteds

The Second World War

“Scratch one flattop!”

“Damn it Captain, they’re getting away!”

Pearl Harbor• China is the real bone of contention between the US and Japan• May 1941, Roosevelt orders the fleet to remain in Pearl Harbor• July 1941 – Oil imports to Japan halted• Japanese decision to go southeast for resources

• The Soviet-Japanese Border Wars (1932-1939)o Battles of Khalkhin Gol (Nomonhan) (May-Sept 1939)o Neutrality Pact (April 1941)

• The Philippines is the real target of the Pearl Harbor attack• Mahan’s influence on the IJN.

“If you attack us, we will break your empire; before we are through with you …. we will crush you.”

Admiral Stark (CNO) to Ambassador Nomura (Nov 1941)

• What were the Japanese thinking? (Compromise Peace)

Pearl Harbor (2)• Destroyed or severely damaged 8 battleships, 10 cruisers/destroyers,

230 aircraft, & killed 2400 men. Cost was 29 planes, 5 midget subs.• A “short war” meant they could ignore fuel depots, repair facilities

and the submarine base.• Their air superiority meant they could ignore the US carriers• War declared on Japan the next day• On December 11th Germany declared war on the US (???)

• One of the two stupidest decisions of World War Two

USS Arizona USS Shaw

War in the Atlantic• The US Navy’s role in the Atlantic War was:

• The U-Boat War (Priority #1)• Safely convoying troops, equipment, and supplies• Destroy the U-Boat fleet

• Conduct amphibious operations of Army forces

• Because of Pearl Harbor, the Navy reluctantly supported the “Germany First” policy envisioned in Rainbow Five but it did not really believe in it.

• Resource contest between the Atlantic & Pacific• Who won?

The U-Boat War• Jan 42 to Aug 42 – 2d “Glückliche Zeit”

• US enters the war

• Operation Drumroll

• “Shark” introduced

• 500 ktons / month (GOAL!!)

• By Sept. driven back into the “air gap”

The Air Gap

The U-Boat War(2)• Aug 42 to Apr 43 – Slugging it out

Continue at 500 ktons / month U-boat losses continue to be low (3 / month) Donitz gets more boats (200+) Allies make defeating the U-boat the primary war aim. (Casablanca)

• Late spring / early summer 1943• The battle ends in complete U-boat defeat

• Why???• ALLIED TECHNOLOGY• ALLIED TACTICS• B-DEINST GOES BLIND

PBY4Long-RangeASW Aircraft

Cavity Magnetron

Hedgehogs

Jeep Carriers

Huff Duff

Allied ships and U-Boat Losses

050

100150200250300

39 40 41 42 43 44 45Year

Hull L

osse

s

Allied Ships(X10)U-Boats

The U-Boat War(3)• Last 4 months of 1943: 9 ships vs. 62 U-boats• The campaign failed (never even close)

• 500 kton/month goal did not adequately consider shipbuilding or cargos verses hulls.• Shipbuilding (5800 built vs. 3500 lost)• Technology• Tactics & training

• However 80000 US/British seaman killed (23/ship)• Germans lost 700 boats and 30000 sailors (43/boat)• Highest loss rate of any service in the war (75%)

Amphibious Warfare in the Atlantic• 6 major campaigns:

• North Africa (Torch) – November 1942• Sicily (Husky) – July 1943• Italy (Avalanche) – September 1943• Anzio (Shingle) – January 1944• Normandy (Neptune) – June 1944

• 6939 vessels (well over half were British)• British planned assault• US destroyers at Omaha• Day 1 – 160,000 men landed (from 12 nations)• By 30 June, 850K men, 160K vehicles, and 600K tons of supplies landed

• Southern France (Dragoon) – August 1944 • Army troops only (Marines reserved for the Pacific)• However, all six used Marine Corps Amphibious doctrine

Invading the French Riviera

USS Frankford

War in the Pacific• Naval assignments:

• Guerre de Course – (Unrestricted submarine campaign against Japan)• Fleet Actions (5 major sea battles + the Solomons campaign)• Amphibious Operations (78 landings)

• Organization after Pearl Harbor• A compromise • MacArthur – Southwest Pacific• Nimitz – Central Pacific• Halsey – South Pacific initially and then MacArthur’s Naval Commander

• In Washington• King as CNO and Leahy as Chief of Staff to the CINC

King

MacArthur

Nimitz

Halsey

Leahy

Japan Runs Wild• As Yamamoto predicted in the next six months Japan:

• Conquered Thailand, Hong Kong, Guam, Wake Island, Burma, Dutch East Indies, Bali, Timor, Rabaul, Malay, Singapore, Java, Sumatra and the Philippines.

• Sank the Repulse and the Prince of Wales (10 December ‘41)• Destroyed the ABDA naval forces at the Battle of Java Sea

(March ‘42)• Bombed Darwin and other Australian targets (≈ 100 attacks)• Drove the Royal Navy out of the Western Indian Ocean• Invaded the Solomon Islands & New Guinea

• By May 1942, Japan had become a victim of “Victory Disease”.

• She now ignored her own strategic plan.• Allies start to push back.

Japan Runs Wild(Dec 41 –March 42

Japan Run Wild

US Submarine Campaign• Got off to a terrible start

• Torpedoes didn’t work• Major doctrine to strategy mismatch

ART. 22 LONDON NAVAL CONF:“A submarine may not sink or render

incapable of navigation amerchant vessel without first having placed

passengers, crew, and ships papersin a place of safety.”

• This does not fit with: “conduct unrestricted submarine warfare against the Japanese Empire.”

1942 and 1943

• Got rid of most CO’s• Developed complementary doctrine, strategy

& tactics• Introduced (American) wolf packs• Fixed the torpedoes (finally)• Slowly but steadily got better• By late 1943, the force was ready.

(Adm Lockwood)

1944• Japan was completely unprepared for this

onslaught• Manning policy• Japanese submarine performance• US submarine performance• Racism

• Results:• Airtight blockade• Japan’s merchant fleet destroyed• 1/3 of their navy sunk• Complete interruption of the Japanese

ability to wage war.

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Tonage losses(Ktons)

Japanese Losses To Submarines1941 - 1945

1942

1943

1944

1945

Japanese Economic Collapse

1941 1942 1943 1944 1945Iron (Ktons)

5058 4880 3686 1668 143

Coal (Ktons)

9585 8748 6029 3135 188

Oil (Mbls)

8 11 14 5 0

INPORTS

Food supplies in 1945 were 32% of 1939 levels.

Fleet Actions• Five major sea battles were fought with the IJN after Pearl Harbor.

• Coral Sea • Midway• Philippine Sea• Leyte Gulf• Okinawa

• The Solomon Islands Campaign:• Eleven naval battles • Eight amphibious landings• Almost daily air battles.

• In aggregate, these battles transitioned from Japanese tactical superiority (especially in night fighting) to an overwhelming tactical and material advantage for the USN.

Fleet Actions (2)• Coral Sea (1st aircraft only battle in history) (May ‘42)

• Strategic US Victory (Halted the Port Moresby invasion)• Loss of the Lexington for one small Japanese carrier (+ 2 damaged!)• Aircraft losses: Japanese – 92, US – 65.• Last battle where the US went after the IJN.

• Midway (June ‘42)• Doolittle Raid (April ‘42)• Code breaking• 3 US carriers (2?) vs. 4 Japanese carriers (6?)• Plan: destroy US carriers and any remaining major fleet units• Losses: Japanese – 4 carriers, 248 aircraft, 3000 men

US – 1 carrier, 150 aircraft, 307 men• These two battles reduced Japan’s ability to undertake further offensive

actions and paved the way for the Solomon’s campaign

Fleet actions

1. Coral Sea2. Midway3. Solomons4. Philippine Sea5. Leyte Gulf6. Okinawa

1

2

3

45

6

The Solomon’s Campaign• Japanese airfield on Guadalcanal• US Marines lands in August 1942 and initiated a major combined

arms campaign (Operation Watchtower)• Japan attempts to keep Guadalcanal supplied

• 11 Naval battles (3 carrier battles and 8 surface actions)• Battle of the E. Solomons (lost 75 aircraft vs. 20 US plus one CVL) (Aug ‘42)• Battle of Santa Cruz (lost 91 aircrew vs. 81 US + USS Hornet) (Oct ‘42)• Naval Battle of Guadalcanal (Ended any hope of a Japanese victory) (Nov ‘42)

• Japan loses 2 Battleships, 1 Heavy cruiser, 3 Destroyers, 11 combat transports, 64 aircraft and 5000 soldiers drown

"This battle was a tactical win, but a shattering strategic loss for Japan. Considering the great superiority of our enemy's industrial capacity, we must win every battle overwhelmingly in order to win this war. This last one, although a victory, unfortunately, was not an overwhelming victory.“

Admiral Nugumo USS Enterprise takes a bomb hit during the Battle of Eastern Solomons.This will be the 2d of the three times she is “sunk”.

The Solomon’s Campaign (2)• Technically this campaign lasted until Nov ‘43 but fighting continued

until the end of the war.• Launched Operation Cartwheel (Offensive operations in the Pacific)• Loses:

• Japanese- 80,000 men, 50+ ships sunk, 1500 aircraft • US – 10,600 men, 40 ships sunk, 800 aircraft• Over ½ of the aviators who attacked Pearl Harbor were now dead

• This was attrition warfare; something the Japanese could not possibly win.

How the tide turned during the campaign

Strength 5CA, 2 CL, 1 DD 6 CA, 2 CL, 15 DD

Losses None 3 CA, 1 CA + 2 DD Heavy Damage

Strength 2 CA, 2 CL, 6 DD 4 CL, 8 DD

Losses 1 CL, 1 DD,1 CL + 1 DD Heavy Damage

None

Battle of Salvo Island (August 1942)

Battle of Empress Augusta Bay (November 1943)

Philippine Sea • Great Mariana’s Turkey Shoot (June ‘44)

• Last major carrier vs. carrier battle of the war• Since the Solomon’s, the IJN was reconstituting it’s air groups and then

planned to look again for a decisive battle.• Completely failed to recognize the speed with which the USN had been able

to build up it’s forces both in quantity and quality of material and in training• 15 (7 fleet) carriers vs. 9 (5 fleet) carriers, 956 aircraft vs. 750 (300 of them land-based)

• Plan A-Go (Destruction of the US fleet invading the Marianas Islands.)• Loses: Japanese – 3 fleet carriers sunk & 600+ aircraft lost

US – 123 aircraft lost• Japanese naval air power was finished.

The Surprises at the Philippine Sea

Leyte Gulf• Largest naval battle in history (23 – 26 October 1944)• Purpose was to repulse the invasion of the Philippines• Four separate engagements:

• Sibuyan Sea• Surigao Strait• Cape Engano• Samar

• US – 34 carriers (1500 planes), Japan – 4 carriers (300 L/B planes)• Loses: US – 6 ships, 200 planes, 2800 men

Japan – 4 carriers, 3 battleships, 300 planes, 12,000 men.• Japanese fleet finished as a fighting force• First use of the kamikaze (Loss of the St. Lo)

1. Sibuyan2. Surigao3. Cape Engano4. Samar

Leyte Gulf

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4

Musashi sinks after being hit with≈ 10 torpedoes and 16 bombs

Leyte Gulf (2)• Battle of Samar• Odds

• US – 6 “jeep carriers”, 3 DD and 4 DE.• IJN – 4 BB, 6 CA, 2 CL, and 11 DD.

• The Damage• US – 2 carriers, 2 DD, 1 DE• IJN – 3 CA

“In no engagement of its entire history has the United States Navy shown more gallantry, guts and gumption than in those two morning hours between 0730 and 0930 off Samar”

Samuel Eliot Morison

Sprague

Kurita

Okinawa• Naval battle lasted from 6 April to 30 April

1945• Attacks by regular land based aircraft did no

damage and 1100 were lost• 1900 kamikaze attacks sank 34 vessels and

damaged 368• 5000 sailors were killed

• Operation Ten-Go• Suicide mission by the Yamato plus nine other

cruisers & destroyers• They were attacked over by 900 aircraft• 4 destroyers survived

Yamato blows up

KAMIKAZI Attacks

Fleet Actions (3)

• Why was the USN successful?• Building capacity (see chart)• ≈ 1M rounds of ammunition for

every Axis man in uniform.• Better training• Japanese simply could not replace loses in material or manpower fast enough

• This is the likely outcome of taking on someone with an economy 8 ½ times bigger than your own!

Carriers Japan** United States

1941 9 9

1942 9 (+6/-6) 23

1943 11 (+3/-1) 88

1944 4 (+8/-13) ≈1201945 5 (no fuel, pilots, or

planes)151 (29 Fleet)

** Important to keep in mind Japan’s strategic advantage of only having to fight in one theater.

Midway at the critical moment

Kamikaze about to hit USS Missouri

DauntlessMogami

Fast Carrier Battle Group - 1944

Avenger

Questions or Comments?

The Eagle’s Webbed FeetThe Second World WarPearl HarborSlide Number 4Pearl Harbor (2)Slide Number 6War in the AtlanticThe U-Boat WarSlide Number 9The U-Boat War(2)Slide Number 11Slide Number 12The U-Boat War(3)Amphibious Warfare in the AtlanticWar in the PacificSlide Number 16Slide Number 17Japan Runs WildSlide Number 19Slide Number 20US Submarine Campaign1942 and 19431944Japanese Losses To Submarines�1941 - 1945 Japanese Economic CollapseFleet ActionsFleet Actions (2)Slide Number 28The Solomon’s CampaignSlide Number 30The Solomon’s Campaign (2)How the tide turned during the campaignSlide Number 33Philippine Sea Slide Number 35Leyte GulfSlide Number 37Leyte Gulf (2)OkinawaSlide Number 40Fleet Actions (3)Slide Number 42Slide Number 43