The ecology of information use ( 資訊運用的生態學 )

鄭先祐台南大學 環境與生態學院 教授

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『資訊運用』的生態學

Information ( 資訊 ) is involved in social decision( 社會決策 ), communication( 溝通 ) and selection of mates ( 配對的選擇 ).

It can affect population structure( 族群結構 ) as well as the distribution of animals over habitats ( 動物於棲息地的分佈 ).

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The chapter explores

動物收集，貯存和處理資訊，與其生活有何關聯？ 資訊類別與時間尺度 (temporal scale) 對行為的影響 (3.

2) Its use in a pre-detection context ( 預先察覺 ). (3.3) The extensive comparative research on spatial mem

ory ( 空間記憶 ) (3.4) Social learning ( 社會學習 ) that involves the use of inf

ormation produced by other individuals (3.5) Cultural transmission ( 文化傳習 ) of information (3.6)

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3.2 品質評估 (Quality estimation)

如何有「經濟決策」 (economic decision making)? 3.2.1 Estimating time: scalar expectancy theory (SET)

( 估計時間量的期望理論 ) 3.2.2 Estimating quality( 評估品質 ) in unchanging envi

ronments: Bayesian models 3.2.3 Tracking quality( 追蹤品質 ): linear operator mod

els 3.2.4 Estimating quality in social environments: using

public information( 使用公眾資訊 )

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3.2.1 Estimating time: scalar expectancy theory (SET) ( 估計時間量的期望理論 )

估計時間的能力，具有 survival value in a number of circumstances, ranging from foraging to predator avoidance and fighting.

於覓食的理論，動物估計與記憶時間量度的能力，對於其覓食點 ( 區 ) 資源品質的評估，特別重要。 花多少時間，可以吃到多少？是否比以前的好？或是

比較差？

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SET ( 數量期望理論 )

SET 假定動物於覓食的過程，可測量和記憶時間的長短

但對時間長短 (S) 的記憶，未必是完美的(Fig. 3.1a ) ( 時間長短記憶有誤差 )

例如： Starlings ( 歐掠鳥 ) 的覓食。 太早離開某個覓食點 ( 區 ) ，可能會損失一

些食物 ( 沒有吃到 ) 。但若太晚離開，則可能浪費一些時間。

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The only cue that signaled depletion was time since the last prey capture.

A bird that had perfect temporal estimates of S would have left the patch once S had elapsed without a prey. ( 當經過一段時間 (S) ，找不到 prey ，就會離開 )

SET 可以運用於 risk sensitivity, diet choice and sampling.

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3.2.2 Estimating quality in unchanging environments: Bayesian models

Bayesian estimation ，是估計某種事物的價值，基於目前對這事物獲得的取樣資訊，以及過去於環境中對這事物的期望價值。

例如，覓食，基於目前的 prey 狀態，以及過去於這覓食區覓食的經驗。

三種可能的環境狀態1. Prey under-dispersed (prey 分布呈現聚集 )2. Prey over-dispersed (prey 分佈相當分散 )3. Prey dispersed independently ( 隨機分布 )

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於相當分散的環境，獵物剩餘的估算 ( 品質 ) 結果，會認定環境的品質下降，而提早離開。 (Fig. 3.2b)

倘若於較聚集分布的環境，獵物剩餘的估算， updated estimate of the number of prey ，相當重要。(Fig. 3.2a)

1. Has the highest updated estimate of the number of prey remaining in the patch

2. Exploits the patch more extensively3. Requires longer unrewarded search before its updat

ed estimate declines to the threshold for patch abandonment

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分布變動大

分布均勻 隨機分布

Fig. 3.2 Graphical representation of Bayesian estimation of the number of prey items left.

獵物呈現聚集

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Behaviour consistent with Bayesian estimation has been reported in desert granivores (both birds and mammals

) (Valone & Brown, 1989), inca doves (鴿 )(Valone, 1991), black-chinned hummingbirds (Valone, 1992a), cranes (鶴 ) (Alonso, et al., 1995) and bluegill sunfish (Wildhaber, et al., 1994).

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3.2.3 Tracking quality: linear operator models

Bayesian model 是 over a range (window) of experiences, dropping the oldest events as new ones are added to the estimate.

這種 memory window models may be difficult to test.

基於 linear operator learning rules, 建立 relative payoff sum (RPS) ( 相對收益總和 ) evolutionary stable learning rule 是否類似 Evolutionary stable strategy (ESS) , 仍有爭議。

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The RPS rule ( 相對收益總和的原則 )

Pi(t+1)= Vi(t) / ΣVi(t) Where P(t+1) is the probability of responding

to option i on trial t+1 反應的機率，取決於目前這段時間的收獲，

與先前時段的總收獲相比

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Studies Both tracking of travel times by foraging starli

ngs( 歐掠鳥 ) (Cuthill, et al., 1990, 1994) Monitoring of interprey encounter times in pig

eons (鴿 ) (Shettleworth & Plowright, 1992) Distance traveled to next flower by bumble be

es.

The RPS rule ( 相對收益總和的原則 )

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3.2.4 Estimating quality in social environments: using public information

前面兩種都是靠自己的經驗來判定，但亦可以運用 public information 來判定。 For a group of G individuals using public informatio

n ，如此可以有 G times rate 來判定 quality. Starlings are social foragers and sample a food

patch by probing their bill into the substrate. Public patch-sample information is provided by oth

er individuals’ probes of the patch.

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Fig. 3.3 Templetion and Giraldeau (1996) experimental evidence of public information used by starlings faced with a patch-quality estimation problem

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3.3 Detecting cryptic prey: search image or search speed?

Tinbergen (1960) suggested that foragers confronted with cryptic prey develop a ‘search image’ that enhances their detection.

Dawkins (1971) cautions that alternative hypotheses can account for apostatic(背信的 ) prey selection. Learning where or how to search for prey, improvin

g capture or handling efficiency, and changing prey preference can all lead to apostatic selection without a search image.

To reduce their search rates ( 提升搜尋的能力 )

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search image or search speed?

Search image Guilford & Dawkins, 1987; Endler, 1991; Re

id & Shettleworth, 1992 Reduced search time

Gendron & Staddon, 1983; Gendron, 1986; Getty & Pulliam, 1993

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3.4 Spatial memory ( 空間記憶 )as an adaptive cognitive specialization

Qualitatively or quantitatively ( 質 or 量 ) 的學習和記憶的過程。

3.4.1 comparative ( 比較 ) approach Ask whether similar selection pressures gave ris

e, through convergent evolution, to common behavioural and neuroanatomical adaptation.

3.4.2 experimental (實驗 ) approach Compares the performance of different species

confronted with a common laboratory problem.

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3.4.1 Comparative approach ( 比較法 )

天擇的壓力作用於神經解剖 (neuroanatomy) 譬如： insectivorous and frugivorous bats and

primates tended to be more encephalized than folivorous ones (Pagel and Harvey, 1989)

Crepuscular and nocturnal birds have relatively larger olfactory bulbs than diurnal birds (Healy & Guilford, 1990)

Birds with larger relative forebrains are more frequently reported to use novel foraging techniques (Lefebvre et al., 1996a)

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3.4.2 Experimental approach (實驗法 )

Cognitive( 認知 ) specialization It can be qualitatively different from other

forms of spatial learning and rely on a separate and entirely dedicated cognitive process. ( 個別產生的認知能力 )

Kamil, et al., 1994; Brodbeck, 1994; Clayton & Krebs, 1994a,b; Brodbeck & Shettleworth, 995)

Alternatively, it may simply have improved the all-purpose mechanisms.

Shettleworth, et al., 1990;Balda & Kamil, 1989

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3.5 The ecology of social learning

3.5.1 Area copying ( 區域複製 ) Area copying, also called local enhancement, occurs

when an individual directs its behaviour towards the place where others are currently active.

Birds (Krebs, et al., 1972; Barnard & Sibly, 1981) Social spiders (Ward, 1986) Fish (Pitcher et al., 1982) Mammals (Galef, 1990)

Adaptive hypotheses Area copying can allow animals to avoid dangero

us places.

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3.5.2 object copying

Object copying ( 物件複製 ), also called stimulus enhancement (Galef, 1988) or releaser induced recognition (Subowski, 1990), is similar to area copying in that it directs behaviour. However, the behaviour is directed to an obj

ect that matches the type attended by others, rather than a place.

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3.5.3 Behaviour copying

Behaviour copying ( 行為複製 ) also called imitation (Galef, 1988; Heyes, 1993), occurs when a topographically novel behaviour pattern is acquired by seeing another individual use it.

The behaviour must be topographically novel in order to distinguish behaviour coping from situation where behaviour patterns already in an animal’s repertoire.

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3.6 The ecology of cultural transmission ( 文化傳承的生態學 )

The use of public information can lead to the spread of behavioural innovations within populations.

3.6.1 The population approach Unlike genes, cultural traits can be acquired horizo

ntally within generations, or obliquely through collateral kin. (橫向的傳送 )

例如： birds can open milk bottles to drink through the UK in the first half of last century (Fisher & Hinde, 1949; Lefebvre, 1995a)

日本獼猴學會沖洗 potato and wheat (Kawai, 1965)

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Fig. 3.5 cumulative spread of foraging innovation over time(a) the number of sites reporting avian bottle opening in the whole of the UK between 1921 and 1947.(b) washing potatoes

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Fig. 3.5 ( c ) washing wheat ( d ) eating beached fish

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( e ) The cumulative proportion of Japanese macaques at Takasakiyama unwrapping and eating caramels.( f ) eating mangoes (芒果 ) ( g ) lemons.

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3.6.2 factors affecting the rate of spread

Demonstrator and observer densities Scrounging (乞得 ) ：

skills spread very little when demonstrators were available within foraging flocks.

The availability of scrounging opportunities where observers get to eat some of the food discovered by the demonstrator.

Scrounging may have prevented the spread of the skill within the foraging flocks.

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3.6.3 Factors affecting longevity of traditions

Imitation (模仿 ) itself may be insufficient to sustain cultural traditions.

Fidelity (忠誠度 ): 往往需要與實際利益結合，譬如 enemy recognition ，個體可避免不舒服的感覺，或是增加適應環境的能力等等。

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3.7 Future directions

於不同的生態問題下，不同物種會使用不同的記憶因素 (memory parameters) ( 機制 ) Memory window model ( 記憶窗模式 ) (Va

lone, 1992b; Mackeney and Hughes, 1995)

Public information should be envisaged (設想為 ) as a process ( 過程 ).

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http://mail.nutn.edu.tw/~hycheng

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