The Effect of Artifacts on Analogy in Innovative Design

Christian Schunn (University of Pittsburgh)Bo T. Christensen (Copenhagen Business School)

Methodologies

Lab studies (in vitro)

allows for experimentation; low validity; high control

Case studies (in historico)

high validity, but cognitive details missing; no control

Online observation (in vivo)

access to cognitive details; high validity; no control

(terminology from Kevin Dunbar)

Unpacking the Processes of Innovation

Analogy InnovationExternal

EnvironmentFrequency

Type

Studied Setting

Followed 5-person product development team in a major international company dealing in medical plastics designwon many design awards; industry leader

Videotaped scheduled weekly brainstorming and product development meetings

Analyzed 7 product development meetings (9 hours of video), collected over 5 months (conceptual design phase)5800 segments of on-task speech coded

Research Question 1What kind of analogies do highly innovative designers use?

Within-domain analogies? (More relevant)

Between-domain analogies? (More novel)

George de MestralCockleburrs Velcro

Distribution of analogies (N=102)

Both analogies types common

All meetings have both types

Potato print Zippers

Credit cardsMilk cartons

ShoesCars

Toilet paperChristmas decorations

Water wheelsPicture puzzleVenetian Blinds

Underwear

Research Question 2How does the external design environment shape what analogies occur (inspiration vs. design fixation)?

no support (unconstrained)

sketches (loosely constrained)

prototypes (tightly constrained)

96% of designers use sketches or prototypes

during solution development

Frequency of analogies by external

environment

Fewer Analogies w/ Prototypes

(no confound w/ phase of design)

0%

1%

2%

3%

4%

5%

6%

Idea Sketch Prototype

% of segments with analogies

Interaction with distance

Prototype drop in analogies specific to between-domain analogies

0%

1%

2%

3%

4%

Within-domain Between-domain

idea

sketch

prototype

Research Question 3

What Role Do Analogies Play in Design?

Just about explanation?

Dunbar claims long distance analogies only after the fact for explanation

New answers?

Or maybe potential problems?

Observed Functions of Analogies in

Design

Distance by Function

Identify are local, explain are long distance

Solve problem analogies are mixed! (different from science?)

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Identify problem Solve problem Explain

% Between Domain

0%

1%

2%

Idea Prototype

Communicative Alignment

Ideas require explain analogies Prototypes don’t

ConclusionsInventive designers use both within- and between-domain analogies

between-domain not just for explanation

helps highlight problems, not just answers

Prototypes reduce between-domain analogizing (but sketches do not)

Perhaps some rapid prototyping too rapid?