the effect of music on quality perceptions

8/6/2019 The Effect of Music on Quality Perceptions

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The role of cognitions andemotions in the music-approach-avoidance behavior relationship Jillian C. SweeneySenior Lecturer, Faculty of Economics and Commerce, University of

Western Australia, Perth, AustraliaFiona WyberSpace Management Co-ordinator, BP Retail Merchandise, BPAustralia, Melbourne, Australia

Keywords Environment, Psychology, Service quality, Cognition, Music

Abstract This study extends the Mehrabian-Russell environmental psychology model toinclude both emotional states and cognitive processing as mediators of the music-intended behavior relationship. Our model specifically suggests that music affects

customers perceptions of service quality and merchandise quality as well as feelings ofarousal and pleasure, in the context of a womens fashion store. The effect of music on

service quality has not previously received much attention. In addition, it has been

suggested that previous results of studies examining the effect of music on consumerresponses may have been largely the result of individual music tastes. In the presentstudy, therefore, the effect of music tastes is also examined. Findings indicated that liking

of music has a major effect on consumers evaluations (pleasure, arousal, service qualityand merchandise quality), while the music characteristics (specifically slow pop or fast

classical) have an additional effect on pleasure and service quality. Further, pleasure,service quality and merchandise quality affected intended approach behaviors, and

arousal contributed to these behaviors when the store environment was consideredpleasant. Affiliation behaviors similarly resulted from service quality, pleasure and

arousal, but not merchandise quality. Overall results indicate the importance ofunderstanding the effect of music on both consumers internal evaluations as well as

intended behaviors.

Introduction

Music has been known for centuries to have a powerful effect on human

responses. In the social science context, music is particularly known for its

effectiveness in triggering moods. In the marketing domain, music has been

shown to affect consumer behaviors, particularly shopper behavior (e.g.

Milliman, 1982, 1986), as well as emotional responses (e.g. Kellaris and

Kent, 1994). Retailers realize the importance of music and also that playing

music is in itself not enough, that music needs to be used to differentiate the

store from competitors and to maximize store image rather than serving as a

distraction to shoppers (Reda, 1998; Chain Store Age, 1996, 2000a). Music

has an expanded role in the marketing strategy of many retailers, especially

with the high-tech personalized multimedia services offered by AEI, DMX

and Muzak (Reda, 1998; Chain Store Age, 1996, 2000a, b). Music is known

to be particularly important in young men and womens fashion in terms of

creating the image of the store (Marketing News, 1996).

However, studies focusing on the effect of music have commonly been

limited to either the effect of music on internal consumer evaluations or the

effect of music on behavioral outcomes. The full model, that is the music !

customer evaluations ! customer behavior sequence (otherwise known as

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Powerful effect

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An executive summary for

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the S-O-R or stimulus-organism-response model) in the store environment

context, has not, to the authors knowledge been explored within the same

study. For example, what effect does music have on customer perceptions

and what are the subsequent effects of such perceptions in terms of consumer

behavior in the store? In particular, while the importance of service quality

on behavioral outcomes is well documented (e.g. Zeithaml et al., 1996), the

effect of in-store music on service quality perceptions has received scant

consideration.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of two different

characteristics of music (tempo and genre) on consumers emotional states

(pleasure and arousal) and cognitive processing (service quality and

merchandise quality) and further, to determine the importance of emotional

states and cognitive processing on intended in-store behaviors. Some

researchers have suggested that the results of studies examining the effect of

music on consumer responses (e.g. time spent in store or expenditure) may

have been largely due to musical preferences rather than the musical

characteristics, such as tempo and volume, themselves (Herrington and

Capella, 1996). Hence, consumers individual preference for different types

of music will also be examined in this study.

The present study has its roots in atmospherics, a term first used by Kotler

(1973) to mean the effort to design buying environments to produce specific

emotional effects that enhance the chance of purchase. Subsequently, two

environmental psychologists, Mehrabian and Russell (1974), proposed a

parsimonious model based on the S-O-R paradigm to explain the effects of

the environment on emotional states, which in turn affect human behavior in

that environment. Our study, which focuses on the effect of music on

consumer perceptions and behavioral outcomes, extends the Mehrabian-

Russell model to include cognitive processing, specifically service quality

and merchandise quality evaluations, as mediating variables (Figure 1).

Previous research relevant to this model will now be discussed. Note that thecomponent of the S-O-R model addressed is given in brackets at the

beginning of each section.

Effect of music on behavioral responses (S!R)

Music has been found to affect the extent of certain behaviors in a store

environment. Milliman (1982) examined the effect of tempo of background

music in a supermarket finding that the in-store traffic was significantly

slower and sales were significantly higher with slow music than with fast

music. Similarly, in 1986, Milliman found that slower tempo music resulted

in customers staying significantly longer in a restaurant and spending more

Figure 1. Model of the relationship between music, cognitive processing,emotional states and approach-avoidanc e behaviors

Two characteristics of

music

Effect of tem po

52 JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING, VOL. 16 NO. 1 2002


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on alcoholic beverages. Herrington and Capella (1996), in contrast, found no

support for the effects of tempo and volume of music on shopping time and

expenditure. The latter authors, however, controlled for musical preference

in the analysis by treating it as a covariate and claimed that the lack of

control for this variable in previous studies may be a reason for the

difference between their results and previous results. Indeed, these authors

found preference to have a substantial influence on shopping time and a

marginal effect on expenditure, while musical characteristics of volume and

tempo had no effect on shopping time or expenditure. Bruner (1990)

similarly recommended that familiarity and liking of the music played

should be accounted for in research designs. This is particularly important in

research that focuses on a single age group, as age groups tend to be

prejudiced against certain sorts of music (Herrington and Capella, 1994).

Effect of music on emotional responses (S!O)

A further body of research has investigated the effect of different music

characteristics, such as tempo, pitch and texture on affective responses such

as appeal, attitude, affect and emotion. For a summary of some of these

studies, refer to Bruner (1990). Bruner (1990) concluded that music has been

treated too generally in past studies and that both main and interaction effects

of the various structural components of music, such as tempo, pitch and

texture needed to be tested through experimental designs. Kellaris and Rice

(1993, p. 18) similarly called for research to focus on which particular

musical components ``produce or encourage the thoughts and feelings

responsible for desirable outcomes. The present study seeks to test the main

and interaction effects of two important musical characteristics, tempo and

genre. Overall, past research relating to tempo and genre has shown that in

general, fast music is considered more arousing than slow music, and also

more pleasurable than slow music (Bruner, 1990; Kellaris and Kent, 1991,

1994). Likewise, texture (including genre) has been found to have a

significant effect on arousal, pop music being more arousing than classical

music (Kellaris and Kent, 1994). However, Kellaris and Kent (1994) found

that classical music was more pleasant than pop music.

Effect of music on cognitive processing (S!O)

Consumers also use environmental cues, such as music, in cognitive

processing, when predicting or evaluating the value of an offering by both

goods and service retailers. While it is well known that the consumers infer

merchandise quality based on the retail store environment, including music,

using the retail environment to infer service quality is far less discussed

(Baker et al., 1994). Bitner (1992, p. 63) argued ``people may use their

beliefs about the servicescape as surrogate indicators in forming beliefsabout service quality. A few studies support this assertion in the context of

the cue ``music. For example, in an experiment by Baker et al. (1994),

music, in combination with eight other in-store factors developed to generate

prestige-image and discount image stores, was found to influence

perceptions of both merchandise and service quality. Consistent with this

finding, research has found that shoppers equate muzak or music with better

customer service (Marketing Week, 1994). However, the limited findings of

Yalch and Spangenberg (1993), in investigating how consumer perceptions,

including perceived ``friendliness of the store, varied with respect to

different types of music, tentatively indicated that music had no effect on

shoppers opinion of the store and its merchandise Clearly, further researchon the effect of music on service quality is warranted.

Affective responses

Environmental cues

JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING, VOL. 16 NO. 1 2002 53


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Mehrabian-Russell model

Mehrabian and Russell (1974) suggest that environmental stimuli affect an

individuals emotional states which in turn affect approach or avoidance

responses (S-O-R model). In particular, they proposed that three basic

emotional states mediate the environment-behavior relationship: pleasure,

arousal and dominance. Dominance, however, has been shown to have a

non-significant effect on behavior (Donovan and Rossiter, 1982). In addition,

they claim that responses to an environment can be classified in terms of

approach behaviors, which include a desire to stay in, look around and

explore the environment, to communicate with others in the environment and

enhancement of performance behaviors. Avoidance behaviors comprise the

opposite. While Mehrabian and Russell (1974) conceptualized their model as

relevant to a variety of environments, the model has been specifically

adapted to the retailing environment by a number of marketing scholars. As

claimed previously, no research has evaluated all three stages of this model

simultaneously, that is the stimulus (such as music) ! the individuals

evaluation ! the behavioral outcome (S-O-R). However, some researchers

have examined the emotional state ! behavioral outcome component (O-R)

of the model, as discussed in the next section.

The emotional responses on behavioral outcomes component of the

Mehrabian-Russell model (O!R)

Donovan and Rossiter (1982) and Donovan et al. (1994) examined the O-R

linkage of the Mehrabian-Russell model finding that pleasure is a powerful

determinant of approach-avoidance behaviors within the store, including

spending more than anticipated. Their findings over the two studies indicated

that pleasure influenced intended approach and actual approach behaviors

and that arousal interacted with pleasure such that arousal increases approach

behaviors in pleasant environments, while decreasing avoidance behaviors in

unpleasant environments. Baker et al. (1992) found that not only pleasure,

but also arousal was positively related to willingness to buy. Dube et al.

(1995), specifically focusing on the affiliation component of approach-

avoidance, similarly found that higher pleasure and arousal increased the

desire to affiliate with staff in a bank setting, and that further, there was some

support for an interaction between pleasure and arousal on affiliation.

Various other studies (e.g. Dawson et al., 1990) have also found support for

the relationship between emotions and retail outcomes.

Extension of the Mehrabian-Russell model to include cognitive

processing (O!R)

However, the Mehrabian and Russell model explains the effect of the

environment on behavior through emotional responses alone. A broaderframework to explain the effect of environmental cues on consumer response

is necessary, since responses to environmental cues such as music are not

limited to emotional responses. Bitners (1992) servicescapes framework

proposed that employees and customers in a store environment respond

cognitively, emotionally and physiologically to the environment, and these

factors in turn affect behavior. Consequently, the effect of environmental

cues such as music needs to be extended to consider both emotional and

cognitive responses simultaneously. Although Donovan et al. (1994)

investigated the additional effect of merchandise quality (as well as the

emotional responses of pleasure and arousal) on specific behavioral

responses, the theoretical rationale for this addition was not clear. Resultsindicated that various quality aspects, particularly ``variety, significantly

Environmental stimuli

Emo tional responses



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added to the explanation of spending extra time and unplanned spending in

the store.

Specifically, both merchandise quality and service quality are of interest in

the present study. Both have been established in the literature as influencing

behavioral intentions such as willingness to buy, repeat purchasing, loyalty

and word of mouth (Richardson et al., 1996; Zeithaml et al., 1996; Sweeney

et al., 1999). Therefore, the role of both emotional (pleasure and arousal) and

cognitive responses (merchandise quality and service quality) as mediators inthe music-behavior relationship is examined in this study.

The model

The model to be tested in the present study is an extension of the Mehrabian-

Russell environmental psychology model, which includes cognitive

components. It can also be viewed as a sub-model of the servicescapes model

proposed by Bitner (1992). The model (Figure 1) examines the manner in

which music affects consumer responses or reactions and subsequently

intended behaviors in a retailing context, that of a young womens fashion

store. The model proposes that music affects behavior through its effect on

cognitive processing as well as emotional states.

In addition, Herrington and Capella (1996, p. 38) have suggested that

previously observed effects may have been the result of preference rather

than musical characteristics, that is, that the results of previous studies on the

effect of music may be biased by musical preference. Our study also

investigates the effect of preferential aspects of the music (liking,

familiarity) on both cognitive processes (service quality and merchandise

quality) and emotional states (pleasure and arousal).

Objectives

In summary, our study examines:

How musical characteristics (tempo and genre) affect not only emotional

states (pleasure and arousal), but also cognitive processing (service

quality and merchandise quality).

Whether music tastes affect pleasure, arousal, service quality and

merchandise quality, and if so, whether such tastes have a greater

influence than the musical characteristics.

How these factors (pleasure, arousal, service quality and merchandise

quality) in turn affect behaviors in the retail store.

From now on, pleasure, arousal, service quality and merchandise quality will

be referred to as P, A, SQ and MQ as appropriate.

Method

Overview of the study

The present study involved a 2 2 between-subject experimental design,

which manipulated two characteristics of background music tempo (fast,

slow) and genre (top 40, classical) in an apparel specialty store. The

experiment was accomplished via a video simulation of a browse around an

inner city young womens fashion store, featuring the music treatments as

the background. The video protocol has been demonstrated to be a valid

means of theory testing where a specific environmental setting is required

(Bateson and Hui, 1992). A young womens fashion store was selected sinceit is within the students realm of experience, and additionally, the store

Merchandise qual ity and

service quality

Preferential aspects



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manager was known to the authors and willing to make the store available

for development of the video simulation.

Subjects

Subjects were 128 female students in their final year of a commerce degree.

Subjects were randomly assigned to one of the four treatment groups. After

viewing the videotape, respondents then completed a self-administered

questionnaire.

Stimuli selection

The two musical characteristics manipulated in this experiment, tempo (fast,

slow) and genre (top 40, classical), were selected from Bruners (1990)

typology as being important musical characteristics, representing the time-

related and texture-related musical dimensions. Musical pieces were selected

by one of the authors, a former music student at a specialist music school.

The four treatments were chosen to be as similar as possible on

characteristics other than tempo and genre. This is due to the importance of

isolating the attribute of interest and keeping other variables constant to

avoid confounding (Kellaris and Kent, 1994). For example, all pieces chosen

were in major keys as the modality can also affect emotional and perceptualresponses (Kellaris and Kent, 1991, 1994). Top 40 music is defined in the

present study as music featuring in the top 40 positions in the commercial, as

printed in Express magazine at the time of the data collection. The slow

pieces were both below 70BPM, while the fast pieces had speeds of

126BPM. All four videos were played at the same volume during the

experiment and lasted about two minutes. A manipulation check was carried

among 14 female respondents prior to the main experiment to identify if the

pieces were perceived as representing the relevant music dimensions. The

order of treatment was randomized for this pre-test. Results indicated that the

respondents agreed with the prior classification of pieces by the researchers.

In terms of the video development, anonymity of the store was clearly

critical to avoid respondent bias. The video was filmed in such a manner to

ensure that the store/brand name was not visible. Likewise, no signage was

filmed and recognizable store features such as the center counter and the

two-dimensional (``flat) store mannequins were not present on the video.

Measures

Dependent. Mehrabian and Russell (1974) purported that all behaviors could

be classified as either approach or avoidance behaviors. Approach behaviors

are all positive behaviors that might be directed at an environment. In the

context of a retail environment, this includes store patronage intentions,

including a desire to browse in and purchase from the store, enjoying the

store, interacting with others in the store and recommending the store.

Avoidance behaviors are the opposite (Donovan and Rossiter, 1982). A total

of 11 items based on questions used by Donovan and Rossiter (1982) were

used in the scale. One question used by Donovan and Rossiter (1982),

however, ``Is this a place in which you would feel friendly and talkative to

strangers was recast into four items representing friendly and talkative

separately and intentions towards staff and other customers separately, since

for high contact services, such as a retail store, both staff and other customers

are present and indeed are critical in the service delivery (Lovelock et al.,

1998). Three additional items, relating to willingness to buy, used by Baker

et al. (1992) were added. The final 14 items were cast in a seven-point Likertformat.

Tempo and genre

Anonymity of the store was

critical



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Independent. Merchandise quality items were developed based on

appropriate quality dimensions found in the literature as well as qualitative

research conducted to develop scale items for clothing quality. A total of 20

depth interviews were conducted with female students. Seven items were

used to measure merchandise quality based on a seven-point Likert format.

A total of 11 service quality items were derived from the retail service

quality scale developed by Dabholkar et al. (1996). Specifically, items that

could be assessed from a video simulation were selected. Again a seven-point Likert scale format was used.

The emotional state measures were taken from Mehrabian and Russell

(1974). Since pleasure and arousal have been the emotional dimensions of

most importance in previous research, dominance taking a relatively minor

role in explaining emotions (e.g. Donovan and Rossiter, 1982; Donovan et

al., 1994), only the two major dimensions were measured. Six items were

used to represent each of pleasure and arousal using a seven-point semantic

differential format.

Covariates

A pre-test showed that the female student sample had a greater preference for

pop than classical music. As indicated in recent research by Herrington and

Capella (1996), as well as in earlier discussion by Bruner (1990), it is

important to ensure that results are not confounded by consumers musical

tastes. Both liking and familiarity with the musical piece, potential

covariates, were measured on seven-point scales (end descriptors liked/

disliked, familiar/unfamiliar).

Reliability and validity

An exploratory factor analysis of the five constructs (approach-avoidance,

merchandise quality, service quality, pleasure and arousal) was conducted

using principal axis factoring and an oblique rotation. The structure wasinvestigated by assessing three subgroups of items due to the large number of

variables compared to observations[1]. These subgroups were: approach-

avoidance items, emotional items and cognitive items. Factors were

extracted as expected, with the exception that approach-avoidance items

were split across two dimensions, which could be described as ``general

approach intentions and ``affiliation intentions. This differentiation

supports Mehrabian and Russells (1974) view that affiliation responses are

generally independent of other approach behaviors. Overall, the percentage

of variance extracted was 62.3 percent for each of the first two groups of

items and 58.3 percent for the third group. This pattern was replicated

through a factor analysis of all 39 items in combination, explaining 64.4percent of the variance (Table I). Reliability analysis was conducted for each

construct based on the Cronbach alpha test of internal consistency. All

reliabilities were between 0.74 and 0.92 (Table II).

The appropriateness of these six factors was further assessed using

confirmatory factor analysis in LISREL 8. The model represented an

acceptable level of fit, despite the significant chi-square value (2

= 143.3,

df = 62, p < 0.01, RMR = 0.059, GFI = 0.87, CFI = 0.93).

Discriminant validity was evaluated through the test that the correlation

between constructs is significantly less than one (Bagozzi and

Heatherton, 1994). Discriminant validity was supported for all pairs ofdimensions.

Merchandise quality

Exploratory factor analysis



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Factor

Scale item 1 2 3 4 5 6

Approach intentions

This is the sort of place where I might

spend more money 0.79

The likelihood I would shop in this store

is high 0.78 0.28

I would be willing to buy clothing at this

store 0.74 0.26 0.30I would enjoy shopping at this store 0.74 0.27 0.34

I could see myself . . . browsing in this

store 0.67 0.27 0.34

I would avoid ever having to visit the

storea 0.64 0.19 0.42

I would be willing to recommend this

store 0.61 0.25 0.28

I would want to avoid exploring this storea 0.53 0.28

I like this store environment 0.45 0.28 0.28 0.41

Service quality

Prompt service 0.80

Personal attention 0.79High service quality 0.79

Individual attention 0.77

Would accept most major credit cards 0.25 0.66

Courteous employees 0.60 0.39

Feel safe in transactions 0.44 0.59

Would perform service right first time 0.58 0.50

Would solve problems 0.34 0.53 0.34

Pleasure

Annoye d pleased 0.27 0.83

Unhappy happy 0.34 0.78

Unsatisfied satisfied 0.35 0.75

Melancholic contented 0.69Despairing hopeful 0.65 0.30

Bored relaxed 0.35 0.53 0.33

Arousal

Calm excited 0.83

Sluggish frenzied 0.80

Relaxed stimulated 0.75

Dull jittery 0.69

Unaroused aroused 0.41 0.61

Sleepy wide awake 0.40 0.54

Affiliation (. . . in this store)

I would feel talkative to strangers 0.82I would feel talkative to shop assistants 0.79

I would feel friendly to strangers 0.25 0.73

I would feel friendly to staff 0.35 0.29 0.67

I would try to avoid other people . . . a 0.30 0.43 0.39

Merchandise quality

Clothing would not lasta

0.76

High quality fabric 0.42 0.38 0.63

High quality clothing 0.41 0.59

Clothing would not fit wella 0.35 0.49

Notes: Items with loading of less that 0.25 not shownaitems reverse scored

Table I. Exploratory factor analysis of construct items



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Evaluation of covariates

Past research has indicated that musical preference (e.g. familiarity, liking)

may explain the effects of music on consumers, more so than the musical

characteristics themselves (Herrington and Capella, 1994, 1996; Bruner,

1990). In our study the effect of liking and familiarity on consumer

perceptions (P, A, SQ and MQ) were specifically studied. What type of

music, then, did our sample of students like and which type were they mostfamiliar with? Tempo significantly affected the liking of music (p < 0.05)

(slower more liked), while the effect of genre on liking was of marginal

significance (p < 0.10) (top 40 more liked). Slower top 40 was the most

preferred of all options, although the interaction of tempo and genre was not,

in fact, significant. Results also showed that genre and the genre-tempo

interaction had a significant effect on familiarity, top 40 and in particular fast

top 40 being most familiar. Both liking and familiarity were included as

covariates in the subsequent analysis of the effect of music on internal

evaluations, since both together improved the statistical efficiency of the

analysis.

Results

The effect of music on cognitive and emotional responses

To formally evaluate the effect of music on emotional states and cognitive

processing, a factorial multivariate analysis of covariance based on two

independent variables (tempo and genre), four dependent variables (pleasure,

arousal, perceptions of service quality, perceptions of merchandise quality)

and two covariates (familiarity with the music played, liking of the music

played) was conducted. The significance of the effects of the independent

variables and the covariates are shown in Table III. Descriptive statistics are

shown in Table IV.

Analysis of the covariates indicated that liking of the music was a significantcovariate (p < 0.10 for pleasure, p < 0.05 for arousal, merchandise quality

and service quality), that is, liking of the music was particularly related to

service quality, merchandise quality and arousal. Familiarity, however, was

not a significant covariate, that is, familiarity was not significantly related to

any of the emotional or cognitive outcomes (Table III).

In terms of the effect of musical characteristics, results show that there was a

significant interaction between genre and tempo on pleasure (p < 0.01) and

on service quality (p < 0.05). In both cases, when classical music is playing,

respondents had a higher perception of service quality and pleasure if the

music is of a fast tempo. If top 40 music is playing, then a slower tempo

induced these perceptions. These interactions are illustrated in Figure 2 andTable IV. While at a multivariate level tempo alone did not affect emotional

Scale

Number of

items

Coefficient

alpha MeanaStandard

deviation

Approach intentionsb

9 0.92 5.22 1.08

Service quality 9 0.90 5.58 0.80

Pleasure 6 0.88 5.08 1.00

Arousal 6 0.84 3.91 0.99

Affiliation intentions 5 0.81 4.25 1.10

Merchandise quality 4 0.74 5.22 0.88

Notes: aMeans are reported on a seven-point scale (1 = low; 7 = high)bAll constructs were operationalized as perceived constructs

Table II. Reliability analysis of constructs

Musical preference

Significant interaction



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or cognitive responses, at a univariate level a faster tempo did generate

higher arousal, a finding common to many previous studies.

Liking clearly has a major effect on consumer perceptions (P, A, SQ and

MQ), while the effect of tempo and genre had an additional effect. Music,

when treated as independent of consumer liking, has a significant effect, not

only on consumer emotional responses, through pleasure, but also on

cognitive responses through service quality. This is an important finding

since little research on the effect of music on service quality has beenconducted.

MANCOVA results ANCOVA results

Independent

variable

Dependent

variable

Wilks

F

df

(aa, bb) P < F

df

(aa, bb) P 4, when based on a scale of 1 to 7) and unpleasant (composite

pleasure variable 4). Results were strikingly similar to those of Donovan

and Rossiter (1982), partially supporting the significant interaction of

pleasure and arousal on general approach behaviors. Arousal had a

significant positive effect on general approach behaviors in pleasant

environments, and a negative, although insignificant, effect on generalapproach behaviors in unpleasant environments (not shown).

Figure 2. Two-way interaction of genre and tempo of music on pleasure and

service quality



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40 music were most likely to lead to such perceptions. Fast music

additionally generated higher arousal.

In terms of outcomes, pleasure, service quality and merchandise quality had

a significant effect on approach behaviors (desire to browse in and explore

store, spend more than anticipated, recommending the store, buy at the store

and enjoy the store), explaining 56 percent of the variance in such behaviors.

Pleasure, arousal and service quality accounted for 25 percent of the variance

in affiliation (interaction between themselves and other customers or staff).

Discussion and conclusions

Several researchers have successfully applied selected aspects of the

Mehrabian and Russell environmental psychology model to retailing. For

example, Donovan and Rossiter (1982) examined the relationship between

emotional responses and approach and affiliation behaviors, while Dube et

al. (1995) examined the effect of pleasure and arousal, induced by music on

affiliation. Others have examined the effect of environmental stimuli on

emotional responses (e.g. Kellaris and Kent, 1991, 1994). In contrast, the

present study examines all three components environmental stimuli,

emotional states and approach-avoidance behaviors, simultaneously.Importantly, in line with Bitners (1992) servicescapes model, the present

study examined the role of cognitive processing as well as emotional states

in the music-intended behavior relationship.

The empirical evidence presented, and as discussed under ``summary

above, shows that liking of the music and the musical characteristics

themselves both had a significant effect on consumers emotional and

cognitive evaluations and that, in turn, these perceptions had a significant

effect on desired intended approach and affiliation behaviors. Consequently,

the present study provides support for the servicescapes model as well as the

extended Mehrabian-Russell model in a retail setting.

Many past studies have not controlled for musical preference, which we did

in this study, finding that liking had a significant effect on consumer

perceptions. We agree with Bruner (1990) and Herrington and Capella

(1996) that the lack of control for preference may have distorted previous

findings relating to the effects of music on consumer outcomes.

Examining each component of the model shown in Figure 1 specifically, it

was found that the experimental manipulations of music generated different

perceptions of pleasure and service quality. While the ability of music to

influence pleasure is no surprise (e.g. Dube et al., 1995), its ability to

influence service quality perceptions is a finding that deserves attention.

Depending on the intended position of the store in the consumers mind,music may be used to convey impressions of service quality. Slow pop music

and fast classical music were associated with the highest levels of pleasure

and perceived service quality. Previous research has shown these

combinations to represent moderate levels of arousal (Kellaris and Kent,

1994). This was also true in the present study, that is, these musical

combinations create moderate levels of arousal within the range experienced

in the study. This suggests that favorable perceptions are maximized in the

study context when the environment is neither too stimulating nor too boring.

In terms of the effect of cognitive and emotional factors on behavioral

intentions, the study showed that feelings of pleasure, and perceptions of

high merchandise quality in particular, supported by quality service, led togreater intended approach behaviors. Positive affiliation behaviors, such as

Environmental psychology

model

Different perceptions



14/19

increased talkativeness, and friendliness to staff and strangers and reduced

avoidance of other people, were associated with feelings of pleasure and

arousal, and perceptions of high service quality. Mehrabian and Russell

(1974) hypothesized that pleasure would interact with arousal in its effect on

approach-avoidance behaviors. This study found evidence of this interaction

on general intended approach behaviors, at least in pleasant environments,

but not on affiliation. That is, increased arousal increases general approach

behaviors in pleasant environments. These findings support the findings of

Donovan and Rossiter (1982) and Donovan et al. (1994) with respect to

general approach behaviors. However, the small sample size ( n = 17) for the

unpleasant environment and conclusions relating to the pleasure-arousal

interaction in the low pleasure environment should be treated with caution.

Although not reaching significance, the coefficient of the effect of

merchandise quality on affiliation was negative. If a person perceives that a

particular product (in this case an item of clothing) is of high quality, there

may be a diminished need to affiliate with salespeople as there is less

dissonance associated with purchasing the item. Consumers are generally

fairly confident with their personal evaluations as to the quality of an item of

clothing. If an item of clothing was evaluated as being of high quality, there

may therefore be little need to discuss the item with a member of staff.

Recommendations

``Besides heat and light . . . music is the only thing that impacts you 100

percent of the time while you are in the store (Marketing News, 1996,

p. 21). In addition, music, noted as the ultimate marketing tool which leaves

a lasting impression on the consumer, is a relatively easy store characteristic

to manipulate (Chain Store Age, 2000a). Retailers recognize the importance

of music and that it is a fast way to create a store identity, particularly with

merchandise becoming so standardized (Marketing News, 1991, 1996; Chain

Store Age, 1996; Reda, 1998).

The results of this study indicated that pleasure, merchandise quality andservice quality all affected the desired intended approach behaviors

(browsing more, likelihood of buying, spending more, recommending the

store) and that in a pleasant environment increased approach behaviors. Thus

retailers should aim for high levels of merchandise quality and service

quality, a pleasant environment and if the environment is considered pleasant

by customers (not all are), moderate to high levels of arousal, which can be

manipulated through music or alternative store characteristics (e.g. smell,

lighting, color). If social (affiliation) behaviors are desired, then higher levels

of pleasure, arousal and service quality are required.

The emotional and cognitive factors (P, A, SQ and MQ), in turn, were

increased by liking of the music. However, familiarity had no effect on these

perceptions, indicating that catering to the target markets musical liking is

far more important than considering what they are familiar with. Hence for

example, the student sample liked slow top 40 best, while being most

familiar with fast top 40. Hence we recommend that priority is given to

music that consumers like rather than music that they are familiar with. In

addition, pleasure and service quality were also increased by particular

musical combinations (fast classical and slow top 40). Hence, in the present

case, slow top 40 was both liked more than any other combination and also

had a strong independent effect on pleasure and service quality perceptions.

Thus, as well as the target market who liked slow top 40, a visitor to the store

who did not particularly like or dislike slow top 40, would still perceive ahigher level of service quality and pleasure associated with the store. While

Marketing tool

Emo tional and cognitive

factors



15/19

these results may differ for different stores and target markets, the principle

learned here is that while liking can influence customer perceptions,

particular musical characteristics can, in addition and independently,

influence consumer responses (P, A, SQ and MQ).

It is important for retailers to maintain a consistent image to the target

market. As the combination of genre and tempo in this study was found to

affect perceptions (in this case slow top 40 and fast classical led to increased

pleasure and service quality perceptions), it is recommended that mixingtempos and genres is minimized to avoid confusing such perceptions, hence

maintaining a stable image (Marketing News, 1996).

Many stores cater to different target markets, for example, in terms of

different sections of the store or in terms of different people visiting the store

at different times of the day. Hence, as music tastes vary in terms of age,

gender, education and race (American Demographics, 1994), retailers must

consider the likes of the target markets and offer music that the target market

likes that is not necessarily familiar, but that has some element of

consistency. Overall, the key for retailers is to design the environment to

cater to all senses such that all senses (sight, sound, smell, taste and touch)

act in a synergistic manner creating a powerful consistent image that cannotbe attained from one sense alone (Chain Store Age, 1996).

This study has examined the effect of a single store characteristic, music, on

customer outcomes. Ultimately, however, retailers are viewing music as part

of a broader communication package. DMX, AEI and Muzak are increasing

their efforts to become marketing partners of retail stores, offering

personalized programming (Reda, 1998). For example, Mallnet by DMX, a

single source multimedia service, offers marketing tools from in-store music

to credit authorization using a shared satellite network (Chain Store Age,

2000b).

Implications and future researchCaution should be exercised in generalizing the results. Clearly, the study

was limited in terms of a variety of design factors, such as the use of a single

retailer, and the limited number of musical treatments examined. More

research needs to be conducted on the specific effects of different

characteristics of music, such as such as harmony, melody, pitch, and other

characteristics discussed by Bruner (1990), on consumers cognitive and

emotional responses.

Evaluating the effect of specific types of music on service quality

perceptions across different types of stores is an avenue of future research. A

specific type of music is likely to have a quite different effect in a gas station

than it does in a department store.

A complex mixture of environmental stimuli contribute to the store image or

servicescape. Other store environment elements (e.g. lighting, scent, design)

could also be examined in the context of the model used in this study

An important area of future research is further examination of Bitners

(1992) servicescapes model. The model proposes that both employees and

customers are affected by environmental stimuli. While some research has

been conducted in organizational settings on the effect of environmental

factors such as layout on employee responses (e.g. Davis, 1984) and the

effects of background music on employee work effectiveness (e.g. Keenan,

1989), the number of studies on the effect of music on marketing outcomes issparse. There is a clear opportunity, as suggested by the servicescapes model,

Consistent ima ge

Specific types of music



16/19

to investigate the simultaneous effect of music on both store personnel and

customers, the subsequent interaction between the two and the behavioral

outcomes of both parties.

Some individuals are more cognitively inclined than others, that is they have

a high need for cognition and actively look for information and think about

the service experience (Cacioppo and Petty, 1984). Others are more

affectively orientated and tend to focus more on their emotional responses

(Larsen and Diener, 1986). For example, typically men are more functionallydriven than women (Kotler, 1973; Dittmar, 1989). Given these differences

across target groups, should managers concentrate on offering high levels of

service quality and merchandise quality? Or should the creation of pleasure

and arousal be the primary focus, which then cascades in a halo effect to

perceptions of merchandise and service quality? In other words, if this was

the case, poorer quality merchandise could be compensated by high pleasure

and arousal, created through environmental stimuli such as music. Similarly,

perceptions resulting from poor service may be compensated in the same

manner.

Note

1. Note that the general rule for sample size when conducting factor analysis is to have five

times as many observations as there are variables and that a ratio of ten to one is more

acceptable (Hair et al., 1995). The total number of items in all five scales after refinement

through reliability analysis was 39, compared to a sample size of 128. Hence factor

analysis was conducted on groups of 12-15 items at a time.

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&

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Executive summary and implications for managers andexecutives

Importance of music in a retail setting

Music is well known for its effectiveness in triggering moods. Besides heat

and light, music is the only thing that affects people for the whole of the

time they are in a store. Retailers recognize the importance of playing

music which differentiates a store from its competitors and reinforces the

stores image rather than serving as a distraction to shoppers. The role ofmusic in reinforcing a stores image is particularly important in young

mens and womens fashion, partly because much of the merchandise is

becoming standardized. But little research has been carried out on the

effect of in-store music on the way shoppers perceive the quality of service

they receive.

The research questions posed

Sweeney and Wyber investigate the effect of the tempo and type of music

played in a womens fashion store on shoppers emotional states (the

pleasure and arousal they feel) and the way in which consumers perceive the

quality of merchandise and service. The study also examines the effects ofcustomers individual preferences for different types of music. The

researchers demonstrate how pleasure, arousal, service quality and

merchandise quality affect the way in which people behave in the store.

Cater to shoppers musical tastes

The research reveals that customers who liked the music being played were

more likely to feel aroused and to rate highly the quality of service and

merchandise offered by the shop. Customers familiarity with the music

being played did not, however, affect these factors. Retailers should

therefore concentrate on trying to provide the kind of music their target

shoppers like, rather than that with which they are familiar.

Most like slow top 40 music

When classical music was being played, shoppers had a higher perception of

service quality and pleasure if the music was of a fast tempo. If top 40 music

was being played, however, a slower tempo induced these perceptions. Slow

top 40 music was both liked more than any other music and also had a strong

independent effect on customers pleasure and their perception of service

quality. Thus, as well as the target market who liked slow top 40, a visitor to

the store who did not particularly like or dislike slow top 40 would still

perceive a higher level of service quality and pleasure when visiting the

store, if slow top 40 music was being played.

Pleasure, service quality and merchandise quality had a significant effect

on shoppers desire to browse in and explore the store, enjoy the store, buy

at the store, spend more than anticipated and recommend the store to

others.

Increased talkativeness, friendliness to staff and strangers and reduced

avoidance of other people were associated with feelings of pleasure and

arousal, and perceptions of high service quality.

Avoid mixing tempos and genres

Many stores, of course, cater to different target markets, either in

different sections of the store, or because different types of people visitthe store at different times of day. Retailers should, however, avoid


This summary has been

provided to allow managers

and executives a rapid

appreciation of the content

of this article. Those with a

particular interest in the

topic covered may then read

the article in toto to take

advantage of the more

comprehensive description

of the research undertaken

and its results to get the full

benefit of the material

present


19/19

mixing musical tempos and genres, if they are to maintain a stable image

of the store. They should aim to provide music that all the target markets

like although not necessarily music that they are familiar with and

music that has some element of consistency. Overall, retailers should

design an environment in which sight, sound, smell, taste and touch act

together to create a powerful and consistent image that cannot be

attained from one sense alone.

(A precis of the a rticle ` The role of cognitions and emotions in t he music-

approach-avoidance behavior relationship. Supplied by Marketing

Consultants for Emerald.)

the effect of music on quality perceptions

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