the effect of storytelling and...
TRANSCRIPT
-
THE EFFECT OF STORYTELLING AND SELF-MOTIVATION
ON STUDENTS’ SPEAKING ABILITY
(A Quasi-experimental Research at the Eighth Grade
of SMP Insan Rabbany, BSD, South Tangerang)
THESIS
Completed as Partial Requirements for a Completion of Master Degree
at Graduate Program of English Education Department
Faculty of Educational Sciences
Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta
WILDA AKMALIA
21150140000014
GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH EDUCATION
FACULTY OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES
SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
2019
-
i
-
ii
-
iii
-
iv
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
I hereby declared that the thesis entitled “The Effect of Storytelling and Self-Motivation on
Students‟ Speaking Ability” (A Quasi-Experimental Research at the Eighth Grade of SMP
Insan Rabbany) represents my original work and that I have used no other sources except
as noted by citations. All data, tables, figures and text citations which have been
reproduced from any other sources have been explicitly acknowledged as such. I have read
and understood the Ministry of National Education (MoNE) of Indonesia‟ decree No 17
Year 2010 regarding plagiarism in higher education, therefore I am responsible for any
claims in the future regarding the originality of my thesis.
Jakarta, September 2018
Wilda Akmalia
-
v
ABSTRACT
Wilda Akmalia (2018) :
The Effect of Storytelling and Self-Motivation
on Students‟ Speaking Ability (A Quasi-
Experimental Research at the Eighth Grade of
SMP Insan Rabbany – South Tangerang)
The objective of this research is to prove empirically the effect of storytelling and self-
motivation on students‟ speaking ability at the eighth grade of SMP Insan Rabbany, BSD,
in South Tangerang, academic year 2017/2018. Conducted by using quasi-experimental
method, the data was collected through questionnaire, test, and documentation. The
population in this study was all students of SMP Insan Rabbany, while the target
population is all the eighth graders which consist of 127 pupils. Meanwhile, the sample of
this study were two classes of grade eight; one class as the experimental group and the
other as the control group. The intake group sampling technique was used under the
reason not to interfere the school system and structures that have been established there.
The students‟ speaking ability data was obtained through speaking test where the scores
were interpreted using speaking assessment rubric. Meanwhile, the data of students‟ self-
motivation was gained through the „AMTB‟ adapted from R.C. Gardner. The results of
this study revealed that: (1) there is significant difference on students‟ speaking ability
between those who are taught by storytelling and dialogic reading, (2) there is significant
difference on students‟ speaking ability between those who have high self-motivation that
are taught by storytelling and dialogic reading, (3) there is significant difference on
students‟ speaking ability between those who have low self-motivation that are taught by
storytelling and dialogic reading, and (4) there is no interaction between storytelling and
self-motivation on students‟ speaking ability. Overall, about 91.7 percent students of
experimental group have gained the „Excellent‟, „Well Done‟, and „Very Good‟ predicate
on their speaking test. This means that through this technique, the students‟ speaking
ability is improved.
Keywords: Storytelling, Self-motivation, Speaking Ability
-
vi
ABSTRAK
Wilda Akmalia (2018) :
Pengaruh Storytelling dan Motivasi Diri pada
Kemampuan Speaking Siswa
(Penelitian Kuasi Eksperimen pada Siswa Kelas
Delapan SMP Insan Rabbany – Tangerang
Selatan)
Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk membuktikan secara empiris pengaruh bercerita
dan motivasi diri terhadap kemampuan berbicara siswa di kelas delapan SMP Insan
Rabbany, BSD, di Tangerang Selatan, tahun akademik 2017/2018. Dilakukan dengan
menggunakan metode eksperimen semu, data dikumpulkan melalui kuesioner, tes, dan
dokumentasi. Populasi dalam penelitian ini adalah semua siswa SMP Insan Rabbany,
sedangkan populasi target adalah semua siswa kelas delapan yang terdiri dari 127 siswa.
Sementara itu, sampel penelitian ini adalah dua kelas delapan; satu kelas sebagai kelompok
eksperimen dan yang lainnya sebagai kelompok kontrol. Teknik intake group sampling
digunakan dengan alasan agar tidak mengganggu sistem dan struktur sekolah yang telah
diterapkan di sana. Data kemampuan berbicara siswa diperoleh melalui tes berbicara
dimana skor siswa diinterpretasikan menggunakan rubrik penilaian speaking. Sementara
itu, data motivasi diri siswa diperoleh melalui 'AMTB' yang diadaptasi dari R.C. Gardner.
Hasil penelitian ini mengungkapkan bahwa: (1) ada perbedaan yang signifikan pada
kemampuan berbicara siswa antara mereka yang diajar dengan storytelling dan dialogic
reading, (2) ada perbedaan yang signifikan pada kemampuan berbicara siswa antara
mereka yang memiliki motivasi diri tinggi yang diajarkan oleh storytelling dan dialogic
reading, (3) ada perbedaan yang signifikan pada kemampuan berbicara siswa antara
mereka yang memiliki motivasi diri rendah yang diajarkan oleh storytelling dan dialogic
reading, dan (4) tidak ada interaksi antara storytelling dan motivasi diri pada kemampuan
berbicara siswa. Secara keseluruhan, sekitar 91,7 persen siswa dari kelompok eksperimen
memperoleh predikat 'Sangat Baik', 'Bagus', dan 'Sangat Bagus' dalam tes berbicara
mereka. Hal ini berarti bahwa melalui teknik ini, kemampuan berbicara siswa meningkat.
Kata Kunci: storytelling (bercerita), motivasi diri, kemampuan berbicara
-
vii
الملخص
التحدثتأثري رواية القصص والدافع الذايت على قدرة الطالب على )البحث عن جتربة شبو لطالب الصف الثامن من مدرسة إنسان رباين
جنوب تاجنريانج( –املتوسطة
(:8102وايلد أكماليا )
من الثامن الصف يف التحدث على الطالب قدرة على الذايت والدافع القصص رواية تأثري إثبات ىو البحث ىذا من اهلدف SMP Insan Rabbany ، BSD ، South Tangerang ، year 2017/2018. مجع ومت ، جتريبية شبو طريقة باستخدام إجراؤىا مت
طالب مجيع الدراسة ىذه يف السكان كان. والوثائق واالختبار االستبيان خالل من البيانات طالب مجيع ىم املستهدفني السكان أن حني يف ، كمجموعة واحدة فئة. الثامن الصف من فئتني الدراسة ىذه من عينة كانت ، نفسو الوقت ويف. تلميذا 721 من يتألفون الذين الثامن الصف مت اليت واهلياكل املدرسي النظام يف التدخل عدم سبب حتت السحب جمموعة العينات أخذ تقنية استخدام مت. املراقبة جمموعة باسم واآلخر جتريبية
. التكلم تقييم منوذج باستخدام النتائج تفسري مت حيث التحدث اختبار خالل من للطالب التحدث قدرة بيانات على احلصول مت. ىناك تأسيسهاخالل من للطالب الذايت التحفيز بيانات اكتساب مت ، نفسو الوقت ويف "AMTB" من تعديلها مت اليت R.C. أوضحت. احلديقة عامل
وجود( 2) ، احلوارية والقراءة القصص سرد يدرسهم الذين بني التحدث على الطالب قدرة يف معنوي فرق وجود( 7: )يلي ما الدراسة ىذه نتائج ، احلوارية والقراءة القصص سرد خالل من تدريسو يتم الذي احلافز. عالية ذاتية مهارات لديهم من بني التحدث على الطالب قدرة يف معنوي فرق
، واحلوار القصص سرد طريق عن تدريسهم يتم منخفض ذايت حافز لديهم الذين أولئك بني التحدث على الطالب قدرة يف كبري فرق ىناك( 3) من املائة يف 77.1 حوايل حصل ، عام بشكل. التحدث على الطالب قدرة على الذايت التحفيز و القصص سرد بني تفاعل يوجد ال( 4) و
ا جيد" و" اإلعداد حسن" و" ممتاز" التقييم على التجريبية اجملموعة من الطالب ، التقنية ىذه خالل من أنو يعين وىذا. احملادثة اختبار على" جد التحدث على الطالب قدرة حتسني يتم .
كلمات البحث: رواية القصص ، والدافع الذايت ، والقدرة على التحدث
-
viii
ACKNOWLEGMENT
In the name of Allah, The Most Beneficent, The Most Merciful. All praises and
gratitude be to Allah SWT for the health and strength, so that the writer is able to complete
this final project. Piece and salutation be upon to our prophet Muhammad SAW, the most
inspiring human in this universe.
This thesis is presented to Department of English Education Department, Faculty
of Educational Sciences, State Islamic University (UIN) Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta as
the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Master Program in English Language
Education.
The writer realizes that this thesis would not finish well without support, suggestion
and help from her husband, mother, daughter, sisters, lecturers, colleagues, and also her
friends. Based on this reason, the writer wants to thank for all of them who have
helped her until finished this final project.
Furthermore, the writer‟s deepest gratitude and respect goes to her advisors, Dr.
Fahriany, M.Pd. and Dr. Sita Ratnaningsih, M.Pd., for their helpful advices and guidance
during this thesis completion. Also, to Dr. Ratna Sari Dewi, M.Pd. and Fuad Fachruddin,
M.Sc., Ph.D., for all constructive advices and guidance during the thesis revision of trial
result examination. The writer would not be able to finish her theses without their help.
The writer also would like to express her gratitude to:
1. Prof. Ahmad Thib Raya, M.A., the Dean of Educational Sciences Faculty.
2. Dr. Fahriany, M.Pd., the Head of Graduate Program of English Education.
3. All the lecturers in Graduate Program of English Education for their valuable
guidance and encouragement during the writer‟s study.
4. Teachers and staffs of SMP Insan Rabbany for their helpful assistance during the
research data collecting.
Jakarta, January 2019
Wilda Akmalia
-
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ADVISOR APPROVAL FORM ............................................................................. i
EXAMINER APPROVAL FORM ......................................................................... ii
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALIY ......................................................................... iii ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................. iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ......................................................................................... vii
TABLE OF CONTENT ........................................................................................... viii LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. x
LIST OF CHARTS ............................................................................................... xi
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................ xii
LIST OF ABBREVIATION ................................................................................... xiii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 1
A. Background of the Research .............................................................................. 1 B. Identification of the Problem .............................................................................. 3 C. Limitation of the Problem ................................................................................... 4 D. Research Questions ............................................................................................ 4 E. Objective of the Research ................................................................................... 4 F. Significance of the Reseach ................................................................................ 5
CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................. 6
A. Speaking ............................................................................................................ 6 1. The Definition of Speaking ........................................................................ 8 2. Speaking as a Language Ability ................................................................. 9 3. Teaching Speaking ..................................................................................... 10 4. Assessing Speaking ................................................................................... 13
B. The Nature of Storytelling ................................................................................. 17 1. A Brief History of Storytelling ................................................................... 17 2. The Definition of Storytelling .................................................................... 19 3. Storytelling and Teaching Speaking ........................................................... 24
C. The Dialogic Reading ......................................................................................... 29 1. The Reading Aloud .................................................................................... 29 2. The Dialogic Reading ................................................................................ 29
D. The Concept of Self-motivation .......................................................................... 31 1. The Definition of Self-motivation ............................................................... 31 2. Types of Motivation .................................................................................... 32 3. Enhancing Motivation ................................................................................ 34
E. Previous Related Study ....................................................................................... 38 F. Conceptual Framework ....................................................................................... 39 G. Theoretical Hypotheses ....................................................................................... 40
CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................... 42
A. Place and Time of the Research ......................................................................... 42 B. Research Design ................................................................................................ 44 C. Population and Sample ...................................................................................... 45
-
x
D. Research Instrument .......................................................................................... 46 1. Test Instrument, Speaking Ability Test ....................................................... 46 2. Non-Test Instrument, Students‟ Self-Motivation Questionnaire .................. 50
E. Technique of Data Collection ............................................................................ 53 F. Techniques of Data Analyses ............................................................................. 53 G. Statistical Hypotheses ........................................................................................ 54
CHAPTER IV. FINDING AND DISCUSSION ................................................... 56
A. Research Finding .............................................................................................. 56 1. Data Description ....................................................................................... 56 2. The Prerequisite Tests for Data Analysis ................................................... 69
B. Discussion ....................................................................................................... 77
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION ........................................... 83
A. Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 83 B. Suggestion ......................................................................................................... 83 C. Implication ........................................................................................................ 84
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 85
APPENDIXES ......................................................................................................... 89
-
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Speaking Rubric ....................................................................................................... 34
Table 2.2 Grading Scale of Speaking Test – Weighting Table .................................................. 36
Table 2.3 Grading Scale of Speaking Test – Conversion Table ................................................. 36 Table 3.1 Timeline of the Research .......................................................................................... 40
Table 3.2 Research Design ....................................................................................................... 43
Table 3.3 The Aspect Measured and Indicators of Speaking Ability ......................................... 45 Table 3.4 Speaking Rubric ....................................................................................................... 46
Table 3.5 The Aspect Measured and Indicators of Students‟ Self-
motivation ................................................................................................................ 48
Table 3.6 Validity of Students‟ Self-motivation Questionnaire ................................................. 50 Table 3.7 The Reliability Index of Students‟ Motivation
Questionnaire ........................................................................................................... 51
Table 4.1 Descriptive Statistic Data ......................................................................................... 54 Table 4.1.1 Frequency Table of Students‟ Speaking Ability by Using
Storytelling .............................................................................................................. 55
Table 4.1.2 Frequency Table of Students‟ Speaking Ability Using Dialogic Reading ...................................................................................................... 57
Table 4.1.3 Frequency Table of Students‟ Speaking Ability with High
Self-motivation ......................................................................................................... 58
Table 4.1.4 Frequency Table of Students‟ Speaking Ability with Low Self-motivation ......................................................................................................... 60
Table 4.1.5 Frequency Table of Students‟ Speaking Ability with Low
Self-motivation ......................................................................................................... 61 Table 4.1.6 Frequency Table of Students‟ Speaking Ability Taught by
Using Storytelling with Low Self-motivation ............................................................ 63
Table 4.1.7 Frequency Table of Students‟ Speaking Ability Taught by Using Dialogic Reading with High Self-motivation .................................................. 64
Table 4.1.8 Frequency Table of Students‟ Speaking Ability Taught by
Using Dialogic Reading with Low Self-motivation ................................................... 66
Table 4.1.9 Paired Sample T-test of A1 (Storytelling) ................................................................. 67 Table 4.1.10 Paired Sample T-test of A2 (Dialogic reading) .......................................................... 68
Table 4.2.1 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test ................................................................... 69
Table 4.2.2 The Calculation of Homogeneity Test for Speaking Ability…………………………………………………………… 70
Table 4.2.3 ANOVA Table (X1 towards Y) ................................................................................. 72
Table 4.2.4 ANOVA Table (X2 towards Y) ................................................................................. 73
Table 4.2.5 ANOVA Test (2x2) .................................................................................................. 74 Table 4.2.6 Post Hoc Tests of Multiple Comparisons .................................................................. 74
-
xii
LIST OF HISTOGRAMS
Figure 4.1.1 Histogram of Students‟ Speaking Ability by Using
Storytelling ............................................................................................................... 56
Figure 4.1.2 Histogram of Students‟ Speaking Ability by Using Dialogic Reading ....................................................................................................... 57
Figure 4.1.3 Histogram of Students‟ Speaking Ability with High
Self-motivation ......................................................................................................... 59 Figure 4.1.4 Histogram of Students‟ Speaking Ability with Low
Self-motivation ......................................................................................................... 60
Figure 4.1.5 Histogram of Students‟ Speaking Ability Taught by
Using Storytelling with High Self-motivation ............................................................ 62 Figure 4.1.6 Histogram of Students‟ Speaking Ability Taught by
Using Storytelling with Low Self-motivation ............................................................ 63
Figure 4.1.7 Histogram of Students‟ Speaking Ability Taught by Using Dialogic Reading with High Self-motivation .................................................... 65
Figure 4.1.8 Histogram of Students‟ Speaking Ability Taught by
Using Dialogic Reading with Low Self-motivation ................................................... 66
-
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 The One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design .................................................................... 34
Figure 3.1 The One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design .................................................................... 42
Figure 4.2.1 The Scatterplot of Storytelling towards Students‟ Speaking Ability ....................................................................................................... 70
Figure 4.2.2 The Scatterplot of Self-motivation towards Students‟
Speaking Ability ....................................................................................................... 71 Figure 4.2.3 The Scatterplot of Storytelling and Self-motivation
towards Students‟ Speaking Ability .......................................................................... 71
-
xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AMTB Attitude/Motivation Test Battery .............................................................................. 2
B.C.E. Before the Common Era or Before the Current Era
(equivalent to BC –Before Christ) ............................................................................
6
C.E. Common Era or Current Era (equivalent to AD –
Anno Domini, the year of the Lord) ...........................................................................
7
CLT Communicative Language Teaching .......................................................................... 1 EFL English as a Foreign Language .................................................................................. 1
ESL English as a Second Language ................................................................................... 2
NCLRC National Capital Language Resource Center ............................................................. 10 29
-
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Research
Speaking is one of productive skills that students should learn, especially in
English class. It is also an important skill as we speak everyday with people around
us. From the context of teaching English as second language, speaking skill is seen as
priority for many EFL learners in the world (Sharma, 2018, p. 99). Whereas, the
expected target of learning speaking English as foreign language is for student to
communicate effectively since this skill is the basic for communication (Zyoud, 2016,
p. 1). Furthermore, from the context of Indonesian curriculum policy, the expected
target of learning speaking English is to promote students to understand and to use the
language in the classroom. Based on the statement above, the teaching learning
activities in the classroom should use effective and interesting technique to make
students‟ speaking skill good so that they would be able to speak with people around
them confidently.
However, teachers in the classroom mostly use activities such as doing grammar
exercises and workbooks, and also reading aloud, in which it is including to textbook
centered activities. To make an effective English speaking environment, teachers can
introduce storytelling as the teaching technique to the students. In line with this
statement, the National Curriculum (2013) of Indonesia concerns English language
teaching to use Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in its objectives.
According to Larsen-Freeman and Anderson (2011, p. 115), CLT has a broad
objective of making communicative competence as the goal of language teaching.
Furthermore, according to the Curriculum, the purpose of teaching English in
Indonesia is for students to be able to understand and use the language in unexpected
situations, based on their curiosity of a real phenomenon, relating to general
knowledge, technology, culture and art. In this main competency of the Curriculum
also stated that students have to learn all the language skills (reading, writing,
listening, speaking, and even drawing and counting) in English. These goals are
desirable to be acknowledged and encouraged the use of storytelling.
Furthermore, the most popular teaching methods implemented in English language
classrooms at the junior-high level in Indonesia are textbook-centered and teacher-
directed. The National Curriculum Guide recommends the use of participatory
approach to teach in the classroom, such as the use of games and role-plays, in which
they promote active and creative language learning and are not often used yet. Instead
of using them, teachers often use whole-group instruction in their class. Other
activities that appeared to be used by teachers were grammar exercises, the use of
workbooks and reading aloud. These textbook-centered and teacher-directed strategies
used by most teachers indicate that many English language teachers in Indonesia may
not implement those suggested strategies of the English language objectives of the
National Curriculum in their classroom.
-
2
The other factors that become an obstacle in implementing English speaking class
are lack of preparation in teaching. According to Fahriany (2014) most teachers
doesn‟t realize that they are facing a huge amount of students in a classroom with
different capabilities, learning style, and socio-economic culture. In this case, teachers
should be more prepared well to deal with students with different personal
background. For instance, teachers should find interesting activities to be used in their
English class.
Aside from problems happen to English language teachers, more problems happen
to students. Students are expected to have a good reading and writing ability as well as
listening and speaking, as stated in the National Curriculum mentioned previously.
Yet, some students of junior high school, especially the eighth graders still have
problems in their English skills, particularly in their speaking ability. They maybe
don‟t know that many simple classroom activities that could improve their speaking
ability, for example practicing a storytelling. If students learn English language by
using this technique, they would see how English materials –such as vocabulary,
pronunciation and grammar, could be learned and practiced enjoyably as well as
interestingly.
The other problems that arise at school are some students who have low self-
motivation in learning English. Some of them often feel shy when they are asked to
say some sentences in English, and some other often feel worried if they said
something mistakenly or mispronounced. To some extent, the students even feel doubt
about their ability to do the English conversation or to do more English speaking,
particularly when they are asked to speak up in front of the class. Moreover, there are
some students who have an extremely nervous feeling until they could not even say a
single word in front of the class. In this case, they only would be able to speak up in
front of their teachers face to face.
Dealing with those motivational and anxious problems that happen to some
students in the class, there are some ways to check the students‟ attitude and
motivation at the same time. In line with this, students‟ self-motivation could be
measured by using Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) designed by Gardner
(2004, p. 1). Researchers can use this questionnaire because the questions are mostly
about students‟ self-confidence in using English, their action when they are faced by
English circumstances in their daily life, their interest in learning English, their feeling
about learning English, their view about native speakers, and also their parents‟ view
about learning English. By using this questionnaire, it is expected that language
teachers will gain a better understanding of the reasons underlying their students'
different academic outcomes and thus may help them find ways to enhance
appropriate instructional design for English language learning, particularly on
speaking ability.
Regarding to storytelling, some previous researches have been done. According to
Palacio (2010, p. 73) one of the many effective strategies that teachers can use to help
ESL (English as a Second Language) students improve their speaking skills and class
-
3
participation is storytelling. The results of her research indicated that both
communicative and social strategies as well as exposure to independent reading help
ESL students improve their communicative skills and class participation in the middle
school, North Carolina, the United States of America. The difference between the
previous study and this study is the researcher in this study tries to investigate the
effect of storytelling and students‟ self-motivation in their speaking ability.
Meanwhile, the previous study only focus on the effect of storytelling on students‟
vocabulary and another study was focus on the effect of storytelling to class
participation. Furthermore, in this study the researcher will use 2 classes which will be
given different treatment and will be divided as experimental group (storytelling) and
control group (text-based dialog practice). The objective of this study is as same as the
previous study which is to see the improvement of students‟ speaking ability and to
know which treatment gives significance effect. The method will be used in this study
is quasi experimental research.
Furthermore, another research undertaken by Al-Mansour and Al-Shorman (2011,
p. 74) found that teacher‟s storytelling techniques implemented on elementary
students improved their reading comprehension in Saudi Arabia. This research
showed that there is a significant difference effect on students‟ reading
comprehensions of those who are taught by storytelling technique and those who are
taught by traditional way or the like. The results showed that the experimental group
performed better than the control group on the final result. Furthermore, another
research had been conducted by Mokhtar, Abdul Halim & Syed Kamarulzaman in
2011. According to them (2011, p. 168), there are some language aspects that could be
improved through storytelling, one of them is the students‟ communication skills. The
result showed that there are several improvements on students‟ communication skill,
particularly in speaking and vocabulary –which after some practices, students knew
when and where to use words and phrases.
Considering the problems above, it is essential to do a research on the
effectiveness of particular teaching technique and learning motivation so that students
can be optimally facilitated and interested in language learning. Thus, this study aims
at examining the effect of storytelling and self-motivation on students‟ speaking
ability. Hence, this study will be conducted under the title: The Effect of Storytelling
and Self-Motivation on Students‟ Speaking Ability at the Eighth Graders of Insan
Rabbany Junior High School in BSD, South Tangerang, in 2017-2018 academic
years.
B. Identification of the Problem
Based on the background of the research mentioned above, some problems could
be identified as follows:
1. Teaching method used by teachers is textbook-centered and teacher-directed.
2. Storytelling could be one of technique preferences to be used in the classroom.
3. Teachers often lack preparation in teaching.
-
4
4. Students of junior high school may not now about storytelling.
5. Students of junior high school may not have a good speaking ability.
6. Students maybe don‟t know about their self-motivation in learning English.
7. Some students of junior high school of SMP Insan Rabbany have low motivation
in learning English.
C. Limitation of the Problem
To avoid the research from being overbroad, the limitation of the problems is
decided as follows:
1. Teaching method used by teachers is textbook-centered and teacher-directed.
2. Students of junior high school may not have a good speaking ability.
3. Some students of junior high school of SMP Insan Rabbany have low motivation
in learning English.
D. Research Questions
In line with the limitation of the problem above, four research questions were
addressed as follows:
1. Is there any difference on students‟ speaking ability between those who are
taught by storytelling and those who are taught by dialogic reading?
2. Is there any difference on students‟ speaking ability between students who
have high self-motivation that are taught by storytelling and those who are
taught by dialogic reading?
3. Is there any difference on students‟ speaking ability between students who
have low self-motivation that are taught by storytelling and those who are
taught by dialogic reading?
4. Is there any interactional effect between storytelling and self-motivation on
students‟ speaking ability?
E. Objective of the Research
In line with the formulation of the problem, the objectives of this research are to
obtain the empirical evidence about:
1. the effect on students‟ speaking ability between those who are taught by
storytelling and those who are taught by dialogic reading.
2. the effect on students‟ speaking ability between students who have high self-
motivation that are taught by storytelling and those who are taught by dialogic
reading.
3. the effect on students‟ speaking ability between students who have low self-
motivation that are taught by storytelling and those who are taught by dialogic
reading.
4. the interaction between storytelling and self-motivation on students‟ speaking
ability.
-
5
F. Significance of the Research
The results of this research are expected to give some benefits theoretically and
practically, to:
Firstly, the results of this research are very useful for teachers. Theoretically, they
can get valuable information about how storytelling and self-motivation may effect on
students‟ speaking ability. This information would enrich their knowledge in that
field, especially in understanding storytelling as one of their teaching strategies.
Practically, they can use this information to improve their teaching technique.
Teachers can create some activities that will improve students‟ speaking habit as it
will lead into their improvement in speaking ability. This study will also provide some
insight to the teachers to promote the effective teaching of English by employing a
variety of approaches or methods.
Secondly, the results of this research are useful for the institution or school
principals. Conceptually, they can release school policy with respect to promote the
effective teaching of English through innovative ways or creative teaching English. It
is then may enrich their information about their students‟ motivation in learning
English. Practically, this information can be used as a reference to make another
innovation and improvement in their school as they are the decision maker. In this
case, the school might provide some teachers training on teaching strategies or
teaching techniques to their employees, particularly the English teachers, so that the
school will have their own standard in implementing effective teaching. By doing this,
students would be able to overcome their problem in learning English, particularly in
improving their speaking ability.
Lastly, the results of this research are useful for researchers. Conceptually, they
can use it as a comparison with other studies in this field. Practically, they can use the
information to do further research relating to this issue, or perhaps to do further
research about other aspects that might contribute to speaking ability improvement.
The more research is conducted, the varied the findings will be.
To conclude, by doing this research, hopefully both teacher and student will have
enjoyable English speaking class as storytelling is designed to create interesting
learning environment and to enhance students‟ self-motivation in learning English.
-
6
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Speaking
Nowadays, speaking is one of the four English skills that should be mastered by junior
high school students in Indonesia. Beside of its existence in the National Curriculum,
speaking is also a tool to communicate to each other, so that students need to learn how
to do it correctly as well as communicatively. Dealing with speaking, Khan and Ali
(2010, p. 3576) took Laver‟s view and stated that speech is the prime means of
communication, especially in society. Therefore, if we failed to develop communication
through speech in our society, the structure of the society itself would be substantially
different. For instance, there will be no an Independence Day‟s celebration because the
people of particular society are not talking, collaborating, and cooperating to each other.
From this statement, it can be concluded that speaking is seen as the central skill to
communicate with others through speaking the target language fluently and correctly.
Aside from its function as the prime means of communication, speaking also stands as
an interactive process to construct meaning. In line with this, Idrissovaa, Smagulovaa,
and Tussupbekova (2015, p. 278) took Brown‟s view that “speaking is an interactive
process of constructing meaning that involves producing, receiving and processing
information.” From this view, it is clear that there are some processes happen on
speaking, namely: producing, receiving, and processing information. These three
processes create form and meaning which are dependent on the context in which it
occurs, including the participants themselves, their collective experiences, the physical
environment, and the purposes for speaking. Those form and meaning in speaking –
participants, experiences, and environments, are often spontaneous, open ended and
evolving or other often say it as unpredictable. However, speech is not always
unpredictable. Language functions that tend to be repeated in certain discourse situations
(e.g.: declining and invitation, requesting time off from work) can be identified and
charted.
Speaking requires not only that learners know how to produce specific points of
language, such as grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary (linguistic competence), but also
that they understand when, why and in what way to produce language (sociolinguistic
competence). In line with this statement, Boonkit (2010, p. 1306) took Zhang‟s view that
students who study EFL usually have limited opportunities to speak English outside the
classroom and also limited exposure to English speakers or members of the international
community. This might be one reason for teachers to provide more situations and
activities for students to strengthen their speaking competence.
Another problem underlying some difficulties in speaking faced by students is stated
by Jordan (1997, p. 193-204). He stated that one of the biggest difficulties for students is
expressing themselves in speaking. There are some situations in which students usually
find that it is difficult for them to speak up:
1) Asking questions in lectures;
-
7
Some students mostly ask many questions during review sessions at the end of each
major division of topic or chapter rather than asking those questions in the day when
the topic is being discussed. Furthermore, in most classroom communities, students
could signal that they wanted a turn to talk but had to wait to be recognized by the
teacher. In this case, teachers need to be more aware of their students‟ condition, so
that those who are seemed having a question could be pleased to have a question to be
asked.
2) Participation in seminars/discussions;
The main purpose of a discussion is to give students opportunities to ask questions
and to give new information. Meanwhile, the teacher‟s role in a discussion is to guide
the discussion, which is seen to be the most important student role, followed by
listening and note-taking. Some language functions that will be learnt by the students
in a discussion are interrupting; asking questions; expressing general comments;
agreeing; disagreeing; expressing criticism, objections, and doubt; making
suggestions; and expressing opinions.
For some students, it will be hard for them to take a turn in a discussion because they
need to prepare the relevant topic as the topic being discussed, to think on their own
point of view related to the topic, and to be ready for their own performance.
3) Making oral presentations, answering questions/points;
Some problems that the students usually find in oral presentation are the different
audience, the repeated talk, and the limited time to speak up. Those previous problems
are then the one that could trigger their self-confidence. Overall, if the students
prepare well for their presentation, such as general introduction, information in detail,
and conclusion, there‟s nothing to be worried off.
4) Verbalizing data, and giving oral instructions in seminars/workshops/laboratories.
Students usually find it too hard in listening, understanding, and speaking, rather than
in reading and writing. They often feel hard to understand a text that contains
numerical data which it is hard to explain as well. In this case, they can use the
describing and drawing technique rather than to explain the original form of numerical
data in a table for example. It is good for them to provide all the data in histograms,
maps, or even plans.
In line with the speaking problems stated previously, Jordan (1997, p. 205) continued
his statement about the speech difficulty that faced by students in a classroom. He stated
that the difficulty in speaking may be caused by shyness and personality factors in which
they are not related to the language being used or the target language. While another
important factors that underlying the difficulty in speaking are the individual difficulties
with pronunciation, stress, intonation or overall rhythm. In one case, the students‟ speech
may be unintelligible to other students or teacher which then they should have a self-
access help to be performed on them. The self-access help could be achieved by working
independently in a language laboratory or resource center. In other word, the students
need to be trained to be self-critical and to monitor themselves so that they will probably
have an intelligible speech for the further time.
-
8
In brief, speaking is a skill or an ability that students nowadays should have because it
plays an important role in English language learning.
1. The Definition of Speaking
Speaking is one of the four skills in English learning that plays an important role. As
what speaking becomes the main role in learning English, talk also becomes an important
part in formulating a speech. Sidnell (2010, p. 1) stated that talk is at the heart of human
social life. He continued that it is through talk that human engages with one another in a
distinctively human way. Human use talk to argue, to complain, to woo, to please, to
commemorate, to denigrate, to justify, to entertain and so on. Furthermore, Cole (2007, p.
7) stated that talk is the first form of language most of us learn, but we are probably
unaware of how we learnt it, or the level and types of skills we possess. She continued
that when someone talks, his mind is dealing with large amounts of information, and it is
doing so with remarkable agility, speed and subtlety. It means that when someone talks,
he is in the process of getting the information in which it is very fast and easy at the same
time, and it also has an important detail but difficult to notice or to understand. This
process is unconscious and people rarely reflect on what involves in it. In brief, human
has his own way to talk and somehow to process the information through its process.
Human will always talk, in many ways of their own ability to do it; if human didn‟t talk,
they would never have the lives they do (Sidnell, 2010, p. 1).
Furthermore, speaking is also included to one of the Multiple Intelligences theory in
which it is categorized in the linguistics intelligence promoted by Howard Gardner, a
psychologist of Harvard University in 1983. It means that speaking plays an essential role
in building one‟s intelligences. Barbulet (2014, p. 21) explained that this is the
intelligence of language and communication. He continued that this intelligence includes
the ability to speak, articulate, express, and convey one‟s thoughts and feelings to the
outside world in one or more languages. This intelligence could be found in the form of
oral and written level, which also includes the ability to listen to and to understand other
people. In brief, speaking is an activity which comprehends the ability of listening and
understanding people‟s talk and finally uses their thoughts to tell people about the
information.
According to Luoma (2004, p. 9) when people hear someone speaks, they pay
attention to what the speaker sounds like automatically. And based on what they hear,
they make some tentative judgments about the speaker‟s personality, attitudes, home
region and even native/non-native speaker status. As speakers, consciously or
unconsciously, people use their speech to create an image of themselves to others. By
using speed and pausing, and some variations in pitch, volume and intonation, they also
create a texture for their talk that supports and enhances what they are saying and where
they are originally from. In brief, speaker‟s personality, attitudes, and even native/non-
native speaker status can be seen from their way of speaking style such as speed and
pausing, volume and intonation, and also their pitch.
-
9
Furthermore, regarding to the interactive and social features of speaking, Luoma
(2004, p. 27) stated that few people would question their relevance for understanding
what speaking is like. For example, from our own experience with speaking, we know
that conversations with different people turn out to be different even if we ourselves have
more or less the same things to say. It is because speakers react to each other and
construct discussions differently. Speakers‟ meanings are vague so that speakers or
listeners have different way of speaking or listening according to the situation. In brief,
our speaking topic with others might be similar, but it doesn‟t mean that our way of
speaking and conveying meaning of that topic is similar too. It happens because people
are speaking and listening differently according to the situation.
Regarding to speaking and writing as productive skills, Luoma (2004, p. 12) stated
that in speaking, the idea is transferred directly in that time and that makes speaking is
simpler than writing grammatically. Also, the listeners have to comprehend the idea in
the real time to respond to what the speakers said so that there will be a great
differentiation between producing idea in speaking and writing. In other words, although
speaking and writing has similarity as productive skills, their differentiation between
each other is that speaking will need faster respond in expressing idea rather than that in
writing.
2. Speaking as a Language Ability
Many language learners assume speaking ability as the measure of knowing a
language. These learners define fluency as the ability to converse with others, much more
than the ability to read, write, or comprehend oral language. They regard speaking as the
most important skill they can acquire, and they assess their progress in terms of their
accomplishments in spoken communication. In line with this, Idrissovaa, Smagulovaa,
and Tussupbekova (2015, p. 278) took Xiaohong‟s view that speaking is “one of the most
necessary language proficiency”. Speaking, thus, seems to be the most important ability
in the process of English teaching and learning. In addition, today's world requires
students with well-improved communicative skill. Therefore, students can express
themselves and learn how to follow the social and culture rules. In other words, students
have to improve their speaking ability not only for expressing themselves in target
language but also for learning about social and culture rules of their countries.
According to the National Capital Language Resource Center (NCLRC) of the George
Washington University (2003), language learners need to recognize three areas of
knowledge which involves speaking:
Mechanics (pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary). In this first part, students
need to use the right words in the right order with the correct pronunciation so that
their utterances will be understandable.
Functions (transaction and interaction). After students have their best ability in
pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, they should know the function of those
language competences is used. They should know when clarity of message is
-
10
essential (transaction/information exchange) and when precise understanding is not
required (interaction/relationship building).
Social and cultural rules and norms (turn-taking, rate of speech, length of pauses
between speakers, relative roles of participants). In this last part, language learners
should understand how to take into account who is speaking to whom, in what
circumstances, about what, and for what reason. This is what then the language is
completely to be.
From this statement, it is clear that in language learning especially in speaking,
students need to know about language components –or language machine, language
functions –or clarity and understanding of message, and social-cultural rules and norms –
or politeness, circumstances, etc.
In addition, the NCLRC (2003) stated that in the communicative model of language
teaching, instructors help their students develop this body of knowledge by providing
authentic practice that prepares students for real-life communication situations. They help
their students develop the ability to produce grammatically correct, logically connected
sentences that are appropriate to specific contexts, and to do so using acceptable (that is,
comprehensible) pronunciation. In brief, instructors or teachers who use communicative
methods will prepare their students by helping them improve their ability in producing a
well-developed and connected sentences which suitable for any contexts and also in
producing a well-pronunciation words.
Hughes (2003, pp. 131-132) defined speaking ability through several measured aspect
which are seen from student‟s accent, grammar, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension.
It means that speaking ability of a student is measured by the way he is talking or
pronunciation, their sentence structures, the use of varied words, their pauses and flows,
and their understanding about what they are talking about. He continued that the
objective of teaching spoken language is to develop the ability itself in order to be able to
interact in that language, in which it involves comprehension and production (Hughes,
2003, p. 113). Based on this statement, it is concluded that speaking ability is an ability to
interact in the target language in which the development of its ability is seen from several
aspect such as the pronunciation of words, the grammar used in sentences, the varied
vocabularies used in sentences, fluency of a speech, and comprehension of a speech
uttered by other people.
Furthermore, Harmer (2008, p. 343) stated that if students want have a fluent English
speaking, they need to be able in pronouncing the words correctly, using appropriate
stress and intonation patterns, and speaking in a coherence speech. In addition, he added
that students will also have to be able in using a series of conversational and
conversational strategies itself to communicate effectively. It means that students need to
learn many things in order to be able to speak English fluently in the classroom and
outside the classroom. As explained previously, students also have to learn on how to
speak coherently and appropriately so that the information they sent to the listeners will
be received completely.
-
11
To conclude, speaking ability is the ability to say the word correctly as well as
coherently in which it is seen from the pronunciation of the words, the stress and
intonation of the words, and the flow of sentences. As speaking is seen as important
ability for students, it is then needed to be learnt by students to communicate effectively
with people around them.
3. Teaching Speaking
The goal of teaching speaking is to make communication becomes efficient. Learners
should be able to make themselves understand, using their current proficiency to the
fullest. They should try to avoid confusion in the message due to faulty pronunciation,
grammar, or vocabulary, and to observe the social and cultural rules that apply in each
communication situation. In line with this, Manurung (2015, p. 45) took Heaton‟s view
that in the teaching of speaking learners must master the three components of speaking;
fluency, accuracy, and comprehensibility or appropriacy. It means that there must be
efforts to choose effective techniques in teaching speaking and willingness to create and
design interesting instructional materials that facilitate the achievement of the three
speaking components.
Techniques in teaching speaking holds important role to improve the speaking ability.
The teaching of speaking must open up wide opportunities for learners to practice. In
addition, Manurung (2015, p. 45) took Harmer‟s view that the importance of
presentation, practice, and communication/production during the teaching of speaking in
order to meet the real purpose of the teaching cannot be neglected. Therefore, the role of
the English teachers is not only limited to the choice of effective techniques but also on
creativity and innovation to design and develop instructional materials.
According to Nation and Newton (2009, p. 19-22) there are five principles in teaching
listening and speaking for beginners, it is abbreviated as “MINUS”. Below is the brief
explanation about it.
a. Meaning; focus on meaningful and relevant language.
The main focus in language learning should be on language that the learners can use it
quickly for their purposes in society. Too much grammar explanation or too much
words that are not directly useful in particular circumstances are not suggested. Here
are some simple sentences that can be learnt by the learners on the early learning
phase so that they can use them straight away.
My name is ______________________________.
I come from _____________________________.
I live in _________________________________.
My address is ____________________________.
The teacher could present these sentences orally, one by one, with gestures and lots of
repetition and were able to involve to learners. With this technique, the sentences
could be formed in written versions for becoming the basic result on students‟ pair
work. The firs aim of this learning is enable learners to say these things about
themselves without looking at the written version, and to understand other learners
-
12
when they use them. The second aim is to enable learners to link the written and
spoken forms of the words. For learners who are not very familiar with the written
from of English, recognizing the written form of their name and address is an
important early step in building literacy.
One way of checking the usefulness of a phrase or word is to use a computer
concordance to see how many examples of the item can be found in a collection of
spoken texts.
Doing a conversation focused on meaning with the students is also one way of useful
techniques in a listening and speaking class. The conversation itself may have many
different focuses such as in the classroom management, informal conversation,
recalling previous lessons, and finding out students‟ opinions and ideas. In the
classroom management, teachers can use day-to-day running of the classroom
dialogue in which they involves in organizing classroom work, in keeping control of
noise and behavior, in checking attendance, and in thanking and praising. In the
informal conversation, the teacher and students can talk about things that happen
outside school such as their hobbies, how they travel to school and maybe about their
favorite food.
In recalling previous lessons, teacher and learners can talk about the previous class to
see if they understood the lessons, and also to provide opportunities for them to revise
their understanding about the previous lessons. Lastly, in finding out students’
opinions and ideas, teacher can ask the students if they like the particular activity and
if they want to do more of it (Nation and Newton, 2009, pp. 19-22). b. Interest; maintain interest through a variety of activities.
To maintain students‟ interest, classroom activities need to be short and varied, and to
involve the learners in responding to or using the language. There are various ways to
keep students interested in language learning, such as doing activities that involves
movement, using real objects and pictures, planning trips outside the classroom, using
songs and simple chants in between activities, and also introducing and practicing
new content through games (Nation and Newton, 2009, pp. 19–22).
c. New language; avoid overloading learners with too much new words.
Actually, there is only a little need to focus on grammar in the early parts of the lesson
for beginners. The lesson should focus on learning a set of phrases and words.
Teachers often make mistakes in introducing too much new words without giving
students enough opportunities to use the words often. A simple rule to keep in mind is
“learn a little, use a lot”. For example, if the goal is to learn the names for parts of the
body, it is better to focus on the most useful words such as head, neck, arms, and so
on, and to avoid less common words such as elbow and ankle. Note that introducing
elbow and ankle at the same time creates another problem: the similarities between
these words (e.g., they sound a bit the same and their meanings are related) is likely to
lead the students confused each word for the other.
-
13
To apply the principle of “learn a little, use a lot”, the body words need to be
practiced in a variety of ways. These could include picture games, information
transfer activities, action games (e.g., “Simon says …”), and bingo. The words can
then be used in simple sentence patterns and dialogues such as “How are you? Not so
good. My ____________ hurts” (Nation and Newton, 2009, pp. 19–22).
d. Understanding; provide plenty of comprehensible input.
Note that most of activities mentioned previously involve students in learning the
words though listening and doing before they deepen their learning to use the words in
guided speaking. If speaking is pushed too early, students may be more likely to
transfer L1 phonology and to concentrate on mechanical difficulties.
To understand the input, it requires the use of visual aids and conceptual support for
the new language in which it includes pictures, gestures, mime, objects, and
experiences out of class. Teachers also need to think carefully about the language they
use in class with the aim of keeping their talk simple but not simplistic or
ungrammatical. One way to do this is to always use one form for one meaning.
Therefore, for example, the teacher needs to decide whether to use “My name is
__________” or “I am _______”, but not both; “Where are you from?” or “Where do
you come from?”, but not both.
Early in the language classroom, students can also learn simple phrases for controlling
input such as, “Sorry, I don‟t understand”, “Please say it again”. These phrase should
be displayed on a large poster, thus it can make them readily available throughout the
language classroom.
It is known that students speak a variety of first languages, -such as Germany, Arabic,
bahasa Indonesia, etc., and it is possible if the teacher does not speak the students‟
first language. In this case, teaching beginner is easier if all students speak the same
first language and the teacher speaks the first language of the students. Using
translation to convey the meanings of words and phrases is very efficient and is well
supported by research as an effective way of communicating meaning. The main
disadvantage is that the teacher and students are tempted to use a lot of classroom
time using the first language instead of the second language. However, as long as the
teacher is aware of this danger, then using the first language is a good thing to do and
saves a lot of time.
If all students do not speak the same first language, and if the teacher does not speak
the first languages of the students, then the use of pictures, gestures and the use of
context need to be used to get the meaning understood across them. This is not as
difficult as it sounds, and if the students also have a well-illustrated course book, the
job is easier.
Older students may make use of bilingual dictionaries which give the meanings of
second language words in the learners‟ first language. These bilingual dictionaries
differ a lot in quality, but they are extremely useful as a learning aid. Learners need to
have a second language vocabulary of at least 2000 words before the can use
monolingual dictionaries where meanings are given in the second language. This is
-
14
because a vocabulary of around 2000 words is needed to write and understand
definitions (Nation and Newton, 2009, pp. 19–22).
e. Stress-free; create a friendly, safe, cooperative classroom environment.
In the early stages of learning a second language, learners may have successful and
low stress learning experiences. By paying attention to the first previous principles in
teaching listening and speaking for beginners, there is a very good chance to have
plentiful experiences. After that, the teacher will be meeting this fifth principle. Some
of the factors that contribute to a positive beginners‟ classroom are variety of learning
experiences, movement, physical comfort, frequent interaction, successful language
experiences, and opportunities for learners to experiment and make mistakes without
penalties (Nation and Newton, 2009, pp. 19–22).
4. Assessing Speaking
This research uses quantitative method, particularly with quasi-experimental as its
design. In this design the one-group pretest-posttest design will be used to measure the
effect of storytelling and motivation on students‟ speaking skill. In this kind of design, a
single group is measured and observed before and after being exposed to a treatment.
Therefore, the design will be “pretest-treatment-posttest”, as on the picture below.
Figure 2.1
The One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
(Adapted from Jack R. Fraenkel, 2012, p. 269)
A frequent problem for teachers is when there are so many learners in one class that it
seems to make it unrealistic to assess speaking. With a list of criteria, teachers will be
easier to assess their students‟ speaking skill. Most teachers will be familiar with the
concept of grading with a rubric, a table with different criteria and a grading scale in
assessing speaking. Some criteria that need to be considered in assessing students‟
speaking skill are their vocabularies, pronunciation, fluency, and coherency.
In assessing speaking, one of the many categories that make it good is pronunciation.
In line with this, Luoma (2004, p. 11) stated that speaking is mostly about pronunciation
and the pronunciation itself consists of individual sounds, pitch, volume, speed, pausing,
stress and intonation. That‟s why assessing speaking covers not only the understanding of
a talk but also the accuracy of all pronunciation aspects. In addition, the coherence of a
talk is considered to be the fair judgment and assessment for students.
Furthermore, Hughes (2003, pp. 131–132) stated that several aspects to assess
speaking are accent, grammar, vocabulary and fluency. For example, to assess whether
the students‟ English accent is excellent, good, fair or even bad, teachers could see and
-
15
use these categories as a benchmark to decide whether the students‟ accent is good or not.
This guidelines rule of Hughes is also can be applied in assessing the students‟ grammar,
vocabulary and fluency. Here are the specific guidelines for assessing speaking as we
discussed above.
Table 2.1
Speaking Rubric
(Adopted from Arthur Hughes, 2003, pp. 131–132)
Measured
Aspects Indicators Score
Accent Pronunciation frequently unintelligible. 1
Frequent gross errors and a very heavy accent make
understanding difficult, require frequent repetition. 2
“Foreign accent” requires concentrated listening, and
mispronunciations lead to occasional misunderstanding and
apparent errors in grammar or vocabulary.
3
Marked “foreign accent” and occasional mispronunciations
which do not interfere with understanding. 4
No conspicuous mispronunciations, but would not be taken
for a native speaker. 5
Native pronunciation, with no trace of “foreign accent”. 6
Grammar Grammar almost entirely inaccurate except in stock phrases. 1
Constant errors showing control of very few major patterns
and frequently preventing communication. 2
Frequent errors showing some major patterns uncontrolled
and causing occasional irritation and misunderstanding. 3
Occasional errors showing imperfect control of some
patterns but no weakness that cause misunderstanding. 4
Few errors, with no patterns of failure. 5
No more than two errors during the performance. 6
Vocabulary Vocabulary inadequate for even the simplest conversation.
1
Vocabulary limited to basic personal and survival areas
(time, food, transportation, family, etc.) 2
Choice of words sometimes inaccurate, limitations of
vocabulary prevent discussion of some common
professional and social topics. 3
Professional vocabulary adequate to discuss special 4
-
16
interests; general vocabulary permits discussion of any non-
technical subject with some circumlocutions.
Professional vocabulary broad and precise; general
vocabulary adequate to cope with complex practical
problems and varied social situations. 5
Vocabulary apparently as accurate and extensive as that of
an educated native speaker. 6
Fluency Speech is so halting and fragmentary that conversation is
virtually impossible. 1
Speech is very slow and uneven except for short or routine
sentences. 2
Speech is frequently hesitant and jerky; sentences may be
left uncompleted. 3
Speech is occasionally hesitant, with some unevenness
caused by rephrasing and grouping for words. 4
Speech is effortless and smooth, but perceptively non-native
in speed and evenness. 5
Speech on all professional and general topics as effortless
and smooth as a native speaker‟s. 6
In addition to the aspects measured in assessing speaking, Hughes (2003, p. 131) also
made the grading scale for speaking test. This grading scale is divided into two different
numerical tables that arranged in so many ways, they are weighting table and conversion
table. The weighting table is used to make a total score of your students‟ overall speaking
assessment. The number 1 to 6 is referring to the score you just gave to your students,
and the numbers below those number is representing your students‟ real score to be
added to your students‟ total score, in which it is symbolized by the A letter on the very
last column. One last table, which is the conversion table, is used to state a criterion of
your students‟ level of speaking. These two tables are highly help teachers to do their job
in assessing their students‟ speaking ability because of two reasons. First, teachers do not
need to make any list or numerical score more since it is confusing with so many
numbers in formulating a valid score. Second, the grading scale formulated by Hughes
can be counted as a fair assessing tool or a valid grading score, not a subjective one.
-
17
Table 2.2
Grading Scale of Speaking Test
Weighting Table
(Adopted from Arthur Hughes, 2003, p. 131)
1 2 3 4 5 6 (A)
Accent 0 1 2 2 3 4
Grammar 6 12 18 24 30 36
Vocabulary 4 8 12 16 20 24
Fluency 2 4 6 8 10 12
Comprehension 4 8 12 15 19 23
Table 2.3
Grading Scale of Speaking Test
Conversion Table
(Adopted from Arthur Hughes, 2003, p. 133)
Score Rating Criteria
16-25 0+ Poor
26-32 1 Bad
33-42 1+ Enough
43-52 2 Fair
53-62 2+ Average
63-72 3 Good
73-82 3+ Very Good
83-92 4 Well done
93-99 4+ Excellent
B. The Nature of Storytelling
Sharing stories is an everyday memory activity common to most humans (Davies et
al, 2015, p. 10861). People tell stories with different styles and they choose different
stories based on the listener ages. Differences in storytelling ability and style have been
related to psychosocial and biological changes due to the listener ages. Stories told in
daily life may be about fictional events. Individuals also, however, regularly share non-
fictional stories such as retelling interesting stories they have read (e.g., prose/novel/book
recall), sharing stories about other people (e.g., gossiping), or telling friends and
colleague stories they have heard appeared in the media (e.g., the news). This section will
preserve storytelling technique in language teaching including its brief history, definition,
the use of storytelling, its advantages and disadvantages, and a bit knowledge of
relationship between storytelling and teaching speaking.
-
18
1. A Brief History of Storytelling
Storytelling is one of the oldest human activities, possibly as old as language itself
(Sherman, 2011, p. xvii). He continued that the first to tell a tale is maybe a huntsman
that being proud of his skill or blowing up the reason for his failure to find humor, a
mother who told stories of beasts waiting in the forest to keep her children from playing
too far from home, or it might be a fortune teller who seek to explain the creation of the
world, the changing seasons, or the present of birth or death. There is no way to
determine the first individual ever to tell a story. The history of storytelling can be
tracked down only as far as the development of written language. The oldest survived
written records show that storytelling was leading by the second millennium B.C.E. It
was shown by the records of Egyptian storytelling date about 2560 B.C.E., when the sons
of Pharaoh Khufu entertained their father with stories.
Sherman (2011, p. xvii) continued that the first written stories are from the first
millennium B.C.E. Early examples show that the basic elements for a good story were
already in place by that time. The Egyptian tale called “The Prince and His Three Fates”,
which dates to about 1500 B.C.E., includes familiar themes such as the princess in the
tower, or in some versions, on the iced mountain, who can be saved only by a true hero.
And this story certainly is older than the written version. In general, by the time a story is
written down, it has been told and retold, possibly for centuries. One of the earliest
known storytellers is Greek poet Homer, who lived in the eighth century B.C.E. Homer
probably recited his Iliad and Odyssey in front of an audience long before these epics
were written down. Another storyteller from ancient Greece whose tales were later
recorded, the fabulist Aesop, lived in the fifth century B.C.E.
Furthermore, there are written stories from Greece, China, and India that date to the
end of the first millennium B.C.E. In the British Isles at that time, Celtic storytellers
wandered the countryside telling stories of gods, heroes, and clan histories. The earliest
Welsh storyteller for whom a name was recorded was Taliesin, who lived in the sixth
century C.E. In addition to this, storytellers‟ names were regularly recorded, and, by the
time of the Renaissance, individual storytellers were identified around the world
throughout the Middle Ages. In China, the first storyteller whose life was well
documented was Liu Jingting, who lived in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries C.E.
Aside from all the famous storytellers mentioned above, there were many storytellers –
unrecorded but very real, was taking place throughout these years. They are the mothers,
fathers, and grandparents who were telling stories to their families, the wandering or
amateur storytellers who were telling stories to villagers, and people in general who are
telling stories on the job, on breaks, and whenever the time was (Sherman, 2011, p.
xviii).
Traditionally, the oral stories have been handed over from generation to generation.
The storytelling history is quite ancient, lost in the mist of time. Nobody knows when the
first story was actually told. But it is believed that the origin of storytelling may have
come across as an excuse for failure. Perhaps stories were used long time ago to calm the
fears or doubts of a family. As families grouped with other families and formed clans, the
-
19
storyteller, who was good at telling heroic events or other important events of the tribes,
began to reach position of respect and power. People found them exciting and started to
listen to them. Storytelling was considered important at that time.
Storytelling, as it was considered important since long time ago, has been developed
in many ways. Before man learned how to write, he had to lean on his memory to learn
anything. For this he had to be a good listener and a good speaker at the same time. A
good story teller was always respected. He could easily find an audience, eager to read
every exciting bit of information in their stories. These stories were also shared with
others in faraway lands. When people traveled, the stories traveled with them. When they
returned home, they brought with them exciting new tales of exotic places and people.
That is how the storytelling goes throughout the world.
As storytelling goes continentally from time to time, the history of storytelling reveals
that the stories came in all variety. Myths, legends of all kinds, fairy tales, fables, ghost
tales, hero stories, and epic adventures, these stories were told and then retold. Passing
down from generations, these stories reflect the wisdom and knowledge of early people.
Furthermore, it is believed by most historians and psychologists that storytelling is one of
the many things that define and bind our humanity. Humans are perhaps the only animals
that create and tell stories.
Storytelling has a power, especially in communicating language and delivering moral
values that must not be forgotten (Ellis and Brewster, 2014). They stated that the telling
of stories has been a vital mechanism ever since humans developed language –perhaps
the most vital in transferring knowledge of all sorts. The invention of writing, printing,
word processing and home computers means that we now have many other methods.
Even though there are many inventions of technology to send story and knowledge,
storytelling remains as a powerful and appealing tool. It means that even now human
have many tools in transferring information and knowledge, storytelling is still holding
an important role in transferring it to people.
To conclude, storytelling has its way to become an effective tool in delivering
someone‟s story, whether it is about his daily life or a heroic tale. Furthermore, as
storytelling goes its way from age to age, it is then can be called as the oldest technique
in passing both information and knowledge throughout the world.
2. The Definition of Storytelling
Storytelling is present in many aspects of human life. Stories are told by grandparents,
parents, and other family members. Professional storytellers share their tales at fairs,
festivals, schools, libraries, and other sites. Stories are integral to the mediums of
television, film, opera, and theater, and storytelling sessions sometimes take place in the
business world at special meetings. Campfire tales are meant to make campers shiver.
And urban legends, contemporary folktales that usually are attributed to a „friend of a
friend‟, are told and retold. No matter how unlikely the tale may be, the teller invariably
insists, “It‟s true!” (Sherman, 2011, p. xvii).
-
20
According to Tangoy et al (2012: 123-124), storytelling is the art of describing real or
fictitious events in words, images, and sounds. They continued that stories are told for the
purposes of entertaining, teaching lessons, and even providing morals. From this point of
view, it can be concluded that storytelling is a way of delivery some real or unreal stories
by using words, images, and sounds to perform some beneficial purposes such as
entertaining, teaching as well as giving some lessons and moral values to people.
Furthermore, Tangoy et al added that storytelling is often considered as a crucial aspect
of humanity because in storytelling people use their verbal communication to teach,
explain, and entertain, in which they all are common in everyday life.
Another definition comes from Ellis and Brewster (2014, p. 25) that defined a
storytelling as telling a story to people who are willing to listen. This can be telling a
story from a book by reading it aloud, telling a story without a book by word of mouth in
the age-old oral tradition or telling an anecdote or even a joke. They continued that the
challenge of any storyteller is to maintain the listener‟s interest and attention. Telling a
story –whether reading it from a book or telling it in the oral tradition, brings out a
person‟s individuality and personality. Some people are natural storytellers. Most of us
are not, but we can all become good storytellers through practice and rehearsal and by
becoming aware of techniques we can use to bring a story alive.
To sum up, storytelling can be defined as a way of how a person tell a story to
someone or a group of people by using various ways of languages and gestures, including
intonation, mimics, sounds, and perhaps pictures, to make audiences or listeners get in
the story as well as understand of what is the story about.
Regardless of all the definition about storytelling, there are many different story
categories, ranging from true adventures to tall tales. According to Sherman (2011, p.
xix), stories can be organized roughly into four genres: true stories, folklore, fiction and
literature, and fairy tales.
a) True Stories
Sherman (2011, p. xix) explained a true story as a personal account or a
recounting of a historic event. The story may be embellished or exaggerated, but
the facts are commonly stayed. Sherman (2011, p. xix) added that news stories fall
into this category, and newscasters, with their deliberate style of delivery,
definitely can be called storytellers.
There are also family stories which usually are shared among the members of
a nuclear or extended family. These tales may include factual history, shared
memories, family jokes, and exaggerated tales about the bravery or even bad luck
of family members and friends. In