the effects of spent garnet in high strength...
TRANSCRIPT
THE EFFECTS OF SPENT GARNET IN HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE
SUBJECTED TO ELEVATED TEMPERATURE
MOHAMMAD IQBAL BIN KHIYON
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
Master of Philosophy (Structure and Material)
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
MAY 2018
iii
DEDICATION
To my parents
Khiyon bin Abdul Kadir and Nor Beezah binti Hazmah
To my siblings, brother-in-laws, nieces and my love
Khirun Nissah, Nurul Aisah, Noor Azeyah, Nor Hanim, Mohamad Raffik, Mohd
Shaifulizam, Khairool Aizat, Tengku Amirul, Mohd Fariq, Sophie Inayya, Aaira
Annysa and Siti Nurshatila
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost all praise is to Allah (S.W.T) for the knowledge to make
this research possible and overcome the hard time during the study.
I like to express my sincere appreciation and gratitude to my kind
supervisors, Dr. Mariyana Aida binti Abd Kadir for her moral support, guidance,
encouragement, friendship and patience throughout the research period. Without her
guidance and advice, this thesis would not been the same present here. Besides that, I
would like to extend my gratitude to my co-supervisor, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abdul
Rahman bin Mohd Sam and Dr. Nor Hasanah binti Abdul Shukor Lim for their
generous time, motivation and discussion during this study. I am thankful to the staff
of Materials and Structures Laboratory, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) for helping to my various laboratory works. My thanks
also go to my research colleagues and friends who have provided assistance at
various occasions.
Most importantly, my special thanks to my beloved parents, siblings and love
for their support, sacrifice, encouragement, and prayer.
Thank you for everything.
v
ABSTRACT
The ability of garnet to be recycled makes garnet suitable for many industrial
purposes. When the recycled garnet can no longer be reused in the ship cleaning
process, garnet is removed from the shipyards and named as “spent garnet”. This has
resulted in millions of tons of spent garnet disposed in landfill, quarries, oceans and
rivers, thus causing environmental problems. The rapid growth of construction
industry has leading to the over exploitation of riverbeds. This scenario affects the
environment which includes reduction of water quality and destabilization of the
stream bed and banks. In this study the spent garnet was used as sand replacement in
high strength concrete production. Several laboratory tests were done to determine
the characteristics of spent garnet in terms of physical and chemical properties. Trial
mix design and evaluation on fresh and hardened properties of high strength concrete
were examined to achieve concrete strength 60 MPa at 28 days. Series of the
concrete were prepared with a replacement of 0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100%
by using spent garnet as a sand replacement with a water cement ratio of 0.33 and
0.33% of superplasticizer from the weight of cement was added to get the desired
slump 60-180 mm. Workability of the concrete was studied in addition to hardened
properties and durability of the concrete at ambient and elevated temperature.
Furthermore, microstructural test which is Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
also was done in this research. Finally, the effect of concrete cover when exposed to
elevated temperature and the bonding effect between concrete and steel at ambient
temperature was determined. Results showed that at 20% and 40% replacement, the
compressive strength of the concrete at 28 days were 62.55 MPa and 63.91 MPa,
respectively, which is 3.8% and 6% higher than high strength concrete (HSC). High
strength concrete mix consisting of 40% spent garnet using different concrete cover
thickness subjected to elevated temperature and bonding effect with steel was
investigated. From the fire test, 40% of spent garnet gives slightly better protection
for steel bar when exposed to elevated temperature compared to HSC. For pull-out
test, the results shows that using 40% of spent garnet gives higher bond strength
compared to HSC. The failure mode for 50 mm concrete cover shows pull-out failure
while 20 and 37.5 mm concrete cover shows splitting failure. Considering the test
results, 40% of spent garnet as sand replacement in high strength concrete showed
excellent performance in term of strength of concrete subjected to fire.
vi
ABSTRAK
Keupayaan garnet untuk dikitar semula menjadikannya sesuai untuk
kegunaan di industri. Apabila garnet yang dikitar semula tidak lagi boleh digunakan
semula dalam proses pembersihan kapal, garnet dikeluarkan dari limbungan kapal
dan dinamakan sebagai “garnet terpakai”. Ini telah menyebabkan berjuta-juta tan
garnet dibuang di tapak pelupusan sampah, kuari, lautan dan sungai, sehingga
menyebabkan masalah alam sekitar. Pertumbuhan pesat industri pembinaan telah
membawa kepada eksploitasi sungai. Senario ini akan memberi kesan kepada
persekitaran yang merangkumi pengurangan kualiti air dan ketidakstabilan dasar
sungai dan tebing sungai. Kajian ini menggunakan garnet terpakai sebagai pengganti
pasir dalam pengeluaran konkrit kekuatan tinggi. Beberapa ujian makmal dilakukan
untuk menentukan ciri-ciri garnet terpakai dari segi sifat fizikal dan kimia. Reka
bentuk dan penilaian campuran percubaan pada sifat konkrit segar dan keras dari
konkrit kekuatan tinggi telah diperiksa untuk mencapai kekuatan konkrit 60 MPa
pada 28 hari. Beberapa bancuhan konkrit disediakan dengan penggantian 0%, 20%,
40%, 60%, 80% dan 100% dengan menggunakan garnet terpakai sebagai pengganti
pasir dengan nisbah simen air 0.33 dan superpemplastik 0.33% dari berat simen
ditambah untuk mendapatkan kejatuhan yang diingini 60-180 mm. Kebolehkerjaan
konkrit dikaji sebagai tambahan kepada sifat-sifat yang telah mengeras dan
ketahanan konkrit pada suhu bilik dan suhu tinggi. Selain itu, ujian mikrostruktur
iaitu Pengimbasan Mikroskop Elektronik (SEM) juga telah dilakukan dalam kajian
ini. Akhirnya, kesan penutup konkrit apabila terdedah kepada suhu tinggi dan kesan
ikatan antara konkrit dan keluli pada suhu bilik ditentukan. Keputusan menunjukkan
bahawa pada 20% dan 40% penggantian, kekuatan mampatan konkrit selama 28 hari
adalah 62.55 MPa dan 63.91 MPa iaitu 3.8% dan 6% lebih tinggi daripada konkrit
kekuatan tnggi (HSC). Campuran konkrit kekuatan tinggi yang terdiri daripada 40%
garnet terpakai menggunakan ketebalan penutup konkrit yang berbeza tertakluk
kepada suhu tinggi dan kesan ikatan dengan keluli dikaji. Dari ujian kebakaran, 40%
garnet terpakai memberi perlindungan lebih baik untuk tetulang keluli apabila
terdedah kepada suhu tinggi dibandingkan dengan HSC. Untuk ujian tarikan,
keputusan menunjukkan bahawa penggunaan 40% garnet terpakai memberikan
kekuatan ikatan yang lebih tinggi berbanding dengan HSC. Mod kegagalan untuk
penutup konkrit 50 mm menunjukkan kegagalan tarikan manakala penutup konkrit
20 dan 37.5 mm menunjukkan kegagalan pemisahan. Dari ujian ini, 40% garnet
terpakai sebagai pengganti pasir di dalam konkrit kekuatan tinggi menunjukkan
prestasi cemerlang dari segi kekuatan konkrit apabila terdedah kepada api.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
TITLE i
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xiii
LIST OF FIGURES xv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxi
LIST OF SYMBOLS xxii
LIST OF APPENDICES xxiv
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Problem Statement 3
1.3 Aims and Objectives 5
1.4 Scope of the Research 6
1.5 Limitation of the Research 6
1.6 Significance of the Research 7
1.7 Thesis Organization 7
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Garnet 10
viii
2.2.1 Garnet for Industry Applications
2.2.2 Physical Properties and Chemical
Properties of Spent Garnet
11
13
2.3 Spent Garnet as Construction Material in
Concrete
2.3.1 Workability of Spent Garnet
Concrete
2.3.2 Hardened Properties of Spent Garnet
Concrete
2.3.2.1 Compressive Strength
2.3.2.2 Splitting Tensile and Flexural
Strength
2.3.2.3 Static Modulus of Elasticity
14
15
16
16
18
19
2.4 Microstructure of Concrete 20
2.5 High Strength Concrete 22
2.6 Fire Development Stage 24
2.7 Design of Fire load
2.7.1 Design Fire
2.7.2 Parametric Time-Temperature Curve
25
25
26
2.8 Physical Properties of Concrete at Elevated
Temperature
2.8.1 Mechanical Properties of High
Strength Concrete at Elevated
Temperature
2.8.2 Effect of Different Aggregate Used
in Concrete Mix at High
Temperature
27
29
31
2.9 Reinforcing Steel at Elevated Temperature 32
2.10 Concrete Cover
2.10.1 Elevated Temperature Test
2.10.1.1 Effect of Concrete Cover on
Rebars When Exposed to
Elevated Temperature
34
39
40
ix
2.10.2 Pull-Out Test
2.10.2.1 Effect of Cover Thickness
on Bonding of Concrete
with Reinforcing Steel
41
42
2.11 Summary of Research Gap 44
3 METHODOLOGY 47
3.1 Introduction 47
3.2 Research Design and Methodology 47
3.3 Preparation of Materials
3.3.1 Cement
3.3.2 Water
3.3.3 Aggregates
3.3.4 Spent Garnet
3.3.5 Superplasticizer
53
53
53
53
54
54
3.4 Characterization of Raw Materials
3.4.1 Specific Gravity, Density and Water
Absorption for Fine Aggregates
3.4.2 X-Ray Fluorescence
3.4.3 Thermogravimetric and Differential
Thermal Analysis (TGA and DTA)
3.4.4 Sieve Analysis
55
55
56
57
58
3.5 Concrete Mix Design 58
3.6 Fresh Properties of Concrete
3.6.1 Slump Test
59
59
3.7 Hardened Properties of Concrete
3.7.1 Density
3.7.2 Water Absorption
3.7.3 Compressive Strength Test
3.7.4 Flexural Strength Test
3.7.5 Splitting Tensile Strength Test
3.7.5.1 Relationship between
Compressive Strength and
60
60
61
62
63
64
65
x
others Mechanical
properties of Concrete
3.7.6 Modulus of Elasticity
65
3.8 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) 67
3.9 Pull-Out Test 67
3.10 Elevated Temperature Test
3.10.1 Cube Sample for Elevated
Temperature Test
3.10.2 Spacer Preparation
3.10.3 Prism Sample for Elevated
Temperature Test
68
69
70
71
4 CHARACTERIZATION OF MATERIALS
AND PROPERTIES OF FRESH AND
HARDENED CONCRETE CONTAIN SPENT
GARNET
74
4.1 Introduction 74
4.2 Material Properties
4.2.1 Physical Properties
4.2.1.1 Specific Gravity, Density
and Water Absorption
4.2.1.2 Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM)
4.2.1.3 Sieve Analysis
4.2.2 Chemical Properties
4.2.2.1 X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF)
4.2.2.2 Thermogravimetric and
Differential Thermal
Analysis (TGA and DTA)
74
75
75
75
77
80
80
81
4.3 Properties of Fresh Concrete
4.3.1 Workability of Concrete
83
84
4.4 Properties of Hardened Concrete
4.4.1 Dry Density of Concrete
86
86
xi
4.4.2 Water Absorption of Concrete
4.4.3 Compressive Strength of Concrete
4.4.4 Flexural Strength of Concrete
4.4.4.1 Correlation between
Compressive and Flexural
Strength
4.4.5 Splitting Tensile Strength
4.4.5.1 Correlation between
Compressive and Splitting
Tensile Strength
87
88
90
91
93
94
4.5 Static Modulus of Elasticity 96
4.6 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 96
4.7 Pull-Out Test 98
4.8 Summary
4.8.1 Materials Properties of Spent Garnet
4.8.2 Properties of High Strength Spent
Garnet Concrete
4.8.3 Bonding of High Strength Spent
Garnet Concrete with Steel
102
103
103
105
5 PERFORMANCE OF SPENT GARNET
CONCRETE SUBJECTED TO ELEVATED
TEMPERATURE
106
5.1 Introduction 106
5.2 Furnace Temperature Rating 106
5.3 Cube Sample of Concrete Specimens
5.3.1 Physical Characteristic of Spent
Garnet Concrete Exposed to
Elevated Temperature
5.3.2 Residual Compressive Strength of
Concrete
5.3.3 Impact of Elevated Temperature on
the Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity of
107
108
111
113
xii
Spent Garnet Concrete
5.3.4 Weight Loss of Concrete
5.3.5 Correlation between Residual
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity and
Residual Compressive Strength
114
115
5.4 Prism Sample of Concrete Specimens with
Different Cover Thickness
5.4.1 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Results of
Concrete Specimens at Elevated
Temperature
5.4.2 Tensile Test of Steel Bar After
Exposed to Elevated Temperature
118
119
121
5.5 Summary
5.5.1 Physical and Mechanical Properties
of Concrete at Elevated Temperature
5.5.2 Influences of Concrete Cover
Thickness Subjected to Elevated
Temperature
125
125
126
6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 128
6.1 Conclusions 128
6.2 Physical Properties 128
6.3 Chemical Properties 129
6.4 Fresh and Hardened Properties 129
6.5 Influences of Concrete Cover Thickness 130
6.7 Recommendations 131
REFERENCES 132
Appendices A 143
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 Physical properties of spent garnet (almandine)
(Habeeb et al., 2017)
14
2.2 Chemical composition of spent garnet (almandine)
(Muhammad, 2016)
14
2.3 Compressive strength results (Habeeb et al., 2017) 18
2.4
Flexural and tensile strength results at 28 days (Habeeb
et al., 2017)
19
2.5 Strength classification of concrete (Portland Cement
Association, 1994)
23
2.6 Nominal Cover to Meet Specific Period of Fire
Resistance (New Zealand Standard, 2004)
35
2.7 Nominal Cover to Meet Specific Period of Fire
Resistance (Indian Standard, 2007)
36
2.8
Nominal Cover to Meet Specific Period of Fire
Resistance (Eurocode 2 Standard, 2007)
37
2.9
Comparison of Standard for Nominal Cover to Meet
Specific Period of Fire Resistance
38
2.10 Quality of concrete based on Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
(UPV) (Neville, 2011)
40
2.11 The effects of spent garnet in concrete production 44
2.12 The behaviour of concrete and effects of concrete
cover thickness at elevated
45
3.1 Mix design of concrete specimens 59
3.2 Dimension for Concrete Cover Preparation 70
xiv
4.1 Physical Properties of spent garnet and river sand 75
4.2
Sieve analysis of fine aggregates (spent garnet and
river sand)
78
4.3 Sieve analysis of spent garnet 79
4.4 Sieve analysis of river sand 79
4.5 Chemical composition of spent garnet and river sand 81
4.6 Properties of Fresh Concrete 85
4.7 28 days hardened dry density of concrete specimens 87
4.8 Water Absorption for 28 days specimens 88
4.9 Modulus of elasticity of concrete specimens 96
5.1 Surface characteristics of concrete at elevated
temperature
111
5.2 The correlation coefficient of R2 based on the number
(Deborah, 2016)
116
5.3 Summary of the peak stress-strain curve for HSC and
HSSGC40% with cover 20 and 30 mm
125
xv
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
1.1 View of the laboratory subjected to fire (Iqbal et al.,
2017)
4
2.1 (a) Pyrope (b) Almandine (c) Spesartine (d) Grossularite
(e) Andradite (f) Uvarovite (Balčiūnaitė et al., 2015)
10
2.2
Chemical composition of garnet (a) Pyrope (b)
Almandine (c) Spesartine (d) Grossularite (e) andradite
(f) Uvarovite
11
2.3 The percentage used of garnet in the United Stated in
2002
13
2.4 Slump flow of foamed concrete for different percentage
of spent garnet
15
2.5 Compressive strength of foamed concrete with different
percentage of spent garnet
17
2.6 Schematic drawing of ITZ in normal strength concrete
(Mehta and Monteiro, 2006)
20
2.7 Fracture surface of hardened cement paste at (a) early
ages and (b) later ages (Stutzman, 2001)
21
2.8 SEM microstructure of the aggregate cement paste
containing sandstone (a) normal strength concrete (b)
high strength concrete
22
2.9 Time temperature curve for full process of fire
development (Buchanan, 2009)
25
2.10 Design fire with constant temperature (Kadir M.A.A, 26
xvi
2013)
2.11
Furnace time-temperature exposure curve (Beyler et al.,
2007)
27
2.12 Colour change of ordinary Portland concrete, mortar and
cement paste, heated to temperatures from 100ºC to
1000ºC (Hager, 2013).
28
2.13 Surface texture of the concrete samples when exposed to
elevated temperatures (Arioz, 2007)
29
2.14 Stress-strain curve for (a) normal concrete (b) high
strength concrete at elevated temperature (Cement
Concrete and Aggregate Australia, 2010)
30
2.15 Compressive strength against temperature (Hager, 2016) 31
2.16 Stress-strain curve for (a) siliceous aggregate (b)
carbonate aggregate high strength concrete (Cheng,
2004)
32
2.17 Properties of steel exposed to elevated temperature (a)
yield strength (b) tensile strength (c) modulus of
elasticity (Tide, 1998)
33
2.18 Nominal concrete cover, 𝐶𝑛𝑜𝑚 and bar spacing 34
2.19 Elevated temperature test set up (Topҫu et al., 2011) 39
2.20 Experimental setup for pull-out test (.Zuraida, et al.,
2015)
41
2.21 Bond stress acting on a reinforcing bar.(Hadi, 2008) 42
2.22 Flowchart of research gap in different type of concrete 46
3.1 Flowchart of the research work 49
3.2 Material properties of spent garnet (Phase 1) 50
3.3 Determination of optimum percentage for High Strength
Spent Garnet Concrete (HSSGC) (Phase 2)
51
3.4 Flowchart for concrete specimen tested under elevated
temperature (Phase 3)
52
3.5 Spent Garnet waste from sandblasting work 54
3.6 (a) Weighing process (b) Oven-dried process for river
sand and spent garnet absorption of fine aggregates
55
xvii
3.7 X-ray fluorescence (XRF) machine 57
3.8 Test procedure for thermogravimetric analysis and
differential thermal analysis
57
3.9
(a) Weighing process for each of the sieve pan (b) The
sample were poured into the sieve pan
58
3.10 (a) Compact process using steel rod (b) Process for
determined slump height of fresh concrete
60
3.11 (a) The specimens were fully submerged for 28 days (b)
Oven-dried process for 24 hours
61
3.12 Testing for compressive strength 63
3.13 (a) The samples were marked before conducting the test
(b) Concrete specimens under flexural strength test
63
3.14 Testing for splitting tensile strength 64
3.15 (a) Strain gauge was attached at concrete specimens (b)
Modulus of elasticity was done by using universal
machine
66
3.16 Test procedure for Scanning Electron Microscope
(SEM)
67
3.17 (a) A PVC pipe was used as mould specimens (b)
Testing for pull-out test
68
3.18 The temperature time curve used in the temperature
testing
69
3.19 (a) Ultrasonic-pulse velocity test before and after the
specimens subjected to elevated temperature (b)
Elevated temperature test
70
3.20 Spacer Preparation 71
3.21 Spacer location in the mould for (a) cover 20 mm and
(b) 30 mm with plain steel 6 mm diameter
71
3.22 Schematic drawings of reinforced concrete specimens
(in mm)
72
3.23 Ultrasonic-pulse velocity test before and after the
specimens subjected to elevated temperature (b) Tensile
test after elevated temperature test of reinforced
73
xviii
concrete specimens
4.1 SEM morphology of spent garnet magnification (a) 25X
(b) 100X (c) 250X (d) 1000X scale
76
4.2 SEM morphology of river sand magnification (a) 25X
(b) 100X (c) 250X (d) 1000X scale
77
4.3 Particle size distribution for spent garnet and river sand 78
4.4 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of spent garnet and
rive sand at elevated temperature
83
4.5 Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) of spent garnet
and river sand at elevated temperature
83
4.6 Workability of concrete (a) High Strength Concrete
(HSC), (b) High Strength Spent Garnet Concrete
(HSSGC20%) (c) High Strength Spent Garnet Concrete
(HSSGC40%) (d) High Strength Spent Garnet Concrete
(HSSGC60%) (e) High Strength Spent Garnet Concrete
(HSSGC80%) (f) High Strength Spent Garnet Concrete
(HSSGC100%)
85
4.7 Compressive strength of concrete specimens at ages 7
and 28 days
89
4.8 Flexural strength of concrete specimens at ages 7 and 28
days
91
4.9 Relationship between flexural strength and compressive
strength for HSSGC specimens at 28 days
92
4.10 Splitting tensile strength of concrete specimens at ages 7
and 28 days
93
4.11 Relationship between splitting tensile strength and
compressive strength for 28 day
95
4.12 SEM morphology of High Strength Concrete at 28 days 97
4.13 SEM morphology of High Strength Spent Garnet
Concrete 40% at 28 days
98
4.14 Bond behaviour with cover 20 mm 99
4.15 Bond behaviour with cover 37.5 mm 99
4.16 Bond behaviour with cover 50 mm 100
xix
4.17 Bond behaviour with different cover thickness 20 mm,
37.5 mm and 50 mm
100
4.18 Failure mode of pull-out test for High Strength Concrete
(HSC) and High Strength Spent Garnet Concrete 40%
(HSSGC40%) for (a) HSC cover 20 mm (b)
HSSGC40% cover 20 mm (c) HSC cover 37.5 mm (d)
HSSGC40% cover 37.5 mm (e) HSC cover 50 mm (f)
HSSGC40% cover 50 mm
102
5.1 The temperature time curve for experimental compared
to a standard ISO 834 (2012) and ASTM E119
107
5.2 Colour code for high strength concrete subjected to
elevated temperature (a) surface with exposed
aggregates (b) external surface of high strength concrete
(Hager, 2013)
108
5.3 (a) HSC at 28ºC (b) HSSGC40% at 28ºC (c) HSC at
200ºC (d) HSSGC40% at 200ºC (e) HSC at 400ºC (f)
HSSGC40% at 400ºC (g) HSC at 600ºC (g)
HSSGC40% at 600ºC (i) HSC at 800ºC (j) HSSGC40%
at 800ºC
110
5.4 Residual compressive strength of concrete when
exposed to elevated temperature
113
5.5 Change in UPV of concrete exposed to elevated
temperature
114
5.6 Weight loss of concrete exposed to elevated temperature 115
5.7 Relationship between residual compressive strength and
residual UPV for High Strength Concrete (HSC)
117
5.8 Relationship between residual compressive strength and
residual UPV for High Strength Spent Garnet Concrete
(HSSGC)
118
5.9 Schematic drawings of reinforced concrete specimens
(in mm)
119
5.10 UPV result exposed to elevated temperature (cover 20 120
xx
mm)
5.11 UPV result exposed to elevated temperature (cover 20
mm)
121
5.12 Stress-strain curve for plain steel when exposed to
elevated temperature
122
5.13 Stress-strain curve for HSC with cover 20 mm 123
5.14 Stress-strain curve for HSSGC40% with cover 20 mm 123
5.15 Stress-strain curve for HSC with cover 30 mm 124
5.16 Stress-strain curve for HSSGC40% with cover 30 mm 124
xxi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials
BS - British Standard
XRF - X-Ray Fluorescence
SEM - Scanning Electron Microscopy
UPV - Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
SiO2 - Silicon dioxide
Al2O3 - Aluminium oxide
Fe2O3 - Iron (iii) oxide
CaO - Calcium oxide
MgO - Magnesium oxide
Na2O - Sodium oxide
MnO - Manganese (ii) oxide
CrO - Chromium (ii) oxide
SP - Superplasticizer
WRA - Water reducing agent
HRWR - High-range water reducer
NC - Normal Concrete
HSC - High Strength Concrete
HSSGC - High Strength Spent Garnet Concrete
SSD - Saturated-Surface Dry
OPC - Ordinary Portland Cement
xxii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
𝐶𝑛𝑜𝑚 - Nominal concrete cover
𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 - The minimum cover
∆𝐶𝑑𝑒𝑣 - 10 mm or can reduced to 5 mm
Ab - Area of bar
db - Diameter of the bar
fs - Stress in the bar
PMax - Maximum pull-out load
Ld - Embedded bar length
A - Mass of oven dry specimen
B - Mass of pycnometer filled with water
C - Mass of pycnometer filled with specimen and water
S - Mass of saturated surface dry specimen
𝑝 - Density of the concrete
𝑚 - Mass of the concrete
𝑉 - Volume of the concrete samples
𝐴1 - Oven-dried mass of sample
𝐵1 - Surface dried mass of sample
fc - Compressive strength
F - Maximum load
Ac - Cross section of the specimen
𝑓𝑐𝑓 - Flexural strength
P - Maximum applied load
L - Supported span
b, d - Lateral dimension of the specimen
𝑓𝑐𝑡 - Splitting tensile strength
d1 - Cross-sectional dimension of the specimen
E - Modulus of elasticity (GPa)
xxiii
𝜎 - Stress (MPa)
𝜀 - Strain
f’c - cylinder compressive
xxiv
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A Journal Publication and Conference Paper 143
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Malaysia is a growing country with the aim of achieving developed nation
status by the year 2020. Various activities consisting of industrial, socio-economic and
construction sector are being actively planned and carried out to realize this vision.
Therefore, construction sector may be taken into consideration as one of the most
critical industries in Malaysia to maintain the general economic growth in Malaysia
through providing the infrastructure needed to support the economic development
activities. The rapid growth of this sector consequently required high amount of
production and consumption of construction minerals such as coarse aggregates (rock)
and fine aggregates (sand). However, the use of a large amount of these construction
minerals has led to various environmental issues.
It is generally known that river sand is not a renewable natural resource and in
some part, river sand has been exploited excessively which can cause negative impact
to the environment. The challenge for the civil engineering group with the idea of
economic improvement includes the utilization of waste materials and a by-product at
minimum environmental impact and cost. Therefore, accomplishing an eco-friendly
environment, in an economical manner, through reusing of waste materials in
construction sector have become essential worldwide issues. Previous research has
proven that the usage of waste materials and a by-product of industries in construction
as materials in concrete appear to offer adequate solution to this problem. For example,
several researches have been conducted in the area of adding and replacing sand with
2
slag, bottom ash and recycle of aggregate to improve mechanical strength and
durability of concrete. However, the increasing amount of new waste materials or new
by-product industrial waste has reduced the space for landfill. These problems of
landfill and environmental issues have become the major reason for extensive research
to utilize the use of waste materials in concrete production.
It is interesting to know that spent garnet is a material used for sandblasting
ships in southern part of Malaysia. Generally, garnet is a widespread mineral found in
a crystal metamorphic rock that is characterized by a variety of chemical elements and
colours. The ability of garnet to be recycled 3 to 5 times and the hardness of garnet
make it suitable in abrasive work. Finally, when the recycled garnet can no longer be
reused in the abrasive blasting process, garnet is removed from the shipyards and
named as “spent garnet” (Gorill and Lindsay, 2003). The non-use of spent garnet has
become an industrial waste and has filled the space of landfill.
Previous study has considered the utilization of spent garnet as fine aggregates
replacement in a geopolymer concrete (Habeeb et al., 2017). It was reported that
replacing 25% of spent garnet as fine aggregates in a geopolymer concrete could be
considered as optimum for mechanical properties and flow ability. Although the use
of spent garnet has already been studied by several previous researchers, the utilization
of spent garnet in geopolymer is low compared to huge amount of disposal.
In order to maximise the utilization of spent garnet there is need to carry out
an extensive research on the chemical and physical properties of spent garnet and the
effect on strength and bonding of concrete with steel when spent garnet is used as sand
replacement. Furthermore, study the behaviour of concrete containing spent garnet
when exposed to elevated temperature is necessary because aggregates represent a
considerable proportion of volume in concrete, about 70%, and are expected to have
an influence on the effect of concrete when exposed to fire (Hager et al., 2016). Such
increase in the utilization of spent garnet will reduce the effects of environmental
problems and can provide eco-friendly sustainable concrete. This study was used a
spent garnet, a by-product of surface treatment operations, as a sand replacement in
concrete. Even though the use of waste materials as a sand replacement using spent
3
garnet has been studied by many previous researches, the use of spent garnet in high
strength concrete can be considered as a new knowledge to research world. Thus, the
focus of this study is more on the effect of mechanical properties of spent garnet
concrete at ambient and elevated temperature. Using spent garnet as fine aggregates
replacement in concrete mixture could improve the mechanical properties and
durability of concrete at elevated temperature.
1.2 Problem Statement
In the past few decades, the high demand for aggregates in the production of
concrete is increasing in Malaysia due to rapid growth of construction sector. In 2010,
the total usage of natural aggregates in Malaysia was 2.76 billion metric tons, of which
1.17 billion metric tons was sand and gravel (Shettima, 2017). Sand as fine aggregates
in concrete is usually produced from mining riverbank and quarries. The digging of
sand from the riverbed in excess quantity will affect the environment which includes
reduction of water quality and destabilization of the stream bed and banks. Due to
global warming and environmental devastation that have become manifestly harmful
in recent years, there is a need to find an alternative replacement for river sand as fine
aggregate in concrete by the use of industrial waste in the making of concrete.
Over a period of time, different research works had been conducted with the
utilization of waste materials from industrial waste as fine aggregates in concrete
production. In 2013, the amount of garnet imported from Australia to Malaysia by
Malaysian Marine Heavy Industry (MMHE) was 2000 tons for the use of work
sandblasting ship. Meanwhile, the total world industrial garnet production was
estimated to be 440,000 tons (Gorrill and Lindsay, 2003). Thus, the excessive amounts
of spent garnet filled up the space of landfill, in addition to disposal in oceans and
rivers. This excessive spent garnet has presented an attractive opportunity to use this
waste in concrete mix, thus solving the space for landfill, minimizing the used of river
sand and improving the performance of concrete. Spent garnet materials which were
used for fine aggregates material among others played significant roles such as
4
behaviour of concrete at elevated temperature. Thus, as the formation of spent garnet
was formed at higher temperature up to 400ºC based on Caddick and Kohn, (2013),
spent garnet was expected will give better performance as fine aggregates in concrete
compared to river sand at elevated temperature.
Generally, reinforced concrete has proven to be a successful material in
conditions of both structural performance and strength. Achieving good durability in
reinforced concrete is a major ingredient in enabling a social organization to perform
its designed use for its anticipated lifetime. Fortunately, exposure to elevated
temperature and poor structure can all lead to concrete failure. The fire reaction to
reinforced concrete structure will affect the properties of concrete and steel. These
include the thermal properties, mechanical properties, deformation properties of
materials and material specific characteristics such as spalling in concrete. The spalling
effect of concrete can be defined as the breaking up of pieces of concrete when it is
exposed to high and rapidly rising temperatures such as those in a real fire. This
spalling effect will occur in all types of concrete especially in high strength concrete
(HSC) rather than normal concrete (NC) due to its lower thermal stability and lower
water-cement ratio compared to NC (Venkatesh, 2014). Figure 1.1 illustrates plaster
spalling due to the effect of elevated temperature.
Figure 1.1: View of the laboratory subjected to fire (Iqbal et al., 2017)
Plaster
spall
5
The properties of concrete when exposed to elevated temperature are due to its
composition and individual components in concrete. Aggregates occupied the high
volume of concrete and therefore, behaviour of concrete at elevated temperature was
strongly affected by aggregates used in concrete. Generally, aggregates were found to
be stable up to 300ºC to 350ºC; however, exposure to higher temperature will affect
the properties of aggregates, thermal expansion, conductivity and chemical stability of
aggregates (Tufail et al., 2017). Study focused on replacing river sand with spent
garnet in a concrete, and the response to elevated temperature, is necessary as the
behaviour of concrete at elevated temperature was strongly affected by the type of
aggregates. This research is different from previous works which are concerned with
the mechanical properties of geopolymer concrete containing spent garnet, as this
study is focused on mechanical properties of High Strength Spent Garnet Concrete
(HSSGC) and its potential use in terms of structural design at elevated temperature.
1.3 Aims and Objectives
The aim of this study is to investigate the performance of spent garnet as sand
replacement in concrete mix and also to determine the effect of concrete when exposed
to elevated temperature. The main objectives are as follows:
i. To establish the characterization of spent garnet in terms of physical and
chemical properties.
ii. To study the mechanical properties of High Strength Spent Garnet Concrete
(HSSGC).
iii. To examine the bonding effect between steel and concrete for High Strength
Spent Garnet Concrete (HSSGC).
6
iv. To investigate the effect of different cover thickness for High Strength Spent
Garnet Concrete (HSSGC) when exposed to elevated temperature.
1.4 Scope of the Research
All testing procedures were followed the Malaysian Standard (MS), British
Standard (BS), Eurocode Standard (BS-EN), American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM), and some of the procedures were proposed by previous
researchers. The study also would be focused on the use of spent garnet as a waste
material in high strength concrete as a sand replacement. The use of spent garnet in
this study as sand replacement ranges from 0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100%. The
designed (mix) strength of concrete is 60 N/mm2 at 28 days while the maximum
particle size of spent garnet used is 2.36 mm.
For modulus of elasticity, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), pull-out test
and elevated temperature, there were only two different types of concrete were tested
which are high strength concrete (HSC) and optimum percentage of high strength spent
garnet concrete that was determined based on mechanical properties test such as
compressive strength, flexural strength and splitting tensile strength.
1.5 Limitation of the Research
Spent garnet in this study was used directly without any treatment. The
elevated temperature test in this study is by using an electrical furnace and temperature
ranging from 200ºC, 400ºC, 600ºC and 800ºC with one-hour duration. The temperature
ranges and duration was chosen as stated above due to suggested by previous research
as that certain temperature will shows different results for physical and mechanical
behaviour of concrete at one hour duration. The cooling effect during fire test was not
considered in this study. The change of colour, cracking, residual compressive
7
strength, ultrasonic-pulse velocity, weight loss of concrete and tensile strength of steel
under elevated temperature were included in this study.
1.6 Significance of the Research
Apparently, the use of spent garnet can reduce the consumption of river sand
and significantly enrich the properties of concrete at ambient and elevated temperature.
The use of high volume of spent garnet will help reduce the environmental pollution.
Besides that, high strength concrete (HSC) was expected to be better than normal
concrete (NC) in terms of residual compressive strength when exposed to elevated
temperature in the range of 28ºC to 400ºC. However, the only major problem for HSC
at higher temperature at above 600ºC was spalling effect. By taking into consideration
spent garnet as a waste produced from sandblasting work, the use of spent garnet in
concrete is strongly encouraged as it will reduce the space for landfill and is
environmental friendly. It is hoped that the use of a higher volume of spent garnet in
this study compared to previous research will help to reduce the usage of river sand
and balance the ecosystem. Besides that, studying the behaviour of different fine
aggregates (sand and spent garnet) at elevated temperature and bonding effect with
steel can be of assistance in evaluating the performance of spent garnet as sand
replacement as structural design for fire safety and its performance in terms of strength
and durability.
1.7 Thesis Organization
There are six chapters in this thesis in order to achieve four objectives of the
research. The arrangement of thesis is shown below:
8
I. Chapter 1: Description on the background problem. This chapter were also
provided information on aims and objectives, scope and limitation, and
significance of the study.
II. Chapter 2: Explains the properties of garnet and the use of spent garnet in
concrete from previous researcher. This chapter also provide a review of the
use of other materials as sand replacement, describe the behaviour of concrete
and steel when exposed to elevated temperature, discuss the influences of
concrete cover or spacers as a protection for reinforcement during fire taking
place and in terms of bonding effect with steel.
III. Chapter 3: This chapter were described the experimental program including
methodology, casting and testing of various types of specimens.
IV. Chapter 4: This chapter presents the test results and discussion obtained from
the physical and chemical properties of spent garnet. Moreover, aspects of
mechanical properties also were presented in this chapter.
V. Chapter 5: Aspects of performance of High Strength Concrete (HSC) and High
Strength Spent Garnet Concrete (HSSGC) when exposed to elevated
temperature were discussed in this chapter.
VI. Chapter 6: This last chapter concludes this study by stating the findings and
contribution of the research to the existing knowledge. Furthermore,
recommendations are also provided for further research in this area.
132
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