THE EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF

BRAHMANISM IN THAILAND WITH SPECIAL

REFEREMCE TO THE ICONOGRAPHY OF BRAHMANICAL

DEITIES

(UP TO 13TH

CENTURY A.D.)

Submitted by

Wannapat Ruangsup

Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the Degree of Philosophy

In Archaeology

Research Supervisor

Prof. R.K. Mohanty

Co-Research Supervisor

Prof. Phasook Indrawooth

Submitted To

Deccan College Post Graduate and Research institute

Pune 411006

A University Established under section s of the UGC. Act 1956, vide Government of

India Notification No.F.9 - 17/84 - U.3 dated 5th

March 1990

November 2013

Contents

Page No

Acknowledgement I - II

List of Figures: III - XVI

List of Tables: XVI

Chapter 1: Introduction 1 - 8

Chapter 2: Social and Cultural Study of Thailand 9 - 36

Chapter 3: The cultural relationship between India and Southeast Asia

From the beginning of Christian era 37 -164

3.1. The development of political history and trade connection

in India and Southeast Asia 38 - 119

3.1.1 Trade as the exchange networks in South and Southeast

Asia: Literary and archaeological aspects 50 - 58

3.1.2 The development of Southeast Asian states from the prehistory

up to proto Historical period 59 - 80

3.1.3 States formation in Southeast Asia: political history and

Socio-economic structures 81 - 119

3.2. The development of Brahmanism in India and Southeast Asia 120 -164

Chapter 4: The development of Brahmanism in Thailand in context of Epigraphy

and architectures 165 - 197

4.1 The Brahmanism in epigraphic source 165 -168

4.2 The Brahmanism in ancient arts and Architectures in Thailand

before the 13th century 169 - 197

This theisis is presented in two volumes

Volume 1: Page- 1 - 197

Volume 2: Page- 198 - 509

Chapter 5: The iconography of Siva and Vishnu in Thailand before the

13th century A.D. 198 - 394

5.1 Siva 189 - 289

5.2 Vishnu 289 - 394

Chapter 6: The iconography of Goddesses (Saktis), other Gods and

minor deities 395 - 468

6.1: Goddess: Lakshmi and Durga 395 - 410

6.2: Ganesha 410 - 430

6.3: Skanda 430 - 432

6.4: Brahma 432 - 451

6.5: Navagrahas and Dikpalas 451 - 468

Chapter 7: Conclusion 469 - 478

References 479 - 509

P a g e | I

Acknowledgement

First and foremost I would like to thank my research Guide Prof. R.K.

Mohanty, and my co-Guide Prof. Phasook Indrawooth for accepting me as research

student under them. Besides academic aspect, they also taught me many things in life

during the years in India. Their encouragement always gives me the light and new

inspiration for further studies in the field of arts and archaeology. Without their kind

perseverance, supports and guidance this work would not have been finished.

I am thankful to the government of Thailand, the SFR .51 scholarship officers

and Royal Thai embassy, New Delhi for supporting my research and helping me to

complete this work successfully. I would specially thank Department of liberal Arts,

Ubonratchatani University for allowing me to study in India as scholarship student

under their name. I am totally grateful to all of them.

I am greatly indebted to Deccan College and the college staffs who have been

very cooperative and was like an extended family throughout my long staying in the

campus.

Here, I wish to thank the archaeologists and officers at Fine art departments of

Thailand and the National museums that I visited for field works. Their hard and

valuable works in excavations and conservations have given me number of wonderful

sculptures related to my field study. Sincerely, I believe, their enduring projects

would be the most important part of this research. Without their kind cooperation, my

work might have not been completed.

Some photos I used in this works, I have got them from my kind senior

archaeologists. I specially thank Mr. Yuthana Varakorn Sangaram, Mr. Sarath

(P’Nick), Miss Wilasinee (P’Phung) and Miss Kannika (P’Bee) for their kind

suggestion, helps and everything that supported me during my field works. My thanks

humbly also go to Dr. Bumrung Kamek, Dr. Chedha Tingsanshali and Mr. Kittipong

Bunkerd for moral supports and valuable advices.

I am also thankful to my editors, Dr. Shushubana Kodial, Dr. Utain

Wongsathit, Ramika Batra, Pankaj Goyal, Amrita Sen, Ajmal Shah and Sikhashree

Ray who gave me their time for editing work. I heartily thank all of them.

P a g e | II

I specially thank Aref Biglari, Neda Tehrani, Ali Mishiri, Sadhag, Venerable

Ariyawansa, Ananda, and Tarindu for their supports which cherished and encouraged

me during the difficult time. My thanks are also gone to my Thai friends namely Miss

Wiangkum Choun U Dom, Mr. Prasertsak K., Mr. Sompit (Nuang), Prawin Minthong,

Tul Jirachoksopol and Venerable Arjarn Sopol for their loving supports and always

being with me for many years.

My heartfelt thanks are also given to my friends who accompanied me for

years of research work. I am thankful to Sikhashree Ray, Shantanu Vaidya,

Meenakshree Chauley, Tosabanta Padhan, Nikhil Das, Tejal Ruikar, Tanushree Redji,

Burhan, Tosabanta, Kim Yong Jung and others friends from Deccan College.

Finally, I am grateful to God for giving me my beloved family, my parent and

brother, who has always given me love and understanding for 30 years. My work and

life could have not been successfully completed without them.

Wannapat Ruangsup

P a g e | III

List of Figures

Fig. 1. Map of Thailand

Fig.2. Map of Southeast Asia

Fig.3. Map of proto-historical Asia (from the Millenuim B.C. 1st Millenium A. D.)

Fig.4. Map of proto- historical sites in Southeast Asia and the trade routes during early

Christian era

Fig.5. Distribution of etched beads, knobbed vessels, high-tin bronze and rouletted ware in

India

and Southeast Asia (after Glover 1989)

Fig. 6. The Buddha and Bodhisattavas images of Dvaravati

Fig. 7. The Vishnu images from U-thong, Suparnburi provine

Fig. 8. The plan of the basement remains of Brahmanical temple near by the ancient tank

(no. 6.)

at U Thong, Suparnburi province

Fig. 9. The comparative architectural remains and plan at Sri Mahosoth, and Beikthano (KKG

14,Pyu: Burma)

Fig. 10. The Khuha caves, Songkla province.

Fig. 11. The shrine at Bujung valley (Malaysia), Candi Blandogan (Indonesia),

Fig. 12. Thung Tuk (Thailand), the temple at Khao Kha and Saivite related aritifacts (Yoni

pedestal and Svayambhu linga)

Fig. 13. The temples at Khao Srivijaya, Suratthani (Thailand)

Fig. 14. The location of Khmer Brahmanical monuments in northeastern Thailand

Fig. 15. Prasat Phum Pon temple, Sankha district, Surin province

Fig. 16. The Prang Sri Tep and Prang Song Pi Nong temples

Fig. 17. The view of Khao Khlang Nai mound.

Fig. 18. Prasat Muang Tam, Buriram province

Fig. 19. Prasat Sri Kharabhumi, Surin province and Sra Kamphang Yai temple, Sri saket

province

Fig. 20.The Phanom Rung sanctuary, Buriram province and Prasat Pimai temple, Nakon

Ratchsima province

Fig. 21.The Prasat Phanom Rung sanctiary and axial plan, Buriram province : Thailand

Fig. 22.Darasuram temple, Tamilnadu (11th -12th century A.D.)

Fig. 23.Kandariya Mahadeva Temple: Khajuraho (10th-11th century A.D.)

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Fig. 24.Map showing the location of major Khmer temples (Prasat Pimai and surrounding

monuments) with other archaeological sites. Phimai is located at Nakon Ratchasima

province, northeastern Thailand.

Fig. 25.Map showing the location of Phanom Ruang sanctuary and its surrounding

archaeologicalsites in Buriram province, northeastern Thailand.

Fig. 26.The early Mukhalinga, Gudimallam, Mathura and puncha mukhalinga from Bhita

(Allahabad)

Fig. 27.The realistic linga and Mukhalinga dated to Kushana period from Kankali Tila

(Mathura) and Aghapur

Fig. 28. The linga from Karamdanda (Uttra Pradesh) and Arvalem (Goa)

Fig. 29. The early tripaties linga from Ahicchatra and Sondani, Madhaya Pradesh

Fig. 30.The ealy South Indian linga from Alampur (Andhrata Pradesh), two lingas

fromMamallapuram (Tamilnadu) and two polished linga from Pattadakal and Aihole

(Karnataka)

Fig. 31. The linga at Bridesvara temple, Tamilnadu

Fig. 32.The modern Siva linga Ramatirtha temple, Halsi (Karnataka) and linga from

Mahadeva temple, Goa

Fig. 33. The relief of early mukhalinga associated with pithas from Mathura

Fig. 34. The realistic linga from Chennitalai,two lingas from Oc Eo and Vat Crak, transbassac

region

Fig. 35. The linga from Yarang, Pattani province: National museum Songkla

Fig. 36. The linga from Wat Kheaw, National museum Chaiya, Suratthani province.

Fig. 37. The Siva lingas from Koh Chand masjid, Nakon Sri Thammarat: national museum

Nakon SriThammarat

Fig. 38. The lingas from Wat Thung Nong Kong, Brahmagiri district

Fig. 39. The linga from Phum Pon Village, Surin province and the linga from Prang Song Pi

Nong, Sri Tep.

Fig. 40. The fountain lingas from Candi Jolotundo: Eastern Java and the granite linga from

Nakon Sri Thammarat, National museum

Fig. 41. The linga from Kok Peep, Prachinaburi province, National museum Bangkok.

Fig. 42. The fragment of realistic linga from U Thong

Fig. 43. The realistic linga from Nakon Prathom, Wat Phra Prathom Chedi temple

Fig. 44. The linga from Vat Slen temple (220-250 cm) (Parmentier 1935: 89 - 90)

Fig. 45. The ekMukhalinga from Chaiya, Suratthani province, National museum Bangkok

P a g e | V

Fig. 46. The Gupta ekmuklingas from (left) Udayagiri (Madhya Pradesh), Shahdul (Bhopal

state museum), Mathura (Private collection Chicago) and Mrgasthali, Nepal

Fig. 47.The Ek Mukhalinga from Prathat Phankhan temple, Suvarnbhumi district: National

museum Roiet, Roiet province

Fig. 48.The linga from Oc Eo Vat Sek Sampao and Neak Ta Svay Damba

Fig. 49.The Ekmukhalinga from Kok Chang Din remains, U Thong: National museum U

Thong, Suparnburi province

Fig. 50.The ekmukhalinga from U Thong: National museum U Thong, Suparnburi.

Fig. 51.The lintel from Wat En Khna temple: Albert Sarraut museum, pre Angkorean before

9th century

Fig. 52.Tympan de Trach Pho, Phang-rang, Vietnam

Fig. 53.The Ekmukhlinga with pithas from U Thong, National museum U Thong,

Fig. 54.The decorated golden mask of Cham mukhalinga, (museum Gimet: Paris)

Fig. 55.The early mukhalinga in tripatities from (left) Oc EO and Bathe (transbassac region)

Fig. 56.The tripartite linga from Nation museum Chaiya, Suratthani province

Fig. 57. Ban Sra Kud Village, Si Chon district and (Right) Old Siva Shrine 1 (Ho Prah

Isavara)

Fig. 58. Old Siva Shrine 2 (Ho Prah Isavara) and (Right) Wat Na Khom temple, Nakon

Srithammarat

Fig. 59. The lingas and high relief from Pattadakal

Fig. 60.Siva linga from Sathing Pra and (Right) Linga from Ranod, National museum

Songkla

Fig. 61.The linga from Na Khom temple, National museum Nakon Srithammarat and and

Siva from Wat Theparaj, Nakon Srithammarat

Fig. 62. The Tripartite Siva linga from Prang Song Phi Nong ,Sri Thep and (Right) The Siva

linga from Petchaburna province

Fig. 63. The Khmer linga from Phanom Bakhaeng sanctuary and the Khmer geometric

tripaties linga from private museum Chicago

Fig. 64. The tripartite Siva linga from Aranya Pradesh district, Sra Kheaw, National museum

Prachinaburi, The Lingas from Sri Saketh province and Nakon Ratchasima, National museum

Pimai

Fig. 65.The tripartite Siva linga from Nakon Ratchasima and the group of miniature lingas

from Prasat Pimai sanctuary, National museum Pimai (Nakon Ratchasima province)

Fig. 66.The tripartite Siva lingas from Prasat Ta Muan Tom, National museum Surin.

P a g e | VI

Fig. 67. The tripartite lingas (left and right) from Non Puey village, Surin, National museum

Surin

Fig. 68.The Cham Jatalinga from Myson, mukhalinga from Tra-lien and Cham jatalinga with

reduced neck portion from Tra-Kieu

Fig. 69.The Javanese lingas with high decorated pithas, the miniature linga from private

collection, the linga from Tara-Ulan museum and Tandjong tirtha, Indonesia

Fig. 70.The Kotilinga at Mahakuti, the group of minor lingas from Ekambesavara temple:

Kanchipuram, Bhridesvara temple, Tanjavour

Fig. 71.The miniature lingas from Phanom Kulen

Fig. 72.The Siva linga from Sri Mahabhodi, National museum Prachinaburi

Fig. 73.The linga with high pithas from Sombor Prei Kuk, Cambodia

Fig. 74.The linga from Hoh Prah Isavara (Siva shrine) Nakon Srithammarat, National

museum Nakon Srithammarat and the terracotta Siva linga from Prasat Chang Pi :Surin

Fig. 75.The Siva linga from Prasat Phu Prasat temple and (Right) Sivalinga from Lopburi,

National museum Bangkok

Fig. 76.The lingas from from (left) Candi Ijo and Candi sari, Indonesia

Fig. 77.The linga pithas from Masjid Koh Chand (left) and Siva shrine of Nakon Sri

Thammarat

Fig. 78. The early square pedestal from Don Khum Nueng (Roiet province)

Fig. 79.The minor Siva linga, The Siva linga from Sri Thep site (Petchabura province) and

Phanom Rung Sanctuary (Buriram Province)

Fig. 80.The Svayambhu linga at Khao Kha monument, Nakon Sri Thammarat province

Fig. 81.The pithas and high pedestal at Khao Kha monument

Fig. 82.The bronze image of Agastaya, Satingpra district, National museum Songkla

Fig. 83.The Agastaya images from Southern Thailand Brahmapurisvara (Chola art, the early

of 10th c.), Candi Banon, National museum Jakarta (central Javanese art the 7th – 9th c.) and

the seer Ternavindu in the form of Agastaya of Singosari complex (eastern Javanese art the

13th-14th c.)

Fig. 84.The Agastaya (?) image (65 cm) from Southern Vietnam

Fig. 85. The bronze image of Siva mahadeva, National museum Songkla

Fig. 86. (Left) The Siva-Mahadeva image from Songkla, the bronze image of Avalokitesvara

and Siva of Central Javanese art, National museum Jarkata

Fig. 87.The Vatuka Bhairava from Viang sra, National museum Bangkok (53 cm)

Fig. 88.The Siva in Bhairava forum from South India, (from left) Brhadesvara (Tanjavour),

Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the Bhairava from South India dated to the 9th-10th c. British

P a g e | VII

museum, the Bhairava image from Kinarma (North Arcot. Tamilnadu) and Mugaiyur, State

museum Channai

Fig. 89.The sthanaka murti of Siva image and the group of Uma-Ganga-Patisavara images

from Prasat Ba Kong sanctuary of Preh Ko style.

Fig. 90. (Left) The Siva image from Prasat Nong Ku, National museum Bangkok, (Middle)

the Siva image from Ku Noi, National museum Konkhean and (Right) the Siva image from

Prasat Nang Ram, National museum Pimai

Fig. 91. The head portion of Siva images from Prasat Nang Ram and Ku Noi

Fig. 92. The relief of Siva Nataraja from Prasat Prah Pithu, Cambodia

Fig. 93. The reliefs of Siva nataraja in Cham art from My Son C1 and Phong Li, Vieatnam

Fig. 94. The Nataraja from Odhisa, (Vaital and Satrughnesvara temple

Fig. 95. The Nataraja reliefs from Badami and Gangaikonda Cholapuram

Fig. 96. The relief from Prasat Nairai Jeng Weng, Surin province

Fig. 97. The relief from eastern pediment of Phanom Rung sanctuary

Fig. 98. The figure of Karaikal ammaiyar sitting with ganas from the relife of Siva Nataraja

from Gangaikonda Cholapuram.

Fig. 99.The relief from Prasat Sri Khorabhumi, Surin province

Fig. 100. The depiction of Arjuna-Kirata from Prasat Sri Khorabhumi and the same depiction

from Kailashnath temple, Kanchipuram.

Fig. 101.The relief from Prasat Sra Kamphang Yai, Sri Saket province

Fig. 102The relief of Siva Nataraja from Prasat Pimai, Nakon Ratchasima province

Fig. 103.The relief from Ku Suan Thang, Bururam province, National museum Pimai

Fig. 104.The Uma-Mahesvara images in Indian art and the sculptures from Mandsor, State

museum Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh)

Fig. 105.The Uma-Mahesvara images in Indian art from Hemavati, State museum Chennai

and Helebidu, State museum Bangalore

Fig. 106. The reliefs of Uma-Mahesvara murti in Thailand at Prasat Sra Kamphang Yai, Sri

Saket and Muang Tum, Buriram province

Fig. 107. The Uma-Mahesvara fromPrasat Puey Noi, Phanom Rung sanctuary, Sri Tep and

Prasat Muang Kheak, National museum Pimai

Fig. 108. The relief of Yoga Daksinamurti from Phanom Rung Sanctuary

Fig. 109. The relief from Pimai, national museum Pimai

Fig. 110. The relief from Prasat Muang Tum, National museum Pimai

Fig. 111. The relief depicted on the pediment of Pimai

P a g e | VIII

Fig. 112.The image of Ardhanarisvara from Ubon Ratchathani province, location unknown,

National museum Ubon ratchatani (59 cm)

Fig. 113. The Avalokitesvara from Rajgir, dated to the 8th - 9th century, Gimet (Paris)

Fig. 114. The frangment of Ardhanarisvara from Sri Tep, petchaburna province

Fig. 115. The comparative lower garment feature of Ardhanarisvara from Sri Tep with the

Harihara from Asharma Maharishi (Boiseelier 1955: 7) and Goddess from Koh Krien

(museum Gimet)

Fig. 116. The head of Harihara image, National museum Prachinaburi (10 cm)

Fig. 117.(Left) The head protions of Harihara of pre-Angkorean style, (Left) the Harihara

from Phanom Da, Prasat Andet and Muang Kavai, Chandraburi province

Fig. 118. The inscription of King Mulavarman of Taruma, eastern Java (Indonesia)

Fig. 119. (Left) The Vishnu image from Wat Sala Thung temple(Chaiya),National museum

Bangkok. (center) Vishnu image from Yelleswaram, Andhara pradesh. (right) The head

fragment of Vishnu images, National museum Nakon Sri Thammarat

Fig. 120. (Left)The Vishnu images from National museum Nakon Sri Thammarat and (Right)

Vat Mahathatu temple, Nakon Sri Thammarat province

Fig. 121.(Left) The Vishnu image from Ban Phang Kam, National museum Nakon

Srithammarat and (Right) The Vishnu image from Tjibuaja (western Indonesia)

Fig. 122.The Vishnu images from U-Thong

Fig. 123.The early Vishnu images (D) from U Thong, Suparnburi province and (Right) the

Visnu image from San Prakal shine (E), National museum Lopburi

Fig. 124. The group of Vishnu images wearing mitre crown from Southern Thailand: Group

A. Vishnu image from Wiang Sra: Surathani province, Group B. Vishnu image from Khao

Sri Vijaya: Suratthani province and Group C. Vishnu image from Ta Kua Pa district, Phang

Ngha province

Fig. 125. The Vishnu Group A. from Southern Thailand

Fig. 126. The Vishnu images from Sri Mahosoth

Fig. 127. The example of four armed Vishnu images Group B. in Thailand.

Fig. 128. The Vishnu images discovered from Sri Mahosoth, Prachinaburi province. (left) the

Vishnu image from Sri Mahosoth and (right) the remains of Vishnu image, National museum

Prachinaburi

Fig. 129. The four armed Vishnu images of Group C. from Southern Thailand

Fig. 130. fragment of Vishnu image from Songkla and the four armed free standing Vishnu

image from Ta Kua Pa, National museum Bangkok

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Fig. 131. The four armed Vishnu image from Ko Kho Khao moutain, Ta Kua Pa district,

Phang Nga province, National museum Bangkok

Fig. 132. (Left) Vishnu image from Tjibuaja, western Java,The four armed Vishnu image

from private collection of Prince Bhanubandha and (Right) The Vishnu image from Chandi

Banon, central Javanese art

Fig. 133. The four armed Vishnu image from Petchaburi, National museum Bangkok

Fig. 134. The Vishnu image from Viang Sra and other contemporary sculptures from pre-

Angkorean of Cambodia, Vishnu image from Kam Phong Prah and Prasat Andet, Cambodia

Fig. 135. The high relief of four armed Vishnu image from Pong Tuk district, Ban Kao

museum, Kanchanaburi province

Fig. 136. The high relief of Vishnu image from Pong Tuk, Kanchanaburi province, Harihara

image from Prasat Andet, Cambodia and Harihara from Traphan Phon, Kampong Preh style.

Fig. 137.The examples of four armed Vishnu images from Transbassac region and Southern

Vietnam.

Fig. 138. The example of Vishnu images of early Chalukya art from Karnataka

Fig.139. The examples of four armed standing Vishnu in Pallava style craved in bas relief

technique.

Fig. 140. The Vishnu and Bodhisattava images of early Gupta art.

Fig. 141. The standing Vishnu in Madhayama Yogasthanakamurti from Khao Pra Narai

mountain, National museum Phuket

Fig. 142.The divine attendants of Vishnu, the sage Markandeya and Bhudevi,National

museum, Phuket

Fig. 143.The group of Brahmanical images in Gangadhara murti of Siva

Fig. 144.The examples of Vishnu images from different periods (the 8th -12th century A.D) :

The Vishnu images from Pra Narai hill, Mamallapuram, Vaikunta perumal, Kanchipuram,

Fig. 145. Vishnu from Kottur, Tirykkara Vayil and Gangaikonda Cholapuram

Fig.146. The Vishnu image from Viang Sra, Suratthani province,National museum Bangkok.

Fig. 147.Harihara from Tiruverumbur, Vishnu image from Tirumalai Nayak palace and

Vishnu image from Karnataka

Fig. 148. The Vishnu image from Prah Narai shrine of Nakon Ratchasima city

Fig. 149.The examples of sculptures in Koh Ker style (the early of 10th century, circa 907 -

940 A.D.),

Fig. 150. The Vishnu images of Baphoun style

Fig. 151. The example of Vishnu images of Baphoun style in Khmer art

P a g e | X

Fig 152.Vishnu image from Ku Bua Mas, National museum Kon Khean, and Vishnu image

from Ban Phon Doun temple, Roiet.

Fig. 153. The example of Vishnu image of Angkor Wat style

Fig. 154. The conch shell of Vishnu images dated up to 8th century A.D.

Fig. 155. The conch shells of Vishnu images dated after the 8th century A.D.

Fig. 156. The Sudrasana-Chakra of Vishnu image in Thailand dated up to 10th century A.D.

Fig. 157. The Sudrasana - Chakra wheel from Vishnu images of Khmer influenced style

dated up to 12th century A.D

Fig. 158. The mace (gada) of Vishnu image

Fig. 159. The earth (bhu) from Vishnu images

Fig. 160. The reliefs of four armed Vishnu

Fig. 161.The relief of four armed Vishnu from National museum Pimai

Fig. 162. The examples of Anataśayinamurti in Indian art,

Fig. 163.The Vishnu Anataśayinamurti from Warangal district and the bronze image of

Vishnu Anataśyana padmanabha murti from Andhara Pradesh.

Fig. 164. The Anantaśayina murti in Khmer art

Fig. 165. The Anantaśayina murti from Prasat Hanchai temple

Fig. 166. The Anantaśayina padmanabha murti from Toul Baset.

Fig. 167. The Anantaśayina padmanabha murti from Phnom Pros temple

Fig. 168. The Anantaśayina padmanabha murti from Prasat Nak Ta Tang Reay temple

Fig. 169. The relief from Prasat Nak Ta Khlan Muon,Baphoun style

Fig. 170. The relief from Bantay Samre, Angkor Wat style

Fig. 171. The Anantaśayina padmanabha murti in Bayon style at Prasat Pra Khan

Fig. 172. The Anantaśayina padmanabha murti in Bayon style at Prasat Ta Prohm

Fig. 173. The relief from Aranya Pradesh, Sra Keaw province, National museum

Prachinaburi

Fig. 174. The bas relief from Prasat Sra Kamphang Yai, Baphoun style

Fig. 175. The relief from Prasat Preah Vihear, Sri Saket province

Fig. 176. The eroded relief from Lopburi, National museum Lopburi

Fig. 177.The relief of Anantaśayina padmabha murti from Prah Narai shrine, National

museum Pimai

Fig. 178. The relief from Prasat Pueay Noi, Kon Khean province

Fig. 179. The bas relief from the eastern gate of mandapa from Phanom Rung sanctuary

Fig. 180. The bas relief from Ku Suan Thang temple, National museum Bangkok

P a g e | XI

Fig. 181. The relief from Ku Suam Thang, Buriram province, National museum Pimai (135

cm)

Fig. 182. The relief from Prasat Pimai, National museum Pimai (145 cm)

Fig. 183. The relief from Prasat Preah Vihar, Sri Saket province

Fig. 184. The relief of Kurmavatars from Angkor Wat

Fig. 185. The depiction of Narasimhavatars at Ramgiri,

Fig. 186. The high reliefs of Vamanavatars in trivikrama from Mamallapuram and Badami

Fig. 187. The relief of trivikrama from Ramgiri, Vakataka style and Prasat Kravan, Cambodia

Fig. 188. The lintel from Prasat Muang Kheak, , National museum Pimai

Fig. 189. The lintel from Ku Suan Thang, Buriram province, National museum Pimai

Fig. 190. The image of Rama in Khmer art

Fig. 191. The relief of Rama shooting arrow to the rakshasa, Pimai, National museum Pimai

Fig. 192. The relief from Aranyakanda, Ravana is abducting Sita while Rama and Lakshman

are in the forest. (Phanom Rung Sanctuary)

Fig. 193. The scene from Kishkindhakanda, Rama and Sugriva are coming back to the

Khishkind Kingdom with royal symbols and monkey military from Pimai, National museum

Pimai

Fig. 194. The relief from Yuddhakanda, the Rama and Lakshmana are struck down by the

Nagapasa arrow surrounded by the monkey troop, National museum Pimai

Fig. 195. The relief from Yuddhakanda, Rama, Lakshman and Sita are reunited at Ayodhaya.

Pimai, National museum Pimai

Fig. 196. The relief from Yudhakanda, The three royals are at court of Ayodhaya from

Phanom Rung sanctuary

Fig. 197.The example of Krishna subduing Naga Kaliya from Prasat Ban Ploung,Pimai,

Muang Tum and Phanom Ruang sanctuary

Fig. 198. The other three reliefs from Prasat Muang Tum, Buriram

Fig. 199. The representation of Kaliyahimarddaka from Somnarthpur temple, Mysore and the

bronze image from Nagapattinam district, Madras

Fig. 200. The representations of Krishna lifting Govardhana Mountain in Southern Indian art

Fig. 201. The examples of Krishna –Govardhanaimages, the Krishna from Tual Koh,

Cambodia, Phanom Da: Angkor Borei and the group of Krishna images from Sri Tep,

Nationalmuseum Bangkok.

Fig. 202. The representations of Krishna lifting Govardhana Mountain at Prasat Ban Ploung,

and the two from Phanom Ruang sanctuary

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Fig. 203.The representations of Krishna lifting Govardhana mountain from Prasat Muang

Tum, Buriram and Prasat Sra Kamphange Yai and Prasat Preah Vihar, Sri saket province

Fig. 204. The relief of Krishna killing Kesin from Sra Kam Phang Yai temple, Sri Saket

province

Fig. 205. The reliefs of Krishna killing the elephant Kuvalayapida from northeastern Thailand

Fig. 206. The reliefs of Krishna as mystical animal fighters, Krishna fighting with lion (?)

from Phanom Rung sanctuary and Pimai

Fig. 207. The Reliefs of Krishna capturing elephant-lion (gaja-simha)

Fig. 208. The narrative panel of Bhagavata purana, from the childhood of Krishna, the young

Krishna fighting with the demons like Putana, Pralambha , Kuvalayapida etc. and lifting

Govardhana mountain

Fig. 209. The relief of Krishna killing Kamsa at Phanom Rung sanctuary

Fig. 210. The example of Krishna killing Kamsa at Pimai and Prasat Muang Kheak

Fig. 211. The Kalkin or Hayagriva in early Medival South Indian and Khmer arts

Fig. 212. The Khmer Vishnu bronze images, Angkor Wat style, National museum Bangkok

Fig. 213. The image of Siva from Lopburi province, national museum Bangkok

Fig. 216. The Gajalakshmi from Sanchi stupa (eastern torana)

Fig. 217. The Gajalakshmi from Adhivaraha cave, Mahabalipuram

Fig. 218. The reliefs of Gajalakshmi depcited at the gateway (torana) from Andhara pradesh

dated around 10th - 11th century, State musuem Andhara Pradesh, Hyderabad

Fig. 219. The Gajalakshmi seal from Sap Champa, terracotta image from U Thong and

Chansen

Fig. 220. The reliefs of Gajalakshmi on Dharmachakra from Nakon Prathom and ritual stone

tablet

Fig.221 The relifes of Gajalakshmi from Banteay Srei and Prasat Kravan, Cambodia

Fig. 222. The sculpture of Lakshmi (?) from Pimai, National museum Pimai

Fig. 223. The relief of Lakshmi (?) and Vishnu from Ku Kra Don, Roiet

Fig. 224. The fragment of Goddess holding a child (Somaskanda?) from Takua Pa, Phang nga

province

Fig. 225. The Somaskanda from Shore temple and the bronze image from Patteswaram, the

Art gallory of Tanjavour palace

Fig. 226. The depiction of Durga in Mahisasura mardhini in Thailand from,Sri Tep, Sri

Mahosoth and Prasat Muang Kheak.

Fig. 227. The examples of Mahisasura mardhini in early Khmer art from Cambodia and

Southern Vietnam, the image of Durga from Kamphong Cham,Trung Hua,Kamphong Speu

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Fig. 228. The depiction of Durga mahisasura Mardhini from Prasat Banteay Samre, Angkor

Wat style

Fig. 229. The Javanese Mahisasura mardhini from Candi Jawi Candi Singoosari , eastern

Javanese art, the eastern Javanese image from Indonesia and the north Indian image from

Mandsor

Fig. 230. The depiction of Mahisasura mardhini from Mahabalipuram and Kailashnarth

temple Pallava art

Fig. 231. The Mahisasura mardhini from Badami, Durga temple and Ravanaphadi, Aihole

Fig. 232. The Mahisasura mardhini from Gangaikonda Cholapuram

Fig. 233. The group of images named “Uma-Ganga –Patisvara” from Prasat Bakong,

Fig. 234. The Cham Ganesha image from museum of Danang (Saigon) and My Son

Fig. 235. The three Ganesha images from Candi Singasari and, national museum Bangkok

Fig. 236. The four armed Ganesh images from Southern Thailand, the Ganesh image from

Sathing Pra and two Ganesh images from Wat Kheaw temple, Suratthani province

Fig. 237. The stone Ganesha image from Sathing Pra, Songkla

Fig. 238. Early Ganesh images from Toul Phak Kin,Oc Eo, Chau doc and Ganesh image of

Gupta period from National museum

Fig. 239. The Ganesha images from Wat Kheaw temple, Chaiya, Suratthani province,

National museum Chaiya

Fig. 240 The Ganesh from National museum Chaiya and the four armed Ganesha images

from Aihole

Fig. 241. The Ganapati and pithas from Sri Mahosoth, National museum Bangkok

Fig. 242. The standing Ganesha image from Oc Eo and Chau doc southern Vieatnam

Fig. 243. The four armed Ganesha image from Thung Tuk

Fig. 244. The Ganesha images from Kailashnath temple, Kaveripakkam and Government

museum Chennai

Fig. 245. Ganesh image from Phanom Rung sanctuary

Fig. 246. The Ganesha image from Prasat Muang Tum and the two Ganesha images from

Ban Bon of Varinchamrab district, National museum Ubon Ratchathani

Fig. 247. The damaged Ganesha image from national museum Ubon ratchathani

Fig. 248. Ganesha image from Wat Supatthanaram, Ubon Ratchathani province, Prasat Tha

MuanThom, Surin province and National museum Maha Veerawongsa

Fig. 249. The damaged Ganesha image from Wat Mahathatu temple, Nakon Sri Thammarat

province

P a g e | XIV

Fig. 250. The eaxmple of stone amulet of Ganesha from Prachinaburi province, National

museum prachinaburi

Fig. 251. The Bronze Ganesha images from Brahmanicl shrine, Nakon Srithammarat,

National museum, and the bronze image of Ganesha riding on rat, National museum Nakon

Srithammarat

Fig. 252. The Bronze images of Ganesha from National museum, Wat Matchimawas temple,

and the bronze Ganesha image from National museum Chaiya

Fig. 253. The two seated Ganesha images from Prang Thanon Hak and Lam Prai Mas

National museum Pimai,the two armed sitting Ganesha from national museum and National

museum Bangkok

Fig. 254. The standing Ganesha image from Lopburi province, National museum Bangkok

Fig. 255. The Ganesha images associated in the trivikarma scene from Prasat Muang Kheak

temple

Fig. 256. Skanda image from Ayuthaya and (Right) the relief from Prasat Pimai

Fig. 257. The image of Skanda from Angkor Borei

Fig. 258. The trimurti image from Prasat Prai Cruk , Cambodia

Fig. 259. The Brahma images from Indonesia, Brahma from Private collection (Laiden),

Brahma from Singhasari and Brahma from Eastern Java

Fig. 260. The depiction of Brahma from Prasat Muang Kheak, Nakon Ratchasima province

Fig. 261. The images of Brahma, National museum Bangkok, Brahma from Prasat Phanom

Rung sanctuary and Brahma from Lopburi, national museum Bangkok

Fig. 262. The Brahma images from Phanom Bok and Prasat Baset

Fig. 263. The Brahmi from Phanom Rung sanctuary and the female deities’ statue from

Prasat Crup, Cambodia

Fig. 264.The Brahmi (1st) from the left in Saptamatrika panel, Aihole

Fig. 265. The Brahmi (2nd) from left in Saptamatrika panel with swan, Aihole

Fig. 266. The Brahmi in Saptamatrika panel, Ayyapa temple at Thiruvaiyaru

Fig. 267.The image of male figure of Sassanid period, Surya from Khaira Khaneh (Kabul:

Afganistan) and the Surya image from Kondia, Madhaya Pradesh

Fig. 268. The Surya image from Mandasor, State museum Bhopal

Fig. 269. The Surya images from Sala Jung museum, Hyderabad and Tamilnadu

Fig. 270. The Surya image of pre-Angkorean style Denver Art museum

Fig. 271. The Surya image from Sri Tep

Fig. 272. The Surya images from Sri Tep

Fig. 273. The Surya image from Sri Tep

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Fig. 274. The Surya image from Wat Hong temple, National museum Bangkok

Fig. 275.The Surya image on the Dharmachakra at Nakon Prathom, National museum Nakon

Prathom

Fig. 276. The Surya image from Chaiya, National museum Bangkok

Fig. 277. The Chola Surya images from South IndiaChidambaram, Cuddapah (Tamilnadu) ,

Hemavati (Andhara pradesh) and Salar jung museum , Hyderabad.

Fig. 278. The surya image from Yarang district

Fig. 279. The depiction of Chandra on the gold plaque

Fig. 280. The panal of nine deities from Prasat Lolei, , National museum Bangkok

Fig. 281. The depiction of Lokpalas at Badami (I), showing Brahma as the God of upper

direction

Fig. 282. The depiction of Lokpalas at Badami (II), showing Vishnu as the God of upper

direction

Fig. 283. The nine deities’ panel from Prasat Ban Ben, Ubon Ratchathani

Fig. 284.The two nine deities’ panels preserved at National museum Mahaverawongsa,

Nakon ratchasima province

Fig. 285. The panel of nine deities from Vishnu shrine (Prah Narai shrine of

Nakonratchasima city), National museum Pimai

Fig. 286. The panel of nine deities from Prasat Pimai, National museum Pimai

Fig. 287. The depiction of Dikpalas and stone cubic Brahma, Varuna, Agni, Indra, Kubera

and Isana from Prasat Phanom Rung sanctuary

Fig. 288. The vahicles of Dikpalas from Phanom Rung sanctuary

Fig. 289. Nritti mounting on the human from Prasat Muang Tum and Yama riding on buffalo

from Ku Keaw

Fig. 290. The Indra from Prasat Banteay Sri, Cambodia

Fig. 291. The relief of Indra from Prasat Muang Kheak, Natinal museum Pimai

Fig. 292. The relief of Indra riding elephant (Airawatta) from Prasat Ban Phlaung, Surin

province

Fig. 293. The reliefs of Indra sitting on Airawatta from Prasat Muang Tum, Buriram province

and (Right) Pimai, Nakon Ratchasima province, National museum Pimai

Fig. 294. The Indra and consorts sitting on the Airavatta from Pimai, National museum Pimai

Fig. 295. The lintel from Prasat Muang Kheak, Nakon Ratchasima province, National

museum Pimai

Fig. 296. The relief of Indra holding lous from Prasat Muang Tun, Buriram

Fig. 297. The relief of Indra holding lotus from Phanom Rung sanctuary, Buriram

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Fig. 298. The relief of Indra holding mace from Prasat Ku Suan Tang, Buriram province,

Nationa museum Pimai

Fig. 299. The relief of Indra from Prasat Muang Tum, Buriram

Fig. 300. The depiction of Indra sitting on the Airawatta at the middle of devine role, Pimai

List of Tables:

Table No: 1. The important excavation sites in Southeast Asian (3rd

century B.C to 1st

century B.C. Late prehistoric period): Phase I and antiquities

Table No: 2. The important excavation sites in Southeast Asian (The 1st century B.C to 4

th

Century A.D. Proto-Early Historic period). Phase II and antiquities

Table No: 3. The chronology and development of South and Southeast Asian states before

the 8th

century A.D.

Table No: 4. The chronology and development of South and Southeast Asian states after 9th

century A.D.