the emergence of bullying among adolescents in japanese...
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JAPK01 Tutor: Lars Larm Department of Language and Literature
The Emergence of Bullying among Adolescents in Japanese and Western
Cultures A cause and impact study
Peter Jönsson Autumn Term 2007
Abstract
I concluded that the Japanese bullying is thought of as a group phenomenon (contrary to west where bullying can be carried out by a single individual) and focus on the mental oppression, i.e. ignorance, lies, rumours etc. This was done by using the survey which I carried out in Japan, together with my own bully and bully victim experiences which I fortified with research carried out by renowned scholars. In Japan special importance is also given to ‘stress’ which is considered one of the main factors behind bullying, implying that anyone can become a bully. Whether someone becomes a bully or bully victim depends heavily on the parentage. Overprotection, domestic violence etc. might trigger such behaviours. As children are unaware of the devastating and long term effects of bullying it is pivotal that teachers and other adults who come into contact with children possess an adequate understanding of bullying. If these problems are not addressed suicide due to bullying, so called ‘bullycide’ might occur.
Key words: bully, ostracism, suicide, bullycide, Olweus
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Table of Contents Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 1 Objective ............................................................................................................................................ 2 Methodology ...................................................................................................................................... 2 Organization ....................................................................................................................................... 2 1 A Bully Definition ........................................................................................................................... 4
1.1 The first official definition ....................................................................................................... 4 1) The Olweus definition ............................................................................................................ 4 2) The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan (monbukagakusho) ..................................................................................................................... 5 3) Wikipedia Japan – Bully definition ........................................................................................ 6
1.2 Definition analysis .................................................................................................................... 6 1.3 The Japanese word “ijime” and the Japanese bullying ............................................................. 7
1.3.1 Writers take on the ijime definition ................................................................................... 9 2 Bullying ......................................................................................................................................... 11
2.1 The beginning of the 1970’s ................................................................................................... 11 2.2 The bully situation .................................................................................................................. 11
2.2.1 Bullying and teasing amongst friends ............................................................................. 12 2.2.2 Group behavior ................................................................................................................ 12 2.2.3 The eight role system analyzed ....................................................................................... 13 2.2.4 Bullying and the sexes ..................................................................................................... 14
2.3 The bully – the aggressor ....................................................................................................... 14 2.3.1 Character traits ................................................................................................................ 14 2.3.2 The bully examined ......................................................................................................... 15 2.3.3 The link between violent behavior and criminality ......................................................... 15 2.3.4 The seeds of an aggressive behavior ............................................................................... 16 2.3.5 The parenting role (analysis) ........................................................................................... 16
2.4 The bullied – the victim .......................................................................................................... 18 2.4.1 Character traits ................................................................................................................ 18 2.4.2 The submissive victim ..................................................................................................... 18 2.4.3 The aggressive victim ...................................................................................................... 19 2.4.4 How the victim copes with bullying ................................................................................ 20 2.4.5 How to perceive the bullying is of great importance ....................................................... 20 2.4.6 Long term effects caused by bullying ............................................................................. 20 2.4.6 The excelling victim ........................................................................................................ 23
2.5 Group Mechanics ................................................................................................................... 23 2.5.1 The roles of the parent, teacher and classmate ................................................................ 24
3 A Bully Experience Survey ........................................................................................................... 25 3.1 Survey introduction and methodology ................................................................................... 25 3.2 Answer summary .................................................................................................................... 25
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3.3 Results analysis ...................................................................................................................... 26 4 Suicide (Bullycide) ........................................................................................................................ 35
4.1 Suicide is a permanent solution to a temporary problem ....................................................... 36 4.2 The value of family, teacher and defender ............................................................................ 37
4.2.1 Coping strategies in Japan ............................................................................................... 38 4.3 The mass-media influence ...................................................................................................... 40 4.4 End talk .................................................................................................................................. 41
Final Words ...................................................................................................................................... 42 References ........................................................................................................................................ 44 APPENDIX ...................................................................................................................................... 46
A Bully Definitions (in Japanese) ................................................................................................ 46 A.A Bully definition – posted at the homepage of Monbukagakusho March 2007 ................. 46 A.B Bully definition – Japanese Wikipedia March 2007 ......................................................... 46
B A Bully Experience Survey ...................................................................................................... 47
Introduction
The phenomenon “Bullying” was something which the Norwegian scholar “Dan Olweus” coined
at the dawn of the 1970’s. He had noticed certain hostile patterns at schools where students had
been systematically abused, both physically and mentally by a “mob” (thus the term “mobbing”).
However, the meaning of the term “Bullying” back then has since evolved from being something
explaining a “mob” behavior, and the “Bullying” as we have come to know it has its roots in the
first half of the 1980’s when these aggressive behaviors became more and more obvious.
In Japan ‘ijime’, the Japanese form of bullying began to gain publicity during the early 1980’s
(Okamoto et.al. 2004: 2). However, Japan was not alone dealing with similar problems as other
scholars’ world-wide had begun analyzing this phenomenon. It was apparent not only at school, but
also within families, at work places and so on, changing constantly.
When it comes to Japan, ‘ijime’ is said to have started around 1985, with the infamous “Funeral
Play Case” at one school, leading to the victim committing suicide (Morita 1999: 311-312). At that
time most Japanese believed it to be explicitly a Japanese phenomenon, though that was in fact not
true, but a rather a result due to the Japanese researchers having ignored most of the foreign studies
(Morita 1999: 315). However, what can be said to be true is the fact that in Japan there are cases
leading from students refusing to go to school, to, and sadly, students committing suicide. Since
then the way of ijime has evolved just like everywhere else, and now incorporates the usage of, for
instance, cell phones. This is a problem addressed especially in Japan where many school children
carries one, and the bullies have begun sending mails and pictures filled with various messages to
the bullied (Gifu shimbun 2007).
Having experienced the physical and mental anguish of being bullied, as well as having partaken
in bullying, I learned that group pressure and its influence is not to be taken lightly. As such I find
this area both as a student of Japan as a whole, and on a personal level to be of special interest to
me. I would like to know exactly why bullying occurs. What is the trigger for this cruel behavior?
And why is it that some people have a higher tendency to become bullies or bullied than others?
And how come that some victims are driven to the point where they consider suicide to be a viable
option in order to find freedom and peace?
Many a scholar, sociologist, psychologist etc. have published reports and books where they
present their findings based on their view of the problem. While many facts agree with each other
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and many scholars actually cooperate in field researches, there are certain theories which do not
necessarily point at the same direction.
This thesis will focus on the underlying mechanics regarding the bullying at school, and not so
much on numbers and tables. The material used in this thesis will be mainly from books and report
compilations put together by some of the more outstanding school psychologists and professors
within the field, for instance Olweus, Salmivalli, Morita etc.
Objective
The object is to present the views and opinions on the underlying reasons as to why bullying
occurs at schools, made by various scholars as well as by myself. I will do this by defining bullying,
and then by lining up the fundamental blocks which works together in creating a bullying situation.
While the importance of the various blocks can be argued I present the parts which I would like to
emphasize. I will also make a dive into the reasons and factors surrounding suicide caused by
bullying, with focus on Japan.
Methodology
I will gather information by studying both specific books and academic studies on the various
fields within bullying, i.e. ostracism, group behavior etc., and by reading report compilations
containing research material put forth by leading scholars and other people active within the field. I
will also present my own findings from a survey which I carried out in Japan during May and July
2007 which gave me first hand information about bully related experiences.
Organization
This report has been divided into five parts,
1. Bully definitions. As all research on bullying is based on some kind of definition I start
out by presenting the most commonly used definitions, both from a Western and a
Japanese perspective together with a comparative analysis.
2. The bullying mechanics. This part explains what bullying is, how it occurs and why some
people become bullies and bullied. A brief explanation of how people work in a group is
given towards the end.
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3. The bully experience survey. Here the data which I collected while in Japan will be
presented both summarized and analyzed on a question-by-question basis together with
comments.
4. Suicide caused by bullying. Here I lay out various factors and circumstances surrounding
the suicides amongst pupils and students in Japan, together with my own analysis.
5. Final words. Concluding words and an answer to whether the underlying mechanics of
bullying can be easily explained or not, as well as a roundup of fields within bullying in
need of more research.
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1 A Bully Definition
1.1 The first official definition
During the campaign to stop bullying countrywide which was launched in Norway during 1983, a
decided bully definition was deemed necessary. The school scientist Dan Olweus took it upon
himself to perfect his earlier definition and then presented what is regarded as the very first bully
definition. From there on various definitions with minor differences have been presented by various
people, but what most of them have in common, is that they are based on the 1983 definition.
1) The Olweus definition1
The following text is Olweus research definition of bullying. It should be viewed not only as a
definition but as a policy.
A person is being bullied when he/she is exposed, repeatedly and over time, to negative actions
on the part of one or more other persons. Negative action is when a person intentionally inflicts
injury or discomfort upon another person, through physical contact, through words or in other
ways. Note that bullying is both overt and covert behaviors.
The following are examples of bullying behaviors. Remember, bullying is a pattern of behavior
that is repeated over time against the same person(s) with a noted power differential.
1. Saying hurtful and unpleasant things
2. Making fun of others
3. Using mean and hurtful nicknames
4. Completely overlooking someone
5. Deliberately excluding someone from a group of friends
6. Hitting, kicking, pulling hair, pushing or shutting a person inside
7. Telling lies
8. Spreading false rumors
9. Sending mean notes
10. Trying to get other students to dislike another person
NOTE: The literature suggests not labeling a student as a bully or victim. Instead, call it bullying
and/or victim behavior that the student is exhibiting.
Direct bullying behaviors (overt) involve behaviors that are observable and that are usually
expressed by physical and verbal means. Usually direct bullying involves relatively open attacks
on a victim and are “in front of your face” behaviors.
1 Dan Olweus, ”A Research Definition of Bullying” [2007.11.24 Available online at http://www.cobb.k12.ga.us/~preventionintervention/Bully/Definition%20of%20Bullying.pdf ]
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However, bullying behavior is not always hitting, kicking, teasing, or name calling. Children
who bully others may use subversive acts that hurt just as much, but are harder to detect.
Examples of indirect bullying are leaving others out on purpose, spreading rumors to destroy
another’s reputation or getting others to dislike another person. This is covert bullying or “behind
your face” behaviors.
Bullying begins at an early age with students demonstrating behaviors like biting, pinching or
scratching. Teasing and taunting may follow with glaring and staring. Shoving, pushing, and
tripping may ensue along with pestering and fighting. Boys may name call, steal lunch money and
threaten younger boys while girls may ignore and exclude others or undermine friendships.
Thus, bullying can start small and get out of hand unless there is consistency with what is
expected. Everyone should have the same expectations and be on the same page. If someone is
being bullied at home, at play and/or at school, the behavior should be reported to a trusted adult.
The information should be factual and, if possible, logged in a journal describing the type of
bullying, where and when it is happening, who is involved, and how the victim reacts to the
bullying. It is important to determine if the victim is provocative. How the information is
conveyed is very important.
2) The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan
(monbukagakusho) 2
This is the official definition in Japan.
1. A one sided attack towards an individual which is weaker than oneself. These attacks
include Physical and/or Mental attacks repeated over a period of time leading to the victim
suffering serious mental agony. These attacks may not only be limited to the school ground. (The
Ministry of Education Japan 1994)
2. A weaker individual in a group being cut out by one or many group members in a physically
forceful way, leading to the victim suffering mental agony and/or pressure. (The municipal
education research center)
3. The victim experiencing mental stress leading to agony due to actions such as physical or
verbal threats, harassment, ignorance etc. being performed by one or many individuals repeatedly
and over a period of time.
2 My translation. (Original in Appendix), [2007.11.20 Available online at http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu//shingi/chousa/shotou/040/shiryo/06120716/005.htm]
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3) Wikipedia Japan – Bully definition3
As Wikipedia is considered one of the larger information resources which many normal citizens
use when searching for information, it too should be considered, while not to be official, to be of
importance when studying the Japanese bullying definitions.
A situation where an individual in a weaker position feels mental or physical anguish caused by
temporary or repeated actions taken against him/her. Even if the action was not considered
bullying by the aggressor, should the defenseless party consider it to be a case of bully, then it
should be regarded as such.
1.2 Definition analysis
At a glance the three definitions above appears to be almost identical. There are however, some
differences which I will present, together with my overall opinion.
The Olweus definition is very concrete and does also contain several examples which make it
especially easy to understand and interpret. This is especially important when anyone ranging from
adolescents to parents is the intended target group. Furthermore, what are of particularly interest
are the points which differ from the other definitions. He brings up how bullying might start and
also adds real world examples which may come in hand, should a case occur where it is hard to
decide on whether it is/was in fact, bullying or not.
What he also touches upon are the two different types of bullying, ‘overt’ and ‘covert’. Firstly, he
makes a point of separating them. Secondly, he explains the difference by once again using
examples. For the ones trying to observe bullying, being aware of the much harder to perceive
covert bullying is fundamental.
The second definition which starts with a statement from Monbukagakusho and continues with
statements from other instances is, contrary to Olweus definition, not very concrete at all.
Moreover, incorporating several serious and advanced words the reader might get the idea that
bullying is a particularly severe and crude behavior, thus only getting aware of the overt part. As a
result, the behavior which was pointed out in the Olweus definition, i.e. making fun of others,
pulling hair etc. might be overlooked and, in worst case, only be perceived as normal play between
children. To prevent this from happening, including examples would be a good practice.
Furthermore, the first and second statements give an emphasis on the weaker individual in a group,
making this definition more group oriented than both the first and third one, a fact which I will get
3 My translation. (Original in Appendix), [2007.11.20 Available online at http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%81%84%E3%81%98%E3%82%81]
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back to later when explaining the smaller differences between the Japanese word for bullying
‘ijime’ and the bullying as we have come to know it.
The Wikipedia definitions brings up a, in my opinion, very vital point which was not mentioned in
the previous ones, by stating that whether a conduct should be regarded as bullying or not, is
ultimately up to the victim and not to the aggressor nor the spectator.
The mistake which has been made many times over in for instance Japan regarding the bully
suicides amongst school children is that, even though the deceased person claim it was due to
bullying, the other parties, be it teacher, or the aggressors did not perceive it as such, but instead
claimed it was nothing else but a little “make fun of” play, or a small prank. It should also be
mentioned that most victims will not voice their feelings as they are in most cases introverts who
will not seek solace, but instead blame themselves for the bullying situation. As such the severity of
these bullying cases might be hard to see with an untrained eye.
1.3 The Japanese word “ijime” and the Japanese bullying
As this thesis is mainly concerned with the mechanics of bullying both in west and in Japan I feel
it is important to bring up, although only briefly, the differences between the Japanese word for
bullying ‘ijime, and the word ‘Bullying’ as we have come to use it in the west. This section will
mainly be based on the report ‘ijime Bullying: characteristic, causality and intervention’ which
Mitsuru Taki of the National Institute for Educational Policy Research presented on May 2003 at
the Kobe Institute in Kobe Japan.
In 1985 Y. Morita laid down the definition of bullying (ijime) as: A type of aggressive behavior by (which) someone who holds a dominant position in a group-
interaction process, by intentional or collective acts, causes mental and/or physical suffering to
another inside a group.
The most distinct difference, as I pointed out in section 1.2 is that this definition incorporates the
idea of a “dominant position” in a group (contrary to Olweus who focuses on the “power imbalance”
between individuals). Taki argues that ijime is something which occurs in a group situation
between individuals who know each other well, and that the power-balance will change depending
on the situation. As this is the situation, most of the ijime tends not to be physical but rather mental,
and that this is where the noticeable characteristic of Japanese bullying lies. Furthermore, the
Japanese definition also focuses on the “mental anguish” implying that the aggressor, although
using physical force, intends to cause mental harm.
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Taki also brings up the distinction between ijime and violence, which is a state which can occur
either between people not knowing each other, or amongst for instance classmates. The objective is
always to inflict physical harm or to obtain some kind of benefit.
In other words, ijime is a state of affairs occurring in a group, between individuals knowing each
other, and is mainly carried out in a non-violent way with the sole intention of causing mental
anguish at the victim. This in a way would also very much describe some of the characteristics
assigned bullying amongst girls in the west.
Taki specifically stresses two points when comparing Morita’s ijime definition and Olweus
bullying definition.
1. Although mental bullying can be found in other countries it is often disregarded as it is not
considered serious enough.
2. Defining imbalance of strength is not sufficient to identifying bullying, as it does not
distinguish violence from bullying.
Based on these differences, Mitsuru Taki himself laid forth the following ijime definition: ’Ijime bullying' is mean behavior or a negative attitude that has clear intention to embarrass or humiliate
others who occupy weaker positions in a same group. It is assumed to be a dynamic used to keep or recover
one's dignity by aggrieving others. Consequently, its main purpose is to inflict mental suffering on others,
regardless of the form such as physical, verbal, psychological and social (Taki 2003: 4).
Taki also carried out a longitudinal survey between 1998 to 2000 where his findings suggest that
most bullying is carried out by “normal children”, and not by children with special personal
characteristics such as a quick temperament etc. It should, however, be pointed out that his research
was carried out only by self-report where the children themselves reported how often they bullied,
and were bullied. The main reason for ijime in Japan appears to be stress related, one of the main
factors related to competitiveness. Both at school, at the after-school club etc. children are thought
to be competitive, and this in turn might give rise to a more depressive, aggressive or apathetic
personality. This in turn may work to promote mean behavior or a negative attitude.
In conclusion: Based on the definitions research made by Taki and Morita, ijime is defined as
mean behavior or a negative attitude specified by the conditions:
1. Group membership involving those who perceive themselves to be “equal in power and
status”.
2. Utilizing the power imbalance within relationships.
3. Frequency of victimization.
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The two items comprising the 'ijime bullying' scale are typically mean behavior or a negative
attitude utilizing the power imbalance within a relationships.
1.3.1 Writers take on the ijime definition
While the Japanese bullying might be seen as different, the way it is carried out still mimics that
of west in many cases. The biggest difference is that the Japanese bullying was considered only to
be carried out mentally, something which Olweus mentions specifically in his extended bullying
definition and denotes as ‘covert’ behavior. That this type of bullying is the most destructive and
most widely used is, contrary to what Taki says, quite well known in the west, and ways to observe
and tackle this kind is being worked on. Violence at school was on the other hand, only considered
as normal school violence, with no connection to bullying at all. This separation of mental violence
and physical violence which was made from the start most likely explains why it is still considered
as such today. It should also be mentioned that Japanese scholars thought of ijime as something
which only existed in Japan up until the later 1980’s.
On the subject on violence in Europe and Japan, “…researchers have concluded through a survey
that bullying against boys is more physical or direct, and that bullying against girls is more verbal
and indirect. The same tendency may also be observed with ijime in Japan” (Morita 1999: 321).
However, unlike in Europe where bullying against boys is more frequent than against girls, the
same may not be said about ijime in Japan where many Japanese surveys reveal the reverse
condition (Taki 1992).
In other words, while the mental bullying tends to be larger in Japan I would not call it a Japanese
phenomenon. As for ijime taking place mainly in a group, the same could basically be said of the
bullying in the west. The difference is that with ijime the group appears to be requisite, whereas in
west it is not. Nevertheless, bullying in west may also be seen as quite group oriented. A class may
be viewed as a group, and in the class you have got groups formed naturally amongst children and
so on. The bullying is then usually started by one individual, the ‘aggressor’, which then sways
other individuals which thus end up forming a group. However, the nature of the aggressor is
according to research, in the case of Japan, a “normal child” who may be under lots of stress
without any support, whereas in the west it is a child with a hot temper and a bad upbringing.
Indeed, that the Japanese children may suffer from a lot more stress than their counterparts in west,
and that it in turn leads to sudden outbursts may absolutely very well be true, but whether that
stress comes from competitiveness, a bad upbringing or both, and whether the western type of
aggressor is nonexistent or not may require more research.
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As for Takis’ longitudinal survey which was carried out by self-report, while figures earned by
such a method might give an indication of the situation, they are at most time biased and should as
best practice preferably only be used together with data collected by other means. This lead me to
the question that perhaps the aggressor from the West and aggressor from Japan have more in
common than what we know of. And perhaps the gap between ‘ijime’ and ‘Bullying’ is not quite so
wide any more. Regarding this, more research may be necessary. Also, scholars from the West who
are able to interpret the Japanese situation from another point of view should probably become
more involved in these studies as it might offer additional insight and opinions in the field. The
same might of course be said about the research being carried out in the West. Overall, a situation
as serious and grave as ijime/Bullying should be analyzed from as many points of views as possible.
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2 Bullying
2.1 The beginning of the 1970’s
Bullying was first observed in Sweden by the end of the 60’s, beginning of the 70’s. At that time
the word ‘mobbing’, deriving from the word ‘mob’ meaning “A deviating individual being singled
out and attacked by a group (mob)” was used. Even though bullying at school might be considered
a ‘group action’, the various forms of bullying are many and as such, applying the simple term
‘mobbing’ which would invariably ignore many of the different roles within the group would not
be appropriate. According to Olweus only a couple of students in a class work as agitators and start
the bullying, but the numbers who then join in are far greater. In conclusion, in a group you have
members carrying different roles, and the aggressors are relatively few.
2.2 The bully situation
In the previous chapters I went through the bullying definitions where it was made clear that
bullying can be carried out in many ways.
Physical: Hitting, Kicking etc.
Verbally: Lies, Rumors, Badmouthing, Sending mean notes etc.
Mentally: Exclusion from a group, Ignorance, Disliking etc.
Oppressive: Stealing of money, Forced to do things etc.
According to Olweus, the bullies and the bullied amount to 10-15% as a whole. As for the overt
bullying, it starts at kindergarten and then escalates gradually up until the end of Junior High-
school to then abate during the start of High-school. Covert behavior is, as was mentioned earlier,
directly connected to violent behavior, and as the children grow older the tolerance for such actions,
both amongst the teachers but also peers declines, thus the violent bullies, in order to not getting on
the wrong foot of too many people, have to stop. The same can, unfortunately not be said for the
verbal bullying, which stays at a relatively fixed level even at High-school. This trend can be
witnessed everywhere and does not appear to be dependent on the number of pupils in a class, nor
the location (country side, suburb, urban etc.).
For a person without self-confidence and self-belief, being bullied every day and at the same time
forced to commute to school, the mental pressure is enormous. A person experiencing this situation,
be it over a shorter or longer period, will eventually be put under such a stress no optimism be
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visible what so ever. It might not be foreign to such a person, to think that suicide is the only way
to salvation.
In effect, a state of bullying can also be seen as a direct violation of our constitution. Every child
has a right to attend school without the feelings of fear looming close by, and without being
attacked. However, the reality for many a children and pupils is different, and for them, a safe
environment appears to be but a dream.
To tackle this constantly growing problem Olweus in 1981 presented a proposal to establish a
legal system wherein the different parties would be forced to take responsibility in combating the
bullying. The proposal was denied. In 1994, however his proposal received attention once again,
and was accepted. In effect, as of 1994 the Swedish school has to take actions in order to solve
bullying problems. In the event this is neglected, the principal will have to take full responsibility.
This law was approved later in Norway in 1997. There is yet to be such legislation in Japan.
2.2.1 Bullying and teasing amongst friends
In our everyday life we converse and socialize with several people, some very close to us.
Together with this closeness, ‘teasing’ and ‘making fun of’ situations are prone to occur and to
differentiate between these and those of bullying can be a very difficult task. Here I would like to
call on the definitions which were mentioned in the first chapter. That is to say, if a person clearly
voices a discomfort and experience a mental pressure due to being repeatedly exposed to actions
such as, physical assaults, verbal threats, ostracism etc., then the situation cannot be regarded as
anything but bullying.
2.2.2 Group behavior
Although it is very easy to view a group as a homogenous unit, in a bullying situation several
roles, which all bear an importance is at work. In brief, it is not a matter of an aggressor vs. victim
situation but instead a situation where various people, carrying various roles are involved.
According to Morita the roles in a bullying situation can be pinned down to four,
‘aggressor’, ’victim’, ‘spectator’ and ‘indifferent onlooker’. However, in order to fully analyze the
group behavior in a class room, Olweus together with other scholars presented an eight role
“bullying circle” system in 1999. The roles are as follows
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Role Explanation
a) aggressor instigates bullying, takes an active role
b) henchman takes an active role in the bullying
c) supporter (active) support the bullying actively but does not partake
d) supporter (passive) support the bullying but does not partake
e) spectator is aware of the bullying but has little interest in the outcome
f) defender (passive) dislike the bullying and wants it to stop
g) defender (active) dislike the bullying and supports the victim openly
h) victim the bullied
To better explain and to solve the complexity of a bullying situation, rather than having four roles,
eight roles mirrors reality more closely. It is of outmost importance to realize that in order to break
the vicious cycle the original instigator, namely the aggressor who resides at the top, has to be
removed.
2.2.3 The eight role system analyzed
As was shown in the earlier section, in a bullying situation several roles are manifested. The one
to research the role proportions was the Finnish psychologist Christina Salmivalli. She studied
bullying in three different school grades from 1994 to 1999, with the focus on the eight role system
and the proportion of the various roles within it. The results can be found in table one.
Research objects were as follows
1994: Elementary school sixth grade, 573 pupils
1996: Junior High-school second grade, 316 pupils
1999: Junior High-school first and second grade, 186 pupils
Table 1, the eight role system, proportions (Salmivalli 2001: 405)
School grade Elem 6yr Jr.High 2yr Jr.High 1&2yr
Aggressor 8.2% 8.5% 11.2%
Henchman 6.8% 10.8% 12.2%
Supporter (active and passive) 19.5% 15.2% 16.3%
Spectator 23.7% 32.0% 31.6%
Defender (active and passive) 17.3% 19.6% 19.9%
Victim 11.7% 5.7% 5.1%
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According to this table, the aggressors, henchmen and supporters, in other words, the ones who
are directly involved in the bullying add up to roughly 35-40%. If one were to add the spectators
then students who are not, in any way, trying to stop the bullying add up to a whole 60-70%.
Whether this phenomenon applies to kindergartens or not, was researched by Claire Monks4, who
in 1999 concluded that it is indeed the case. In order to explain bullying to the five year old
children she used pictures with various bullying situations visualized.
Furthermore, from the research which Salmivalli carried out, she concluded that kindergarten
children are aware of the terms ‘aggressor’, ‘victim’ and ‘defender’, but not the remaining ones.
Whether this is due to a language limitation or that such relations simply do not exist amongst five
year old children is still unknown.
2.2.4 Bullying and the sexes
According to Salmivalli a strong consistency can be seen where boys tend to take on the roles of
henchman or supporter, whereas girls tend to take on the defender role. Furthermore, the spectator
role (i.e. the ones who do not in any way take part nor interest in the bullying) was also in most
cases inhibited by the girls.
According to table 2 two the roles inhibited by boys and girls are as follows Table 2, role proportions divided by sex
Aggressor Boys：12.2% Girls：1.4%
Supporter Boys：37.3% Girls：1.7%
Defender Boys：4.5% Girls：30.1%
Spectator Boys：7.3% Girls：40.2%
While the victim role was practically identical between the sexes (boys 11.8%, girls 11.5%), the
aggressor role was inhibited by boys in twice as many cases (boys 10.5%, girls 5.9%). This is most
likely because girls in general are more sympathetic than boys (Salmivalli 2001: 407).
2.3 The bully – the aggressor5
2.3.1 Character traits
The nature of the aggressor is, as the name implies, to be aggressive towards someone. This is
done not only to peers, but also to adults, teachers and one’s own parents. The aggressor is also on
the whole stronger and more muscled than the average person, carries no sympathy towards the 4 Dr. Claire Monks, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Kingston University London. Personal Communication, February 16, 1999. 5 This section is based on the information provided in ‘The nature of school bullying: A cross-national perspective’ (Olweus 1999: 15-20).
14
victim, likes to be in control and with a great interest in upholding prestige and appearance. This
often expresses itself in having henchmen, extorting money from the victim and so on.
Furthermore, the aggressors is according to Olweus, contrary to what many tend to believe, a
person with an equal or above average self-confidence and self-esteem, while the persons inhibiting
the other aggressive roles (i.e. the Henchman and the Supporter) are the more insecure ones.
During elementary school the aggressor tends to be rather popular with two, three very close
supportive friends. However, entering Junior High-school, aggressive and violent behavior is
gradually looked down upon, often resulting in a degrading popularity.
2.3.2 The bully examined
If we are to look at the bully from a concrete perspective we will find three cases which might
lead to bullying (Olweus 1999: 17).
1. The aggressor embraces a controlling behavior and likes to oppress others.
2. An aggressive behavior is often cultivated in the home. If the child experiences a very
repressive or aggressive home climate, this might in turn promotes a sadistic behavior
pattern.
3. As the victim seldom resists an attack, it is very easy to extort money and other items. This
appears to occur frequently both in Sweden and Japan. The victim may also be used as an
errand boy.
2.3.3 The link between violent behavior and criminality
During the 1980’s scholars began to wonder whether there was a link between the aggressive
behaviors seen in a bully, and a later coming criminal career. This was later confirmed by a number
of studies. Olweus later confirmed this further by his own studies (Olweus 1999: 18) when he
examined bullies ranging from sixth year in elementary school, up to the third year in Junior High-
school, and found that a staggering 60% of them had a criminal record when they were 24 years old.
Furthermore, 35-40% of those had been convicted at least three times. On the other hand, the
normal criminal rate for those not having been involved in bullying were 10%, thus displaying a
difference of up to four times between those who had bullied, and those who had not.
It is apparent from these results that an intervention against bullying behavior is required already
at an early stage.
15
2.3.4 The seeds of an aggressive behavior
Regarding the factors which nourish an aggressive behavior Olweus carried out a research
amongst mostly boys at the start of the 1980’s (Olweus 1980: 660-664) where he concluded that
there are mainly four factors deciding whether a child develops bully tendencies or not.
1. The parental attitude when the child is young. A bad parental attitude, i.e. always leaving
the child alone and not giving any parental love can nourish a violent and hostile character.
2. A responsible-free home environment. Even if the child becomes violent towards a person
or item, the parent’s will not exercise their rights and instead let the child do as it wish,
which might lead to increasingly violent behavior.
3. Parental assault. The child is exposed to violent behavior or sudden outbursts within the
home which can nourish a liking towards violence. In a home environment where there is
neither love, nor restrictions this is especially devastating.
4. Temperament. A child with a hot temperament is usually more prone to violent behavior
than a calm child. This point however, does not carry as much relevance in this matter as
factor 1 – 3.
The four factors are concrete, although there may of course be other factors involves as well, e.g.
drug abuse, alcoholism etc.
2.3.5 The parenting role (analysis)
If we look at what has been mentioned and stated thus far in section 2.3 it is quite apparent that
whether a child embraces violence or not, or whether a child turns into a bully or not, depends
heavily on the parents and their attitude towards parenting.
Carl Gustav Jung also came up with a similar conclusion. He was a German psychologist who at
times analyzed ‘problematic children’. In short, children who had a personality which deviated
from what was considered normal. At the beginning he tried very hard in analyzing and solving the
problems which these children exhibited, but to no avail. As timed passed he started to focus on the
parents rather than the children and came to understand that the problems which the children
exhibited was a product of their parents. Specifically, in order to solve the problem of the child, he
would have to have the parents understand it was their attitude which was the root of the problem.
Once they had grasped the problem at hand, a suitable treatment plan could be erected.6
In essence, as above facts indicate, the parents are a great part of the problem. Furthermore, a
child will usually not dislike itself; rather it will assume itself and all actions it takes, to be fully
6 For further reading on Jung’s personality research, see C.G. Jung 1991[1915]
16
normal. As such, an important step in order to solve this problem of personality is to recognize both
of these properties, and to erect a treatment plan for both parties. Although with that said, here we
come upon a problem. If the child is indeed bullying, who carries the responsibility? The parents,
the school, or perhaps even the child itself. Most likely all three factors play a part in this problem.
The parent’s erroneous parentage, the school principal and teachers lacking knowledge on how to
properly deal with bullying, the pupils not having been thought about bullying and its effects, and
the child, who does not stop committing bullying acts. In other words, if one does not grasp the
whole situation one will fail to see and understand the various problems, thus not being able to
reach a solution. Solving just one problem will not make bullying go away.
17
2.4 The bullied – the victim7
2.4.1 Character traits
Below are the character traits which can be seen in the submissive type of bullying victim
(Jönsson 2007: 18)8.
• Insecure, unstable
• Sensitive and quiet
• Will cry easily when bullied
• Negative self-image
• Regards oneself as a failure
• Low self-confidence and self-esteem
• Isolates oneself from teachers and friends, a loner with close ties to the parents
• Immature and nervous compared to other people of the same age
• Does not retaliate
A person is a bully victim when assaulted by one or more persons repeatedly and over a period of
time. The assault which may be physical or verbal attacks, disliking, ostracism etc., is performed
with intent to inflict mental damage upon the victim.
Furthermore, that the psyche and personality of a victim generally differs from that of other pupils
or students have been proved by studies carried out by Olweus, Shin et.al.
Olweus has divided the victim into two groups, the ’submissive’ and the ‘aggressive’. However,
there is a third type, the ‘excelling’ victim. This is a victim who stands out and is better than his/her
peers within a certain field. I refer to this one as “The nail who sticks out”, inspired by the Japanese
proverb “The nail which sticks out gets hammered down” (deru kui ha utareru), which encourages
conformity.
2.4.2 The submissive victim9
If we study the character traits of the victim we notice that it is not very social nor self-confident
and tends to cry when bullied, this is especially true during the kindergarten and elementary school
age. The victim also regards itself as worthless and without any value, and seldom has any
supportive friends.
7 This section is based on the information provided in ‘The nature of school bullying: A cross-national perspective’ (Olweus 1999: 15-20). 8 My translation 9 This section is based on the information found in ‘Peer Harassment in School-The Plight of the Vulnerable and Victimized’ (Perry et.al. 2001: 83-85).
18
The submissive victim is usually weaker than average, and carries a negative image towards
violence, never takes on a provocative role nor causes any ruckus and will not fight back when
assaulted. Whether these traits are the main bullying cause is hard to determine. Rather, the fact the
victim views itself as an existence without much value might be of more importance.
By interviewing the parents of the bullied children, it was understood that the personality of the
child was, again, very much a product of the parents parenting attitude. Three parenting patterns
were distinguished.
1. Overprotective parenting. An overprotected child tends to become a bully victim more
often than normal children. Briefly, to overprotect a child is to hinder the natural mental
growth. It does not learn how handle and solve problems, has not experienced a fight
amongst friends and always relies on the parents for help.
2. Strong parental binds. This happens when the parents invalidate all thoughts and opinions
which the child carries. This is very much like keeping a growing animal in a cage, never
letting it out. The child might after some time end up feeling threatened by the parents who
continually tries to thrust their thoughts and opinion onto the child, a behavior prone to
causing an especially bad outcome for the mental well being.
3. Parental oppression. A child whom is attacked, verbally threatened etc. repeatedly will not
feel loved and tends to become very depressed. A child experiencing this kind of parenting
tends to turn into an ‘aggressive victim’.
2.4.3 The aggressive victim
This type of victim is not so common, and is contrary to the submissive victim not only unstable
but also, as the name implies, ‘aggressive’, and tends to attack when threatened. The attack is,
however, rather crude and most ineffective often serving to amuse the aggressor(s). Furthermore,
this kind of victim generally does not concentrate in class and tends to annoy the surrounding
people, thus making them angry. As this is the case, sympathy for the victim is rather low and on
the contrary, surrounding people might instead insist that the victim brought this situation on by
him/herself.
In short, the aggressive victim is quite different from the submissive one. A further difference
makes itself apparent when comparing academic skills, where the aggressive victim is weaker than
average in typing and reading, something which also should be addressed in solving bullying
situations with this victim type. It must however be stressed that no matter what kind of problems a
person might have, be it academically or personality wise, it should never constitute a reason for
bullying.
19
2.4.4 How the victim copes with bullying10
The most common way for a victim to cope with bullying is to hide. In other words, to avoid
places where bullying might occur, a solution which gets more awful the longer it continues. It
starts with playground avoidance, but might end up with avoidance of the school altogether, or
even worse, a school dropout. This in turn affects the academic grades, which then affect the ability
to pursue the future of one’s liking, thus making the situation even more severe.
The coping strategy for some victims does unfortunately not stop here. Suicide11, alternatively
genocide12 might occur as a result of bullying. Suicide is especially true for those victims who have
experienced particularly cruel bullying over a longer period of time.
2.4.5 How to perceive the bullying is of great importance
In 2001 Sandra Graham and Jaana Juvonen (Graham et.al. 2001: 52-53) presented a theory
regarding how the bully victim perceived the cause of the bullying situation.
This theory concerns the fact that some victims manage to recover fairly quickly, while others do
not recover at all, and is built on the material which Janoff Bullman presented in 1979, where he
speaks of ‘Behavior based victimization’ and ‘Character based victimization’. Behavior based
victimization is a state which has occurred as a result of one’s taken actions. If one wants to avoid a
previous situation, all one has got to do is to change one’s actions. Character based victimization
however, is a state which the victim perceives as having been caused by one’s personality. As
changing one’s personality is not easily done, the victim blames itself entirely as the main cause for
the bullying.
In other words, the ‘behavior based victimization’ is a state which the victim perceives as
changeable, whereas ‘character based victimization’ is perceived as non-changeable. The later state
is particularly destructive to the mental health of the victim as it will continue to blame itself thus
falling deeper into a depression every time a bullying situation occurs.
2.4.6 Long term effects caused by bullying
There has been much research carried out on whether effects due to bullying can be seen even
after some years have passed13, and it has been confirmed that there are indeed long term effects.
The fact that some victims experience PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder) due to having been
bullied should make apparent how severe a situation we are dealing with (Okamoto et.al. 2004: 33).
10 This section is based on the information found in ‘Bullying: Implications for the Classroom’ (Xin 2004:25). 11 Olweus, Morita, Lane et.al. have carried out studies showing that bullying might lead to suicide. 12 Columbine High School Massacre, 1999. 13 Olweus, Fukatani, Hughes-Jones & Smith etc.
20
Olweus concluded in 1992, when surveying several people who had been bullied between
elementary school sixth grade to Junior High-school third grade 7-10 years earlier, that even if the
bullying had stopped, they were more prone to depression and had lower self-esteem than average.
2.4.5.1 Research carried out in England14
Hugh-Jones & Smith (1999: 141-158) carried out a study amongst pupils who had attended
special schools for stammering children regarding short and long term effects caused by past
bullying experiences. This was done by interviews and mail based surveys.
If we are to exclude “No influence”, we then get three categories containing the following
characteristics:
1. Personal influence: Low self-confidence & self-esteem, unstable or hard to maintain
personal relations.
2. Social interaction difficulties
3. Other. Short Term: School absence, study difficulties, caution and suspiciousness. Long
Term: Lack of interest in one’s future, overprotective parenting.
Table 1, reported short and long term effects (Hugh-Jones & Smith 1999)
(amongst 229 bully victims, 205 participated in the research)
Short term effects Long term effects
Personal influence 63%（144） 32%（73）
Social interaction difficulties 9%（20） 6%（14）
Other 17%（39） 4%（10）
No influence 1%（2） 54%（123）
If we study the results, we see that the answers in the “short term effects” column correspond to
what is commonly believed, i.e. that most victims fall under the “personal influence” category and
that practically no one goes unaffected. However, if we look at the “long term effects” column,
roughly half of the participants report still having problems. Also in this case most of the
participants fall under the “personal influence” category, showing that long term effects should not
be neglected. As for the long term effect symptoms, trends such as aggressiveness, reclusiveness,
onstant wariness, persecution complex etc. could be found. c
14 (Okamoto et.al. 2004: 44-45).
21
2.4.5.2 Research carried out in Japan15
Fukatani (1996) asked university students who had been bully victims during elementary or junior
high school what they thought of attending a class reunion after having graduated, and received
four types of answers.
Table 2, feelings about attending a class reunion after having graduated (Fukatani 1996)
Elem (n=242) Jr. High (n=202)
Will absolutely not attend 6.2%（15） 5%（10）
Will not attend if possible 7.4%（18） 5.9%（12）
Will attend with some hesitation 34.7%（84） 12.4%（25）
Will attend without problem 51.7%（125） 76.7%（155）
He did also ask the students whether they thought of their bullying experience as positive or not,
and received the following results,
Table 3, feelings regarding having been bullied (Fukatani 1996)
Still negative Elem: 16% Jr. High: 15%
Was both positive and negative Elem: 21% Jr. High: 19%
Was positive Elem: 30% Jr. High: 36%
For 31% of the participants the bullying experience still has negative effects, in other words, a
many of the victims still continue to suffer from their bullying experience although several years
have passed. On the other hand, the ratio of the ones who regarded their experience as positive is
surprisingly high with 66%. According to Fukatani’s analysis the participants were all national
university students which might explain the ratio. This is because the difficulty of entering a
Japanese national university is relatively high, and as such most of the bully victims are sorted out
already during the entrance process as their academic skills are more than often insufficient. Rather,
these bully victims might have looked at their bully experience as a sort of “test” which when
overcome had made them stronger.
Studies in West usually focus on the negative effects connected to having been bullied, and a
study which research whether students view their bully experience as ‘positive’ or ‘negative’ has
not been carried out. Whether the answers would mimic those presented above or not is something
which might have to be further researched as, for example, a bully victim with a lower than average
self-esteem perhaps regards the experience as positive nonetheless.
15 (Okamoto et.al. 33-34).
22
Another great difference between West and China, Korea and Japan is the competitiveness.
Children in East-Asia are raised in a very competitive climate where they have to study hard and
compete with their fellow friends and classmates in order to enter certain schools; this is especially
true with High-School and Universities where many children commute to special cram schools
after their ordinary school day has ended. Overall a strong test results and academic records are
heavily emphasized, and ‘pass’ or ‘fail’ are at times regarded as ‘overcome’ or ‘succumb’. These
differences between West and East-Asia might promote a different way as to regard and cope with
a bullying experience.
2.4.6 The excelling victim
While empirical data is still scarce, I mentioned earlier that except for the two victim types above,
there is a third one. Rather than personality, to stand out by excelling in something might at times
be the reason of bullying. If a member in a group is better than everyone at something or in
something, this might instill a feeling of strong jealousy in some members. As mentioned before
the persons taking the role of ‘henchman’ and ‘follower’ are used at being the center of the
attention and when someone else steps up the stage and steals the light they might feel a need to
take necessary actions in order to maintain their popularity. In other words, while an asocial quiet
person tends to get bullied easily, that is not the only case; quite the opposite very socially gifted
person might stand facing the same destiny.
As an example, a pupil which is more fluent and linguistically talented and uses a much more
advanced vocabulary than is normal might get accused of wanting to make up to the teacher,
alternatively becoming the teacher’s pet. Again, an excelling pupil or student who performs in front
of the class might be regarded as conceited.
2.5 Group Mechanics
One example of ‘mass psychology’ is the bullying phenomenon. Here we have a gathering of
people who, as a group, bullies a weaker person. Although, if we dissect the group we do find that
the ones actually instigating and doing the bullying are quite few. The aggressor will probably
bully other people even when not in a group, but the other ones, the henchmen and supporters will
most likely not embark on such a road if not led by someone. This is made especially apparent
when it is a matter of violent actions carried out by a group.
It is very easy, especially for children, to be swayed and affected by actions taken by adults or
close peers. If as an example, a child resides in a violent environment for a longer period of time,
23
the child will most likely turn out becoming more violent than average. This very much applies to a
group, where ‘henchmen’ and ‘supporters’ who usually knows deep within themselves that
violence is no good, are persuaded by the leader, mostly due to a lack of self-confidence and
backbone.
Another very important cause which also may lead to increased violence by group members is
‘numbness’. Again, a person who is exposed to violence over a period of time will by eventually
come to accept it, and even join in. Thus the group member who once hated violence becomes the
violator.
Consequently, if a smaller group of people who approve of aggressive actions towards a weaker
individual takes repetitive actions, other people may get swayed and join in, thus making the group
larger, and at the same time, increasing its range of influence. In a worst case class-room scenario,
the majority of the class and the teacher might get both persuaded and numbed, which effectively
removes any barrier whatsoever which may had been able to stop the bullying group. Furthermore,
the image surrounding people carries of the victim also tends to change by time; from that of a
victim who needs a helping hand, to a person who has no value and on the contrary is a fully free
for all bullying bait.
2.5.1 The roles of the parent, teacher and classmate
Whether a child begins bullying or not depends on a vast amount of factors. Considered especially
important are the various experiences and impressions at a young age, parentage and whether there
are problems at home or not. Alcoholism, drug abuse, constant quarrel between the parents,
violence and other outbursts leaves strong imprints in the psyche of a child. Ultimately, to raise a
child with love, to explain what is right and wrong, to give a proper understanding of moral
concept, to give guidance and coaching throughout the early days is of outmost importance.
It need scarcely be said, but the views, values and opinions of parents and teachers do play a great
role in making a bully prone environment friendlier and more harmonious. Still, the ones who
really do have the ability to stop bullying are none other than the classmates.
24
3 A Bully Experience Survey
3.1 Survey introduction and methodology
In order to get a grasp of the bullying which occurs at school, research is necessary. It can be
carried out in various forms: self report, peer report, observation etc. It all boils down to data
analysis, and numbers to go with it. That is why I carried out a survey (Jönsson 2007: 37-44) in
order to get a better understanding of how people perceive bullying, and where in the eight role
model they could be placed.
The survey was available solely on the internet for a period of one month and was free for anyone
to answer although the main target was university students. It consisted of 23 personal questions of
a leading character, that is to say, questions which specifically asked for past experiences and
opinions rather than yes/no. Moreover, with an average completion time of 23 minutes it is to be
considered relatively time consuming as well. This might very well explain the particularly low
amount of participants at eleven persons, despite the URL being spread via e-mail and internet
communities such as the widely known ‘Mixi’16. Although participation was scarce there are still
clear tendencies which should not be disregarded.
3.2 Answer summary
Amongst the eleven participants five were men, and six were women, ten were university students
and one was already working. There were participants who had experienced both having been a
bully and been bullied or just one of them. Ten persons had witnessed bullying, ten people were
also clearly against bullying whereas one believed it “could not be helped”. Upon witnessing
bullying two persons had become defenders, eight spectators and two reported they had reported
the events to the home-room teacher.
Amongst the six who had bullied others, half answered that they did not consider their actions at
the time, whereas the remaining half disliked their own behavior. When thinking over their actions
at this time they believed the victim must have been in great pain and insecurity. Four had bullied
during elementary school and two during Junior High-school. As for the reason of bullying they all
reported they had been swept away by the moment.
All three of the ones who had been bullied experienced vocabulary insults, malicious gossiping
and cases of being left out also occurred. One person might have experienced physical aggression.
(The answer does not explicitly state such a thing, but from the nature of the answer it cannot be
16 Japanese online community with millions of users [2007.11.20 Available online at: http://mixi.jp]
25
ruled out) and felt a strong discomfort. One person experienced bullying during elementary school,
one during Jr. High-school, and one during High-school. As for the bullying reason, one person
still did not know, one reported excelling skills and one reported having been asocial and
independent as the main cause.
When asked about the causes behind bullying, answers such as “unsolvable problems in ones
everyday life”, “aggressive personality”, and “unable to accept other people values” etc. were given.
On the other hand, “weak impression” and “standing out in various ways” were believed to be the
reasons behind becoming a bully victim.
Finally, roughly half of the participants voiced that in order to solve bullying it was of importance
to explain and consider, both at home and at school, the mechanics regarding bullying. In other
words, how bullying occurs and forms, and how it affects the everyday life and personality of the
bully both today, but also tomorrow.
3.3 Results analysis
Below is presented a deeper analysis answer by answer17.
1. Choose your sex
• Male 6
• Female 5
2. Write your age and current occupation (If you are a student, write your current faculty)
• University student 10
• Currently employed 1
17 I will from now on denote the amount of participants in numerals, i.e. one, two, three persons 1, 2, 3
26
3. What do you think ‘bullying’ is?
• When many (some participants also wrote specifically more than 2 or 3 people) threatens a
single individual 4
• Violence, aggression 1
• When the bullying part asserts itself 1
One participant also voiced that since the spectator practically does nothing to stop bullying, it
should also be considered a part of the bullying side. Furthermore, bullying was regarded a ‘group
phenomenon’. In other words, in the case the victim was not harassed by a group it will not be
regarded as bullying. This seems to adhere to what has been believed to be the different between
the bullying image in Japan and west (see sect 1.4).
4. Have you seen bullying?
• Yes 10
• No 1
5. If you have seen bullying: what kind was it?
• Ignorance 4
• Malicious gossip 2
• Badmouthing 2
• Violence 2
• Placing a drawing-pin in the victims’ shoes, writing slanderous things on the rear black
board about the victim. When the victim would make a mistake in class, everyone would
laugh simultaneously. 1
It is clear by the tendencies reported that the ‘mental bullying’ is the most prevalent. This is also
what has been empirically proved in other studies.
27
6. If you have seen bullying: what did you do at the time (e.g. voiced my opinion, stayed silent
etc.)?
• Became a defender 2
• Did not do anything 6
• Reported to class teacher or other teacher 2
• Wanted to do something but did not in fear of getting bullied 2
As was mentioned in section 2.2.3, 60-70% of the people involved in a bullying situation will do
nothing to stop it. Those values too, correspond well with what was found in this survey.
7. If you have seen bullying: if it was resolved, which methods were used? If it was not
resolved, which methods do you believe were available at the time?
• A discussion about bullying was held 5
(In which way is the victim affected by the bullying, why is bullying bad etc.)
• In order to find common ground between the bullied and the bullies they were brought
together and performed various tasks together 1
• An external force which is greater than the group is required 1
Since four of the participants used the word “teacher” (sensei) or “home-room teacher” (tannin) it
appears that the teacher is considered to play a central role in solving the bullying, thus stressing
the point that teachers do need an adequate knowledge and understanding of the bullying
phenomenon.
To let the bullied and bullies find common ground in order to stop bullying can be a good idea. If
they do find common points the bullies may realize that the bullied really is not that bad after all.
This is, however, a method which required more research, and whether or not it is efficient on the
whole is not yet known18.
The external force may be necessary in some bullying situation. As has been stated before, there
are situations when a smaller group sways the surrounding people to join in on the bullying
18 This was a method which was tried when I was the object of bullying during the fourth year of elementary school. It had a positive effect and I can still remember when I and a former henchman threw a tennis ball between each other, and he after a little while commented: “Hey, you are not that bad after all. On the contrary it is rather fun hanging out with you”.
28
although they might have detested it at an earlier stage. If this happens in, let us say a school class,
the forces deemed necessary can no longer be found within the class19 (Shuuhei: 187-211) but
rather outside. That is, a person which has not, and will not be affected by the bullying group.
8. If you have seen bulling: what did you feel at the time?
• It cannot be helped 1
• I do not want to get bullied 2
• Pitiful 2
9. Have you bulled?
• Yes 6
• No 5
The prevalence of bullying in schools is a well established fact. This is confirmed further by the
relatively high amount of people who have bullied.
10. If you have bullied: when?
• Elementary school 4
• Elementary, Junior High-school 2
Again in accordance to previous studies, bullying is most prone to occur during elementary and Jr.
High-school. There have also been reported cases of bullying starting already at kindergarten.
11. If you have bullied: why?
• Swayed by others 2
• Because of stress 1
• The victim was different from everyone else 1
19 If the class-mates and even the teacher have been swayed then there are no allies left.
29
According to Taki (see sect. 1.4) the biggest reason of bullying is related to stress, though this
does not appear to be the case in this study20.
12. If you have bullied: what kind?
• Ignorance 2
• Teasing 4
It is of importance to understand that ‘teasing’ also is a form of bullying.
13. If you have bullied: what did you feel at the time?
• Did not feel nor think anything about it at the time 2
• Was doing something bad 3
It is very important to teach children about bullying. They do not understand how their actions
affect the victim. Although despite some might sense that it is wrong, there are many reasons as to
why it continues. They are swayed by others; they do not want to get bullied. After all, if you are
on the bullying side, you do not have to experience the pain and agony of the victim right?
Not at all, that kind of thinking soon turns into guilt as the former bully grows up and regards the
past experiences which comes floating up time by time, from a different kind of view21.
14. If you have bullied: what did you think the victim felt at the time?
• Miserable 3
• Unstable 2
• Alone 1
The bully comes to understand the feelings of the victim as time passes.
20 Again, with only six answers is cannot be considered factual. It does however add substance to my opinion that more cross-national studies should be carried out (see section 1.4.1) 21 I am well aware of this myself.
30
15. Have you been bullied?
• Yes 3
• No 8
Since whether someone reports having been bullied or not depends heavily on which definition it
is based on, the answers might have been different would the Olweus definition presented in this
thesis been used in all cases. The answers to the third question acts as a good example here. Most
participants believed bullying to be an action carried out by a group and not by a single individual
thus contradicting Olweus’ definition.
16. If you have been bullied: when?
• Elementary school 2
• Jr. High-school 1
• Elementary, Jr. High, High-school 1 (most intensive during elementary school)
17. If you have been bullied: what kind?
• Malicious gossip 1
• Badmouthing in front of face 2
Although the amount of answers is low, it is worth mentioning that there was no reported violence.
18. If you have been bullied: what did you feel at the time?
• Discomfort 3
One participant also commented that the bullying group acted high-handedly although they were
only plotting against a single helpless individual.
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19. If you have been bullied: why do you think you were bullied?
• Different and asocial 1
• Excelled in a skill 1
Here we have an example of the two personality types reported to get bullied. First we have, as
have been pointed out in several studies, the ‘submissive victim’, and then the ‘excelling victim’
which stands out in a skill or field. These might be the primary reasons for becoming a bully victim,
but I do believe jealousy to be a factor in some cases as well.
20. Why do you think people bully? (e.g. home situation, psychological, jealousy etc.)
• Childhood problems, mental scars, unsolvable problems in ones everyday life 4
• Aggressive personality 2
• Unable to accept values different from one’s own 3
Child hood problems and other everyday problems is the biggest reason of bullying. As was
mentioned in section 2.4.2, the way of parenting (overprotective, parental binds, oppression) is
liable for many child hood problems. That the child is unable to accept other peoples’ values and
opinions may also be related to parenting.
People with aggressive personalities often try to resolve situations by the use of violence. It
should be mentioned that this is a personality type which does not necessarily bully as the object of
hatred can be just about anyone.
A participant also commented that bullying will not disappear.
21. Why do you think people become bullied? (e.g. personality, attitude, excelling, being
different etc.)
• They stand out in some way 5
• The look weak 3
• They have a big attitude 1
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22. Write freely about the subject bullying (it is okay not to write anything)
• In order to solve bullying it is of importance to explain and consider both at home and at
school, the mechanics regarding bullying. In other words, how bullying occurs and forms,
and how it affects the everyday life and personality of the bully both today, but also
tomorrow 3
• Due to the group psychology bullying will not disappear 1
The importance of proper education regarding bullying is once again brought into focus and
emphasized. That bullying will not disappear is sadly most likely a correct assumption. A person
who stands out in a group will attract attention. This is true both for humans and animals. One
participant suggested creating a sort of ‘haven’ for the bullied, a place where they could retreat
back to and feel safe. While this will not stop the bullying, it might help in giving the victim a
helping hand and a boost in self-confidence. It is also a step towards creating a society which
protects the bullied people.
One participant got my focus with this answer22
We live in a society where many things occur. New techniques and technologies are
discovered, and in that same society, no matter how unpleasant, there are people who
commit suicide. The point is, these ‘occurrences’ all make up what we call a ‘society’.
As bullying too is an ‘occurrence’ it means it too is deemed necessary.
Now, what kind of society considers suicide and bullying to be necessary? As expected, I do feel
slightly worried upon reading such a thing.
No matter what, suicide is a very tragic event. Suicide due to a broken heart aside, in an ideal
society with no problems, suicides should not happen nor be viewed as necessary. In other words,
‘suicide’ is in a way a measurement of how well a society fares. Therefore, if a child commits
suicide due to bullying then supposedly there is a problem either at home or at school.
Furthermore, bullying is a direct oppression of our human right to life freely. To have a
population believe that it “cannot be helped” is nothing less of failure of the most fundamental
functions in a society. Namely: parenting, childcare and education given at schools, or the ability of
the society to perceive, handle and set up counter measures in face of a problem. In a society where
grave problems such as these are considered “normal” and an “everyday occurrence”, nothing will
change for the better but rather for the worse as time passes. Problems do not decrease by
22 My translation
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themselves, they increase. A society is an apparatus which changes and morphs alongside time. To
not admit nor realize that or to completely deny it is happening is nothing short of inviting a
disaster.
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4 Suicide (Bullycide)
I shall remember forever and will never forget
Monday: my money was taken.
Tuesday: names called.
Wednesday: my uniform torn.
Thursday: my body pouring with blood.
Friday: it’s ended.
Saturday: freedom.
The final diary pages of thirteen-year-old Vijay Singh.
He was found hanging from the banister rail at home on
Sunday.
- Neil Marr and Tim Field,
Bullycide, Death at Playtime:
An Exposé of Child Suicide
Caused by Bullying
(Coloroso 2004: xv)
What drives a person to wipe out its own existence? Life is very precious and to experience
emotions is sacred only to living things. Life should not be taken for granted; rather it should be
looked at as a blessing. Indeed, bad things could happen today, but despite that tomorrow is a new
day filled with new chances and the tomorrow is probably not the same tomorrow in five years.
Even if something bad is happening right now and continues on for a while, by time something
good ought to happen.
However, being mentally and physically attacked and slandered every day by everyone, without
anyone offering neither support nor help, then to think of life as a blessing seems rather afar off.
When experiencing this sort of cruelty every day, then indeed, suicide might seem like the only
path left to sanctuary.
According to Monbukagakusho, there were 41 cases of suicide at schools reported between 1999-
2005. Out of those 14 were believed to be bully related, though by the end only two cases were
concluded to be actual suicide to bullying, so called ‘bullycide’23 (Yomiuri shimbun 2007). In other
23 This is a commonly used word when denoting suicide caused by bullying = bullycide.
35
words, while these are the acknowledged cases, by having followed the news coverage there are
probably many more cases which never see any light.
So, why do pupils and students in Japan end their own lives? In this section I will present my own
thoughts and ideas on the subject.
4.1 Suicide is a permanent solution to a temporary problem
To take the quote above as an example “freedom” might be one reason, to settle a score with
someone or to make one’s voice heard through a suicide note etc. might be others.
Victims who are bullied and pressured extensively by many people over a period of time are the
ones especially in danger of committing suicide. To be told “If you were not here everyone would
be happy, can you just not go and die?” by various means day by day, coupled with not having a
supportive friend then the victim might just start to believe in that “If I were not around everyone
would be happy right?”, a very dangerous thought which might eventually lead to suicide. Even if
the surrounding people and the people engaged in these activities do not think of their actions as
particularly oppressive, the victim will nonetheless experience it as such and might thus consider
suicide as a path to ‘freedom’. The way the aggressor and victim perceives the oppression is
indeed very different, a fact which is very important to have in mind. The bottom line is that while
some say “words are just words”, those very words might very well kill.
To emphasize on how big of a problem this has gotten, many newspapers report now and then on
the new “Online bullying” where the bullies use the online tools available to inflict even more
damage onto the victim than before. This is especially true in Japan where most kids carries around
a cell-phone which is tied to an e-mail address. As for being able to communicate with anyone
having an e-mail address this is in a way formidable, but when getting spammed by “die” mails
every day, it is not. It has gone to the point where Monbukagakusho has suggested adding a
paragraph in the bully definition to address the growing bullying via cell-phone problem (Gifu
shimbun 2007).
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4.2 The value of family, teacher and defender
There are essentially two very important factors which decide in which way the victim will
overcome being bullied.
1. The attitude towards the bullying and the duration of it.
2. The Defender.
If one is bullied at school in Japan, one is bullied over a relatively long period of time compared to
the schools in Scandinavia. In Japan there are after school club activities which usually end up
keeping the pupils busy until early evening. While there are many good things with club activities
such as strengthened friendship and team-spirit amongst club-mates etc. there are also a couple of
very serious drawbacks for the victim.
Firstly, the bullying commences upon the arrival of the pupil (victim) in the morning. This
continues on until school has ended and club activities, which a definite majority partakes in, starts.
At this point most Scandinavian pupils go home to play with friends, do home work and so on, but
the Japanese pupil will not leave the school ground quite yet. At the club the victim will experience
more bullying, to finally catch a sigh of relief during the late afternoon, unless it continues in the
form of ‘online bullying’. The second problem addresses friends. As most people are busy with
after school activities it is relatively difficult in making friends outside of school, i.e. to find a
‘defender’, more so for the victim who is in most cases quiet and rather asocial24.
The defendant does not necessarily have to be a friend however; parents too should act as
formidable defenders, though sadly in many cases that is not true. Parents either do not know that
their child is bullied, or do not realize how devastating bullying can be. From having read and seen
the news and talked to friends, it appears that the family ties are growing weaker in Japan. In the
past the family was the ‘center’ of it all with everyone gathering for supper, talking about the latest
happenings etc. Today the focus is more on money savings and consumption, probably a side effect
of the unstable economy which Japan has experienced in recent times.
In many Japanese families the father leaves early and returns back home late. In the case the
mother also works full time she is faced with having to deal both with the duties at work and at
home, something which is very time consuming. If the child commutes to evening cram-school it is
not rare for a homecoming around 9, 10 PM. In effect, there is hardly any time for communication,
to be together. It is very hard to nurture a healthy family relationship filled with trust and reliance if
you do not see each other. On the contrary, these bonds will crumble, and the child when in dire
need of someone to talk to will not address the parents at all.
24 Submissive and aggressive victims have very few friends in general.
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Parents aside, the one who carries a duty and real power to stop bullying is the home-room teacher,
though even here effort appears to be lacking. It is probable that proper training and knowledge
regarding bullying is insufficient. Many teachers appear not to know how to detect and to stop
bullying, as well as what to classify as bullying and not. Many people would wrongly consider
‘teasing’ as not being basis for bullying, just to give one example. It is even more devastating when
the teacher misinterprets the situation and mistakenly takes the side of the bullies. The duty of a
teacher is to teach, instruct, reprimand and guide. When no such actions are taken the pupils might
simply consider their actions as alright, there is no rebuke after all.
4.2.1 Coping strategies in Japan
In 2006, between March 10th and 18th, 100 14 year old Japanese and Chinese Junior High-school
pupils partook in a survey with the aim of analyzing the differences between coping strategies in
Japan and China. While 100 subjects can be thought of as a small number, clear trends could be
seen. The results from the Japanese students are presented below (Dongxia 2006: 35-36).
1. Actions taken by the victim upon getting bullied
• Consulted parent, teacher or friend – 27%
• Endured it silently – 53%
(In England 30% of the victims reported having endured the bullying silently (Ma 2004: 26)).
2. Who did the Japanese children consult?
• Parent – 33%
• Teacher – 45%
• Friend – 22%
It is not surprising that ‘friend’ got the lowest rating, considering the nature of the victim.
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3. Actions taken by the Japanese teacher upon being consulted
• Did nothing – 15%
• Kept an eye on the bullies – 85%
• Contacted the parents of the bullies – 0%
(According to Olweus studies, while 40% of the elementary and 60% of the Junior High-school
victims reported their situation to the teacher, the teacher in many cases did not take any further
actions (Ma)).
According to these statistics the teachers took basically no actions at all. Although 85% of the
teachers did say they would keep their eyes open, only 5% of the bullying takes place openly
(overt) and as such it does in reality have little effect, unless the teacher carries a sufficient
knowledge in identifying the covert bullying. Furthermore, not one teacher contacted the parents of
the bullies, something which on one hand surprises, but also attest that they were not able to
identify any bullying25.
4. Actions taken by the Japanese parents upon being consulted
• Contacted the teacher – 30%
• Contacted the parent of the bully – 0%
• Had the child transfer school – 0%
• Did nothing – 70%
30% did contact the teachers, but following the data from the question above it had little effect.
70% did nothing upon being consulted by their child. It appears the parents are unable to
understand the severity of the situation.
25 Presumably, a teacher would take actions upon identifying a clear case of bullying. As no teachers did contact the parents, and 15% did not do anything whatsoever, one can only conclude that they did not see any bullying. In other words, the 85% of the teachers did not have any success.
39
5. Actions taken by friends upon being consulted
• Suggested consulting the teacher – 41%
• Suggested consulting the parents – 0%
• Told the bullies to stop – 17%
• Did nothing – 42%
No one recommended the victim to consult the parents. In other words, they do not count on the
parents to offer much help, something which is again proved by the data from question 4. 17% of
the friends were ‘active defenders’ and did take direct actions towards the bullies in telling them to
stop. On the other hand, 42% did nothing.
In conclusion, from the results presented in this study a tendency can be seen where the pupils do
not expect much help from parents nor teachers. Why 70% of the parents did nothing and 85% of
the teachers would do little more than to keep their eyes open could be a sign that the
understanding of ‘bullying’ or, as in this case ‘ijime’ is insufficient.
4.3 The massmedia influence
It is well known that mass-media influence their customers. Just as the fashion magazines sway
their readers to be in vogue, news may sway some people into committing suicide. This is a point
which was proven already during the years following the release of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s
“The Sorrows of Young Werther” (Die Leiden des Jungen Wethers) in 1774. There the character
shoots himself over a failed romance26. Shortly thereafter a wave of suicide went through Europe.
This has since come to be called the “Werther Effect”27.
During my stay in Japan between October 2006 – October 2007 I got an insight into how the
Japanese media reported school suicides. They reported where and when it happened, the
background of the victim, they also interviewed friends and teachers and were sure to publish the
suicide note left behind. It may indeed be necessary to stir up a debate on the bully related suicides
in Japan, but on the other hand, it will probably give incentive to those who consider suicide28.
Furthermore, in Japan it is not uncommon for adults to commit suicide as a way of apologizing for
26 ”From the blood which flowed from the chair, it could be inferred that he had committed the rash act sitting at his bureau, and that he afterward fell upon the floor. He was found lying on his back near the window. He was in full-dress costume.” (Wolfgang 2006[1774]: 98) 27 For further reading see Coleman 2004 28 It should also be mentioned that the suicide case coverage by mass-media in Sweden is very low.
40
a mistake. This in turn might have an effect on the children, who may not consider suicide as a bad
alternative29. After all, children do not do as the adults say, they do what they do.
In conclusion, a victim who commits suicide in Japan will gain a larger degree of publicity, as
will the suicide note. In effect, the reason for suicide is not only to become ‘free’ it might very well
be regarded as a way to convey a message to the ones who did not listen; the parents, teachers,
bullies, politicians and to the society as a whole.
4.4 End talk
As I have mentioned above, suicide is an absolute permanent action. Right now there might be
many people who are in great despair, but it is important not to give up on life; there is always a
tomorrow, and if tomorrow is bad then there is always the day after tomorrow. Needless to say, is it
quite easy to imagine that the life for a victim without any support and without any sanctuary will
probably be thought of as personal ‘hell’.
29 One may also argue that the difference in religion plays an important part on how suicide is perceived. In Christianity suicide is strictly forbidden for instance. This matter is, however, outside the scope of this thesis.
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Final Words
I have been interested in the various studies regarding bullying for a long time. Bullying is an
endless phenomenon which surrounds us and is part of many people’s lives. It would not be an
understatement to say that most people have seen bullying. I have not only seen bullying; I have
also experienced both sides first hand, something which has given me a valuable insight, and many
bad memories.
At the outset of this thesis I wanted to know why people became bullies and bullied. As a Jungian
I also carry with me an interest in how personalities and temperaments are formed, something
which I could apply to the roles in the bullying circle. There I got a proof that the parentage, i.e. the
attitude of the mother and father does indeed play a big role. I also wanted to know if the cultural
differences between Japan and Scandinavia made a difference, despite bullying actually being a
world-wide phenomenon. Indeed, there appears to be differences. Taki et.al. argue that stress is the
leading factor for bullying amongst pupils and students in Japan, which might be true though I
believe more cross-national and cross-cultural studies should be carried out in asserting the current
state of affairs. But if we look past the cause we see that it in many respects is carried out the same
way, e.g. ignorance, badmouthing, malicious gossip, lies, occasional violence.
The reported bully related violence is lower in Japan than Scandinavia, but that might be an effect
of the past view held in Japan where violence was not part of the bully behavior (see sect. 1.4.1).
The fact of the matter might be that by the ‘ijime’ definition violence is lower, but on the other
hand, if we were to apply the Olweus definition then the rate of violence might increase.
Overall ‘bullying’ spans a great area of sciences and there is an enormous amount of data
available for the one’s interested. This was something which I was not fully aware of during the
initial phase of this thesis. I was overwhelmed with names of scholars, books, reports, surveys and
magazines and had to single out material which I considered valuable to me in this project.
Consequently, this thesis is a product based not only on the data of many great and contributing
scholars, but also on my own experiences, opinions, analyzes and studies. If someone else were to
carry out a similar project the data and emphasis might lay elsewhere.
Bullying is oppression and should be stopped to any possible extent. It is easy to say, but is in
reality a great problem with many issues surrounding it. We have the parentage, then the teaching
of morale and coaching at school, bully counter-measures at schools, the adequacy of the teachers
42
and school administration, the laws regarding bulling and responsibilities and how they are applied
etc.
It is of particular importance that the teacher is able to understand and identify bullying, and to
give suitable coaching should such a situation occur. In many cases the children will not regard
their own behavior as bullying, they are not able to comprehend that bullying behavior might lead
to serious mental depression at the victim. If they are not aware of this, bullying will continue and
only get worse by time. As such, a perfected education is vital. Therefore, not only the children, but
those who are in contact with the children, need a proper understanding of bullying. First of all, if
adults do not change, then the children will not. Besides, do we even have the right to expect
children to understand bullying if we, the adults, whether parent or politician is irrelevant, do not?
Can the underlying mechanics of bullying be easily explained?
Yes, it can be explained but the understanding and comprehension will vary. As an example, a
person who reads about someone being in pain will be able to imagine this to a certain extent. But
that imagination and true sympathy is quite different. I have experienced both being a bully and a
bully victim and know what some victims are going through. When I read various literatures or
watch television series about bullying I tend to get quite moved and remember my own school days.
In that way I do not think I will ever be free from the bullying. No matter how one has changed and
gotten over those past events, the long term effects will be there in the background, forever.
Bullying is a great field which changes by day. I have throughout this work addressed certain
fields which I consider need more attention. Do bully victims regard their experience as plus or
minus? What about letting bullies and bully victims help each other out in various forms of
activities? Is the ‘ijime’ in Japan really that different from what we call ‘bullying’? Is the bullying
in Japan mostly due to stress (If it is, how come that is so)? As a person who carries a great interest
both in Scandinavia and in Japan I find these questions intriguing, and would like, should the
chance be given, to deepen my research further.
43
References
Coleman, L. 2004, The Copycat Effect: How the Media and Popular Culture Trigger the Mayhem in Tomorrow's Headlines, New York: Paraview, Pocket Books, Paperback Ed. Coloroso, B. 2004, The Bully, The Bullied, and The Bystander, New York: Harper Collins Fukatani, K. 1996, 'The Children in Bullyworld'- The abysmal classroom [‘ijimesekai’no kodomotachi - kyoushitsu no shinen], Tokyo: Kanekoshobo Gifu shimbun 2007, 20070120 Interpretation of bullying extended, cell phones in the heat [‘ijime’ hiroku kaishaku]. Graham, S., Juvonen, J. 2001, J. Juvonen, S. Graham (Ed.), Peer Harassment in School-The Plight of the Vulnerable and Victimized, New York: The Guilford Press. Hugh-Jones, S., Smith, P. K. 1999, Self-reports of short and long-term effects of bullying on children who stammer. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 69(2) Jung, C.G. 1991 [1915], Sr. H. Read, M. Fordham, G. Adler, & W. McGuire (Ed.), R. F. C. Hull (Tl.), The Development of Personality – Papers on Child Psychology, Education and Related Subject, New York: Bollingen Founation Inc., Princeton University Press (Publ.), Fifth Paperback Ed. Jönsson, P. 2007, The Mechanics of Bullying at School [gakkou ni okeru ijime no rikigaku], Japan: Gifu University-International Student Center. Ma, X. 2006, Japanese Language and Culture Program Report Compilation 3 [Mie Daigaku Kokusai Kouryuu Sentaa 'Nihongo, Nihonbunka Kenshuu Ryuugakusei Kenkyuu Repooto Shuu 3-2006], Japan: Mie University International Student Center. Monbukagakusho. Definition of bullying according to the ministry of education Japan, [2007.11.20 Available online at http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu//shingi/chousa/shotou/040/shiryo/06120716/005.htm] Morita, Y. 1999 Japan, In P. K. Smith, Y. Morita, J. Junger-Tas, D. Olweus, R. Catalano, & P. Slee (Ed.), The Nature of School Bullying: A Cross-national Perspective, London: Routledge. Okamoto, S., Sakanishi, T. 2004, S. Okamoto, T. Sakanishi (Ed.), The heart of the young bully and bully victim [ijime, ijimerareru shounen no kokoro], Kyoto: Kitaohji shobou Olweus, D. 1980, Familial and Temperamental Determinants of Aggressive Behavior in Adolecent Boys: A causal analysis, Developmental Psychology, 16 Olweus, D. 1999 Sweden, In P. K. Smith, Y. Morita, J. Junger-Tas, D. Olweus, R. Catalano, & P. Slee (Ed.), The Nature of School Bullying: A Cross-national Perspective,London: Routledge. Olweus, D. 2001, J. Juvonen, S. Graham (Ed.), Peer Harassment in School-The Plight of the Vulnerable and Victimized, New York: The Guilford Press. Olweus, D. A Research Definition of Bullying. [2007.11.24 Available online at http://www.cobb.k12.ga.us/~preventionintervention/Bully/Definition%20of%20Bullying.pdf]
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Perry, D. G., Hodges, E. V. E., & Egan, S. K. 2001, J. Juvonen, S. Graham (Ed.), Peer Harassment in School-The Plight of the Vulnerable and Victimized, New York: The Guilford Press. Salmivalli, C. 2001, J. Juvonen, S. Graham (Ed.), Peer Harassment in School-The Plight of the Vulnerable and Victimized, New York: The Guilford Press. Shuuhei, F. 2002, The People Who Came to the Village [mura ni kita hitotachi], T. Saitou (Ed.), The Human Play [ningen gekijou], Tokyo: Shinchosha. Taki, M. 1992, The Empirical Study on the Occurence of ijime Behavior [ijime koui no hassei no youin ni kansuru jisshouteki kenkyu]. Journal of Educational Sociology, 50. Taki, M. 2003, ‘ijime bullying’: characteristic causality and intervention, Japan: National Institute for Educational Policy Research. Wikipedia Japan. Wikipedia Japan definition of bullying 2007, [2007.11.20 Available online at http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%81%84%E3%81%98%E3%82%81] Wolfgang, J. 2006 [1774], N. H. Dole (Ed.), R.D. Boylan (Tl.), The Sorrows of Young Werther [Die Leiden des Jungen Wethers], New York: Mondial Xin, M. 2004, C. E. Sanders, G. D. Phye (Ed.), Bullying Implications for the Classroom, London: Elsevier Academic Press. Yomiuri shimbun 2007, 20070503 More than One Year to Recognize Cause of Suicide [jisatsu genin, nintei made ichinen-chou], [20071124 Available online at: http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/kyoiku/renai/20070503us41.htm]
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APPENDIX
A Bully Definitions (in Japanese)
A.A Bully definition – posted at the homepage of Monbukagakusho March 2007
（1）自分より弱いものに対して一方的に
（2）身体的、心理的な攻撃を継続的に加え
（3）相手が深刻な苦痛を感じているもの。なお、起こった場所は学校の内外を問
わないこととする。（文部省 1994 年）
集団内で単独または複数の成員が、人間関係の中で弱い立場にたたされた成員に
対して身体的暴力や危害を加えたり、心理的な苦痛や圧力を感じさせたりするこ
と（都立教育研究所）
単独、または複数の特定人に対し、身体に対する物理的攻撃または言動による脅
し、嫌がらせ、無視等の心理的圧迫を反復継続して加えることにより苦痛を与え
ること（警視庁保安部少年課 1994 年）」
A.B Bully definition – Japanese Wikipedia March 2007 「いじめ（苛め、虐め）とは、立場の弱い個人に対して、精神的にあるいは肉体的に
苦痛を与える行為であり、嫌がらせが一時的もしくは継続的に行われている状況である。
たとえ、苛めているつもりがなくても、抵抗する手段をもたない相手が、自分の行為に
よって苦痛を感じれば、それは広義のいじめとなる。」
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47
B A Bully Experience Survey30
1. Choose your sex Male Female 2. Write your age and current occupation (If you are a student, write your current faculty) 3. What do you think ‘bullying’ is? 4. Have you seen bullying? 5. If you have seen bullying: what kind was it? 6. If you have seen bullying: what did you do at the time (e.g. voiced my opinion, stayed silent etc.)? 7. If you have seen bullying: if it was resolved, which methods were used? If it was not resolved, which methods do you believe were available at the time? 8. If you have seen bulling: what did you feel at the time? 9. Have you bulled? Yes No 10. If you have bullied: when? 11. If you have bullied: why? 12. If you have bullied: what kind? 13. If you have bullied: what did you feel at the time? 14. If you have bullied: what did you think the victim felt at the time? 15. Have you been bullied? Yes No 16. If you have been bullied: when? 17. If you have been bullied: what kind? 18. If you have been bullied: what did you feel at the time? 19. If you have been bullied: why do you think you were bullied? 20. Why do you think people bully? (e.g. home situation, psychological, jealousy etc.) 21. Why do you think people become bullied? (e.g. personality, attitude, excelling, being different etc.) 22. Write freely about the subject bullying (it is okay not to write anything)
30 Jönsson 2007: 48, my translation