The Emperor’s New ColonistsVisions of Mexican Society during the French Intervention of 1861-1867

Larger Project• Book-length manuscript examining elite attitudes

toward immigration in Mexico from late colonial period to Porfirato (1790’s-1870’s)

• Thesis: Examining the types of immigrants and immigration policies advocated by various groups sheds light onto their definitions of progress and national identity. Discussions of hypothetical immigrants often had the effect of allowing for freer discussion of the racial, social and economic characteristics of a varity of “ideal Mexicos”

Status• Revising and expanding following peer review.

• Today’s presentation is a portion of a suggested chapter which extends the scope of the project from the War of the Reform (1857-1858) to the French Intervention (1861-1867) and the Restored Republic (1867-1876)

Sources• Diplomatic Correspondence• Government Reports• Legislation and Decrees • Fragmentary Newspaper Records• Broadsides/pamphlets• Ephemera

Background for Chapter• Unsettled government in Mexico since

independence in 1821

• Conservatives (generally) rural landholders, favored hacienda-based economy, significant presence and power for church.

• Liberals (generally) urban, merchants, diplomats, heavily influenced by Enlightenment ideals. Want to Emulate US if only to prevent being taken over by it.

• Constant political unrest to 1861 (49 presidencies, 3 constitutions)

1861: Juárez Suspends Debt Payments

• France, Britain, and Spain invade to collect on debt 12/1861

• Britain and Spain w/draw 4/1862

• France drives into interior.

• Napoleon III of France wants empire

• US Civil War will not last forever.

The Second Empire• Plan de Iguala (1821) invited Spain to name a

monarch for independent Mexico• Spain refuses, but Mexico ruled by Emperor

Augustín I, 1821-1824• Mexican Conservatives unimpressed with

republican experiment.• Empire of Brazil (1822-1889) relatively stable • With French backing, hold “plebiscite”

Maximilan von Hapsburg, Emperor of Mexico

“Invited” by Mexico’s Conservatives (skirt Monroe Doctrine)

Treaty of Miramar (1864) guarantees Mexican debt, issues new bonds and agrees to pay France for “expedition”

“Second Empire” 1864-67, cabinet of French advisors, Mexican Moderates and Conservatives.

Classic 19th Century Liberal, brother to Austro-Hungarian Emperor

Tragically mismatched with his patrons.

Your friendly neighborhood liberal.

• “Good society comes from good institutions”

• Reiterated Slavery Ban• Extensive guarantees of personal, civil

and property rights• Freedom of religion• Expels papal nuncio• Appoints liberals (moderates) to his

cabinet.• Reforming reputation in navy and as

governor of northern Italy• Freemason

Working Thesis for chapter:

• A comparison of the ideals behind Emperor Maximilian’s colonization agenda and that of Benito Juárez shows a great deal of communality. In theory, Maximilan was more “liberal” than Juarez. Maximilian’s liberal tendencies were undercut by his conservative cabinet, and exigencies of responding to US pressure. After the restoration of the Republic, Juarez’s Liberal rhetoric was subordinated to his efforts to maintain power. Like Maximilian, Juárez abandoned visions of an “ideal Mexico” in favor of measures directed toward order and short-term security.

Testing the Thesis • Comparison of an “ideal” imperial immigration

scheme to actual colonization during the Second Empire.

• Description of Italian Scheme-failure

• Increasing desperation of Empire and Confederates-immigration yields immigration of Confederates who do not want to surrender to US, yield slaves, or participate in an industrialized or Liberal society

Italian Colonization• Backed by local notables in recently organized

Kingdom of Italy- reflects principles of modern nationalism and industrial economy

• Procedural Roadblock- Swatted down by minister of development for fear of importing industrial labor (“bums”) would make Mexico resemble the US.

Maximilian’s Execution-6/16/1867• Foreign interest tapers off considerably.

Confederates

• Second Empire begins as Confederacy nears its end.

• Some Confederates prefer emigration to surrender.

• Confederate notables abroad excluded from amnesty

Commodore M.F. Maury, CSA

Imperial Counselor of StateImperial Commissioner for Immigration

Confederates• Despite Maury’s anti-slavery

leanings and Mexican Law, many are determined to bring slaves to Mexico

• Not interested in integrating into Mexican Society

• Many are openly contemptuous of Mexicans

• Interface with “Mexican” government through Maury and Maximilian’s English-speaking wife (Charlotte of Belgium)

Confederate settlement• Granted lands between Mexico City and

Veracruz (near RR, in “safe zone”)• Grants often come from seized lands.• “Yankee” settlers dependent on French army• Lands often attacked, looted• Some join Imperial Army to fight Juaristas. • W/draw of French in 1866 begins Confederate

exodus• Some killed as local “mobs” overrun their

settlements.• Most go to US for rehabilitation-some to the

Empire of Brazil, British Honduras

Section Conclusions• Italian colonization part of a larger attempt to

attract European Immigration (Germans, Irish, English, Germans, disposed toward industrial/liberal society).

• Plan as quixotic as the Empire itself. Undermined by Conservative appointee

• Maury presents a “Liberal face” for Confederate colonization but most who come do not resonate with Maximilan’s liberal ambitions and are anathema to the Liberals.

• In both cases “theory” of ideal colonist is undone by political and military realities. “Ideal Mexico” is set aside to deal with immediate crisis.