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The energy requirement of battery electric vehicles under different conditions
4th EVE Meeting - 65th GRPE 14th - 18th of January 2013, Geneva
Dr. Werner Tober [email protected]
4th EVE Meeting – 65th GRPE The energy requirement of battery electric vehicles under different conditions
14th - 18th of January 2013 | Geneva | W. Tober | Slide 2
Contents
¨ Database
¨ Analysed e-cars
¨ Test and measurement setup
¨ Results - Energy requirement as a function of the - driving situation - ambient temperature - road gradient
- Energy required for a full charge as a function of the ambient temperature - Range of the e-cars under real operating conditions
¨ Summary
4th EVE Meeting – 65th GRPE The energy requirement of battery electric vehicles under different conditions
14th - 18th of January 2013 | Geneva | W. Tober | Slide 3
Database
¨ Study Battery Electric Vehicles in Practice - Costs, Range, Environment, Convenience (2nd extended and corrected edition)
¨ Study and detailed data are on www.oevk.at free available for download.
¨ Motivation and objectives of the study - Electro mobility is widely regarded as the solution for the future mobility. - Politics and media see an effective way in the electrification - to increase the energy efficiency, - to reduce the dependence on fossil fuels and - to significant lowering the greenhouse gas emissions.
- How big are the advantages of battery electric vehicles - based on real operating conditions over an entire year and - if the energy supply is taken into account?
4th EVE Meeting – 65th GRPE The energy requirement of battery electric vehicles under different conditions
14th - 18th of January 2013 | Geneva | W. Tober | Slide 4
Analysed e-cars
¨ Mitsubishi i-MiEV
¨ Smart Fortwo Electric Drive
¨ Mercedes Benz A-Klasse E-Cell
¨ Nissan Leaf
¨ Citroén Berlingo (ZEBRA... Sodium nickel chloride)
Photo: Heinz Henninger Photo: Heinz Henninger
Photo: Heinz Henninger Photo: Heinz Henninger
Li-Ion Li-Ion
Li-Ion Li-Ion
Foto: Johann Wolf
Zebra
4th EVE Meeting – 65th GRPE The energy requirement of battery electric vehicles under different conditions
14th - 18th of January 2013 | Geneva | W. Tober | Slide 5
Used test cycles Eco-Test and Stop-and-Go
¨ The Eco-Test cycle consist of existing test cycles with an overall length of 35,506 km.
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
0 500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000
Spe
ed [k
m/h
]
Time [s]
Test cycles Distance [km] NEFZ ECE 3,920 CADC Urban 4,930 Urban 24,93%
Test cycles Distance [km] NEFZ EUDC 6,920 CADC Extra Urban 8,966 Extra urban 44,74%
Test cycles Distance [km] BAB 130 9,270 Access/exit 1,500 Motorway 30,33%
4th EVE Meeting – 65th GRPE The energy requirement of battery electric vehicles under different conditions
14th - 18th of January 2013 | Geneva | W. Tober | Slide 6
Measurement setup To analyse the losings and to set up a energy balance
¨ Current and voltage measurement to analyse the required electric power and the energy consumption.
E- motor
Inverter DC/AC
On-board Charger
High-voltage battery
220 V mains
Air
cond
ition
ing
Heating
Transmission
DC/DC converter
N1 to N6: low-voltage consumer units such as coolant pump e-technology, coolant pump vehicle interior, vehicle interior fan, seat heaters etc.
Low-voltage battery N1 N2 N6 …
220 V ~ 300 V = 12 V = 300 V ~
Measuring system
4th EVE Meeting – 65th GRPE The energy requirement of battery electric vehicles under different conditions
14th - 18th of January 2013 | Geneva | W. Tober | Slide 7
Measurement technology requirements
¨ Currents up until 500 A.
¨ Voltage up until 600 V.
¨ Current sensors need to have: - high linearity - low offset - high band width - small phase error - temperature stability
¨ No interaction of the current measurement system with the car electronics
¨ High sampling rate (up until 400 kHz necessary, depends on the inverter).
¨ Variable sampling rate (e.g. temperature at 1 Hz)
¨ High processing power for high calculation rates (up until 200 kHz, in real time)
4th EVE Meeting – 65th GRPE The energy requirement of battery electric vehicles under different conditions
14th - 18th of January 2013 | Geneva | W. Tober | Slide 8
Contents
¨ Database
¨ Analysed e-cars
¨ Test and measurement setup
¨ Results - Energy requirement as a function of the - driving situation - ambient temperature - road gradient
- Energy required for a full charge as a function of the ambient temperature - Range of the e-cars under real operating conditions
¨ Summary
4th EVE Meeting – 65th GRPE The energy requirement of battery electric vehicles under different conditions
14th - 18th of January 2013 | Geneva | W. Tober | Slide 9
Energy requirement as a function of the driving situation iMiEV and Smart
¨ The energy requirement is proportional to the required power.
¨ Basically it´s equal to the driving speed ç Does not apply for dynamic driving.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Ener
gy re
quire
men
t [kW
h/10
0km
]
i-MiEV Smart
Steady speed
0% road gradient 20°C ambient temperature (without heating and air conditioning)
23 18 65 101/83 40 km/h
A higher average speed ist not equatable to a higher energy consumption.
4th EVE Meeting – 65th GRPE The energy requirement of battery electric vehicles under different conditions
14th - 18th of January 2013 | Geneva | W. Tober | Slide 10
Energy requirement as a function of the driving situation E-Cell, Leaf and Berlingo
¨ The energy requirement depends also on the load point (efficiency) of the electric motor.
Steady speed
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Ener
gy re
quire
men
t [kW
h/10
0km
]
E-Cell Leaf Berlingo
0% road gradient 20°C ambient temperature (without heating and air conditioning)
23 18 65 102/88*) 40 km/h
*) Berlingo
4th EVE Meeting – 65th GRPE The energy requirement of battery electric vehicles under different conditions
14th - 18th of January 2013 | Geneva | W. Tober | Slide 11
Energy requirement as a function of the ambient temperature
¨ Heating and cooling have also a influence on the 12 V energy requirement.
¨ The total add. energy req. for climat. @ +10°C: 10 - 20 %, @ -10°C: 40 - 55%
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40 +3
0°C
+2
0°C
+1
0°C
0°
C
-10°
C
-20°
C
+30°
C
+20°
C
+10°
C
0°C
-1
0°C
-2
0°C
+30°
C
+20°
C
+10°
C
0°C
-1
0°C
-2
0°C
+30°
C
+20°
C
+10°
C
0°C
-1
0°C
-2
0°C
Ener
gy re
quire
men
t [kW
h/10
0km
] Heating/Cooling 12V network (incl. interior fan) Driving
i-MiEV Smart E-Cell Leaf
0% road gradient, 22°C interior temperature, Eco-Test
4th EVE Meeting – 65th GRPE The energy requirement of battery electric vehicles under different conditions
14th - 18th of January 2013 | Geneva | W. Tober | Slide 12
Energy requirement as a function of the road gradient
¨ A +2% road gradient results in 30-50% higher energy consumption.
¨ The energy saving at -2% is nearly as high as the higher energy demand at +2%.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Smart E-Cell Leaf Berlingo
Ener
gy re
quire
men
t [kW
h/10
0km
]
+2%
-2%
0%
20°C ambient temperature (without heating and air conditioning) Eco-Test
4th EVE Meeting – 65th GRPE The energy requirement of battery electric vehicles under different conditions
14th - 18th of January 2013 | Geneva | W. Tober | Slide 13
Energy required for a full charge as a function of the ambient temperature ¨ Up to -10°C only ≈ 5% less capacity (prior to start) will be observed.
¨ Charging and discharging losses increase with low temperatures.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
+30°
C
+20°
C
+10°
C
0°C
-1
0°C
-2
0°C
+30°
C
+20°
C
+10°
C
0°C
-1
0°C
-2
0°C
+30°
C
+20°
C
+10°
C
0°C
-1
0°C
-2
0°C
+30°
C
+20°
C
+10°
C
0°C
-1
0°C
-2
0°C
+30°
C
+20°
C
+10°
C
0°C
-1
0°C
-2
0°C
Ener
gy re
quire
men
t [kW
h] Discharging losses
Charging losses incl. charge regulation (12V network) Capacity prior to start of run
i-MiEV Smart E-Cell Leaf Berlingo
10-25% 5-10% (20%)
16 kWh*) 17,6 kWh*) 36 kWh*) 24 kWh*) 23,5 kWh*)
*) Battery capacity as stated by manufacturer
Li-Ion Zebra
4th EVE Meeting – 65th GRPE The energy requirement of battery electric vehicles under different conditions
14th - 18th of January 2013 | Geneva | W. Tober | Slide 14
101 108
88 73
66 57
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Range of the Mitsubishi i-MiEV Battery capacity as stated by manufacturer [kWh]: 16 Measured: 14,1-15,3
¨ Average power demand in the Eco-Test at -20 °C: e-motor 5,7 kW
heating 3,8 kW
road gradient 0 %
Interior temperature 22 °C
↓... Energy reserve 25 km
Test cycle: Eco-Test
kWh/100km… at driving operation
21,0*
kWh/ 100km
13,6 kWh/
100km
Ran
ge in
km
at
max
imum
pos
sibl
e di
scha
rge
*…incl. heating
Heating Air conditioning
Ambient temperature in °C
4th EVE Meeting – 65th GRPE The energy requirement of battery electric vehicles under different conditions
14th - 18th of January 2013 | Geneva | W. Tober | Slide 15
Range of the Smart Fortwo Electric Drive Battery capacity as stated by manufacturer [kWh]: 17,6 Measured: 16,5-17,8
¨ Moderate range advantages compared to the i-MiEV, because - of the effective higher useable battery capacity of 3 kWh and - the lower energy consumption (below +20°C).
97
125 106
89 77 70
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
18,9*
kWh/ 100km
14,3 kWh/
100km
road gradient +/- 2 %
Interior temperature 22 °C
↓... Energy reserve 25 km
Test cycle: Eco-Test
kWh/100km… at driving operation
*…incl. heating
Heating Air conditioning
Ran
ge in
km
at
max
imum
pos
sibl
e di
scha
rge
Ambient temperature in °C
4th EVE Meeting – 65th GRPE The energy requirement of battery electric vehicles under different conditions
14th - 18th of January 2013 | Geneva | W. Tober | Slide 16
Range of the Mercedes Benz A-Klasse E-Cell Battery capacity as stated by manufacturer [kWh]: 36 Measured: 32,4-34,7
¨ Caused by the higher battery capacity, - despite the (class-related) higher energy consumption, - much higher ranges can be achieved.
147
175
147
126 110
90
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
26,2*
kWh/ 100km
19,8 kWh/
100km
Heating Air conditioning
road gradient +/- 2 %
Interior temperature 22 °C
↓... Energy reserve 25 km
Test cycle: Eco-Test
kWh/100km… at driving operation
*…incl. heating
Ran
ge in
km
at
max
imum
pos
sibl
e di
scha
rge
Certainly: Charging time @ 220 V, 16 A, ≈ 15,5 h
Ambient temperature in °C
4th EVE Meeting – 65th GRPE The energy requirement of battery electric vehicles under different conditions
14th - 18th of January 2013 | Geneva | W. Tober | Slide 17
Range of the Nissan Leaf Battery capacity as stated by manufacturer [kWh]: 24 Measured: 16,9-19,6
¨ The energy consumption per kilometer is less than that of the E-Cell.
¨ The lower useable battery capacity leads to moderate ranges.
95 101 90 78
66 56
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
24,5*
kWh/ 100km
19,2 kWh/
100km
road gradient +/- 2 %
Interior temperature 22 °C
↓... Energy reserve 25 km
Test cycle: Eco-Test
kWh/100km… at driving operation
*…incl. heating
Heating Air conditioning
Ran
ge in
km
at
max
imum
pos
sibl
e di
scha
rge
Ambient temperature in °C
4th EVE Meeting – 65th GRPE The energy requirement of battery electric vehicles under different conditions
14th - 18th of January 2013 | Geneva | W. Tober | Slide 18
¨ Less impact on the range due to a gasoline heater as interior heater and the absence of an A/C (FC interior heater @ +10°C -> -20°C: 0,4 - 1,3 l/100 km)
¨ Need to preserve the battery temp. @ +20°C -> -20°C: 100 -> 229 Wh/h (from 230V grid)
86 85 81 79 76 68
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Range of the Citroén Berlingo Battery capacity as stated by manufacturer [kWh]: 23,5 Measured: 14,9-16,5
20,6*
kWh/ 100km
19,2 kWh/
100km
road gradient +/- 2 %
Interior temperature 22 °C
↓... Energy reserve 25 km
Test cycle: Eco-Test
kWh/100km… at driving operation
*…incl. heating
Heating Air conditioning
Ran
ge in
km
at
max
imum
pos
sibl
e di
scha
rge
Ambient temperature in °C
4th EVE Meeting – 65th GRPE The energy requirement of battery electric vehicles under different conditions
14th - 18th of January 2013 | Geneva | W. Tober | Slide 19
Summary
¨ The energy requirement is basically proportional to (const.) driving speeds, but dynamic driving causes higher required power.
¨ The average speed is not qualifed to provide info about the required power. Therefore: A higher average speed ist not equatable to a higher energy consumption.
¨ Low ambient temperatures (-20°C) causes up to 70% higher energy consumption.
¨ A road gradient of only +2% increases the energy consumption by 30-50%.
¨ Charging and discharging losses increase with low temperatures clearly.
¨ The ranges of the e-cars under real operating conditions are reduced by half between +20°C and -20°C. Difference to type approval value not taken into account.
¨ Study Battery Electric Vehicles in Practice - Costs, Range, Environment, Convenience (2nd extended and corrected edition) and detailed data are on www.oevk.at free available for download.
Thank you for your attention!
Dr. Werner Tober [email protected]