the epic hero and society: cuchulainn, beowulf, and roland

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Volume 13 Number 1 Article 4 10-15-1986 The Epic Hero and Society: Cuchulainn, Beowulf, and Roland The Epic Hero and Society: Cuchulainn, Beowulf, and Roland Eleanor Farrell Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.swosu.edu/mythlore Part of the Children's and Young Adult Literature Commons Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Farrell, Eleanor (1986) "The Epic Hero and Society: Cuchulainn, Beowulf, and Roland," Mythlore: A Journal of J.R.R. Tolkien, C.S. Lewis, Charles Williams, and Mythopoeic Literature: Vol. 13 : No. 1 , Article 4. Available at: https://dc.swosu.edu/mythlore/vol13/iss1/4 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Mythopoeic Society at SWOSU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Mythlore: A Journal of J.R.R. Tolkien, C.S. Lewis, Charles Williams, and Mythopoeic Literature by an authorized editor of SWOSU Digital Commons. An ADA compliant document is available upon request. For more information, please contact phillip.fi[email protected]. To join the Mythopoeic Society go to: http://www.mythsoc.org/join.htm

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Volume 13 Number 1 Article 4

10-15-1986

The Epic Hero and Society: Cuchulainn, Beowulf, and Roland The Epic Hero and Society: Cuchulainn, Beowulf, and Roland

Eleanor Farrell

Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.swosu.edu/mythlore

Part of the Children's and Young Adult Literature Commons

Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Farrell, Eleanor (1986) "The Epic Hero and Society: Cuchulainn, Beowulf, and Roland," Mythlore: A Journal of J.R.R. Tolkien, C.S. Lewis, Charles Williams, and Mythopoeic Literature: Vol. 13 : No. 1 , Article 4. Available at: https://dc.swosu.edu/mythlore/vol13/iss1/4

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Mythopoeic Society at SWOSU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Mythlore: A Journal of J.R.R. Tolkien, C.S. Lewis, Charles Williams, and Mythopoeic Literature by an authorized editor of SWOSU Digital Commons. An ADA compliant document is available upon request. For more information, please contact [email protected].

To join the Mythopoeic Society go to: http://www.mythsoc.org/join.htm

Online Winter Seminar February 4-5, 2022 (Friday evening, Saturday all day) https://www.mythsoc.org/mythcon/ows-2022.htm

Mythcon 52: The Mythic, the Fantastic, and the Alien Albuquerque, New Mexico; July 29 - August 1, 2022 http://www.mythsoc.org/mythcon/mythcon-52.htm

Abstract Abstract Compares legends of Cuchulainn, Beowulf, and The Song of Roland to determine what the portrayal of their respective heroes tells us about the different values of their various cultures.

Additional Keywords Additional Keywords Beowulf—Social and political aspects; Cuchulainn—Social and political aspects; Heroes (Epic); Heroes and honor; Roland—Social and political aspects; Sarah Beach

This article is available in Mythlore: A Journal of J.R.R. Tolkien, C.S. Lewis, Charles Williams, and Mythopoeic Literature: https://dc.swosu.edu/mythlore/vol13/iss1/4

MYTHLORE 47: Autumn 1986 Page 25

T h e E p i c H e r o a n d S o c i e t yCuchulainnm Beowulf and Roland

Eleanor FarrellThe e p i c h e r o i s a f a s c i n a t i n g a r c h e t y p e

s p a n n i n g m a n ' s e n t i r e h i s t o r y , f r o m t h e S u m e r ia n e p i c o f G i lg a m e s h t h a t p r e - d a t e s t h e s e c o n d m i l l e n i u m B.C., t o t o d a y ' s f u t u r i s t i c t a l e s o f p o s t - h o l o c a u s t s o c i e t y . T a l e s o f h e r o e s h a v e s u r v i v e d f r o m m a n y e a r l y c u l t u r e s , e v o l v i n g f r o m b a r d i c o r a l r e c i t a t i o n s i n t o ( s o m e t im e s ) c o h e s i v e w r i t t e n s t o r i e s o r poem s. The t a l e s s u r v i v e d b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e g o o d e n t e r t a i n m e n t , b u t t h e y a l s o s e r v e t h e a d d i t i o n a l p u r p o s e o f b e i n g a t r e a s u r e - s t o r e o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e s o c i e t i e s w h e r e t h e y o r i g i n a t e d . The e p i c s show , i f n o t a c t u a l l i v i n g f i g u r e s , a t l e a s t t h e p e o p l e t h e s o c i e t i e s im a g in e d t h e m s e l v e s t o b e , w i t h t h e i r c o d e s o f h o n o r , r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s a n d p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m s ; t h e y a r e p a s s i o n a t e , h u m o r o u s , a n d s u r p r i s i n g l y o b j e c t i v e .

T he s c r i b e s o f m e d i e v a l E u r o p e h a v e p r e s e r v e d s e v e r a l e p i c t a l e s f r o m r o u g h l y c o n t e m p o r a r y , b u t d i s t i n c t l y d i f f e r e n t , s o c i e t i e s . 1 Among t h e s e a r e t h e I r i s h C e l t i c t a l e s o f t h e h e r o C u c h u l a i n n , t h e A n g lo -S a x o n e p i c poem B e o w u l f , and t h e Norman c h a n s o n d e g e s t e , The S ong o f R o l a n d . A c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e h e r o e s o f t h e s e t a l e s a n d o f t h e i r a d v e n t u r e s w i l l a l l o w u s t o a l s o c o m p a r e t h e i r s o c i e t i e s , t o d i s c o v e r d i f f e r e n c e s and s i m i l a r i t i e s among t h e p e o p l e s w hose c u l t u r e s f u s e d t o f o r m , u l t i m a t e l y , m odern E u ro p e .

Of t h e t h r e e c u l t u r e s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d , t h e C e l t i c i s t h e m o s t p r i m i t i v e , i n t h e s e n s e o f h a v i n g a n i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n t h e n a t u r a l a n d t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l , a " t e n s i o n b e t w e e n r e a l i t y a n d f a n t a s y . " 2 J . R . R .

T o l k i e n c o m m e n t e d o n t h e " f u n d a m e n t a l u n r e a s o n " o f C e l t i c t h i n g s : "They h a v e b r i g h t c o l o r , b u t a r e l i k e a b r o k e n s t a i n e d g l a s s w in d o w r e a s s e m b l e d w i t h o u t d e s i g n . " 3 T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c a n b e s e e n t h r o u g h o u t t h e s u r v i v i n g C e l t i c l i t e r a t u r e a n d a r t , b u t i s i s e p i t o m i z e d i n t h e s t o r y o f C u c h u l a i n n , I r e l a n d ' s g r e a t e s t h e r o , a s t o l d i n t h e T a i n Bo C u a i l n g e and r e l a t e d t a l e s .

C u c h u l a i n n i s c l e a r l y n o t h u m a n . H i s c o n c e p t i o n i s c o n f u s i n g , t o s a y t h e l e a s t . H is m o th e r D e i c h t i n e b ecom es p r e g n a n t f i r s t by t h e s i d h e Lug ( i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e C e l t i c s u n g o d ) , a n d l a t e r by t h e m o r t a l S u a l d a m mac R o i c h . A d d e d t o t h e s e e l e m e n t s i s a s u g g e s t i o n o f D e i c h t i n e ' s i n c e s t w i t h h e r b r o t h e r C o n c h o b a r , t h e k i n g . C u c h u l a i n n ' s c h i l d h o o d f i t s t h e o u t l i n e o f t h e a r c h e t y p a l h e r o i c f i g u r e a s d e s c r i b e d b y J o s e p h C a m p b e l l , w h o s e e s t h e h e r o ' s l i f e a s a " p a g e a n t o f m a r v e l s " c u l m i n a t i n g i n a g r e a t c e n t r a l a d v e n t u r e . 4 B e f o r e r e a c h i n g t h e age o f s e v e n , t h i s p r o d i g y s i n g l e - h a n d e d l y d e f e a t e d C o n c h o b a r ' s e n t i r e b o y t r o o p a n d k i l l e d C u l a n n t h e S m i t h ' s s a v a g e h o u n d , n o t t o m e n t i o n t h e n u m b e r o f h e a d s o f U l s t e r ' s e n e m ie s he c o l l e c t e d . But t h e m o s t c o l o r f u l (and v e r y C e l t i c ) d e p i c t i o n o f C u c h u la in n i s t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f h i s b a t t l e - r a g e :

The f i r s t w a rp - s p a s m s e i z e d C u c h u l a i n n , and made him i n t o a m o n s t r o u s t h i n g . . . . H is body made a f u r i o u s t w i s t i n s i d e h i s s k i n , s o t h a t h i s f e e t and s h i n s and k n e e s s w i t c h e d t o t h e r e a r and h i s h e e l s and c a l v e s s w i t c h e d t o t h e f r o n t . . . .H is f a c e and f e a t u r e s becam e a r e d bow l:

Page 26 M YTHLORE 47: Autum n 1986

h e s u c k e d o n e e y e s o d e e p i n t o h i s h e a d t h a t a w i l d c r a n e c o u l d n ' t p r o b e i t . . . t h e o t h e r e y e f e l l o u t a l o n g h i s c h e e k . . . . T h e n , t a l l a n d t h i c k , s t e a d y an d s t r o n g , h i g h a s t h e m a s t o f a n o b l e s h i p , r o s e u p f r o m t h e d e a d c e n t r e o f h i s s k u l l a s t r a i g h t s p o u t o f b l a c k b l o o d d a r k l y a n d m a g i c a l l y s m o k i n g l i k e t h e sm oke f r o m a r o y a l h o s t e l w hen a k i n g i s c o m in g t o b e c a r e d f o r a t t h e c l o s e o f a w i n t e r d a y . 5

I r i s h r e l i g i o n w a s n e b u l o u s , w i t h n u m e r o u s l o c a l d e i t i e s w h o w e r e r a r e l y d e p i c t e d a s d e s e r v i n g ( o r r e c e i v i n g ) r e v e r e n t w o r s h i p . T h e r e w a s n o s t r o n g b e l i e f i n t h e a f t e r l i f e , a l t h o u g h t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n t h e n a t u r a l a n d s u p e r n a t u r a l w o r l d s w e r e t e n u o u s a n d e a s i l y c r o s s e d . I r i s h l o r e i n c l u d e d n o n - h u m a n r a c e s , b u t t h e i m m o r t a l s i d h e w e r e m o s t o f t e n d e s c r i b e d a s l i v i n g an d f i g h t i n g l i k e h u m a n s .

F a t e w a s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f C e l t i c l o r e a n d l i t e r a t u r e , w i t h d r u i d s a n d s e e r e s s e s e m p l o y e d t o m a k e p r e d i c t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y a b o u t b a t t l e s . An I r i s h s t u b b o r n n e s s c a n b e s e e n , h o w e v e r , i n t h e f r e q u e n c y w i t h w h i c h c h a r a c t e r s c h e e r f u l l y i g n o r e t h e s e d i r e w a r n i n g s a n d p l o w a h e a d i n t o r u i n . T h i s a t t i t u d e s t e m m e d p a r t i a l l y f r o m a c o n f i d e n c e i n b e i n g a b l e t o g e t a r o u n d f a t e t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f f e t i s h e s , w i l e o r g o o d l u c k ; b u t i t w a s a l s o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e I r i s h C e l t s t o v a l u e g l o r y a n d f a m e o v e r a l o n g e r b u t d u l l e r e x i s t e n c e . When C u c h u l a i n n i s t o l d t h a t h i s l i f e w i l l b e s h o r t b e c a u s e h e a r m e d h i m s e l f o n a c e r t a i n d a y , h e r e p l i e s , " ' T h a t i s a f a i r b a r g a i n . . . . I f I a c h i e v e f a m e I am c o n t e n t , t h o u g h I h a d o n l y o n e d a y o n e a r t h . ' " 6

E a r l y I r i s h s o c i e t y w a s h o m o g e n e o u s b u t a n a r c h i c , t h e I r i s h h a v i n g " l i t t l e t o l e r a n c e f o r c e n t r a l i z e d a u t h o r i t y , e v e n t h e i r o w n ."7 T h e a r i s t o c r a t i c c l a s s e s h a d a s t r o n g s e n s e o f , a n d c o n c e r n w i t h , i d e n t i t y , w h i c h i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e g e n e a l o g i c a l a n d p l a c e - n a m e l i s t s s o f r e q u e n t i n e a r l y I r i s h l i t e r a t u r e . T he m o r a l i t y o f t h e I r i s h C e l t s w a s b a s e d on t h i s t r i b a l i d e n t i t y a n d c o n s i s t e d o f a c o m p l i c a t e d c o d e o f h o n o r t h a t c o u l d t r a n s c e n d t h e b o n d s o f b l o o d k i n s h i p . T h u s , C u c h u l a i n n i s f o r c e d t o f i g h t a n d k i l l h i s ow n s o n C o n n l a f o r t h e h o n o r o f U l s t e r a n d C o n c h o b a r . C u c h u l a i n n i s a b l e t o f u l f i l l h i s h o n o r c o d e a n d s t i l l a v o i d k i l l i n g h i s f r i e n d s o r k i n s m e n i n s e v e r a l - o t h e r e p i s o d e s , n o t a b l y b y m a k i n g a n a g r e e m e n t w i t h h i s f o s t e r - f a t h e r F e r g u s t h a t e a c h o f t h e m w i l l r u n a w a y f r o m t h e o t h e r i n o n e e n c o u n t e r . C u c h u l a i n n ' s d e a t h , h o w e v e r , c a n b e d i r e c t l y l i n k e d t o t h e o b l i g a t i o n s o f h i s h o n o r c o d e . A s t h e h e r o g o e s t o h i s l a s t f i g h t , h e v i o l a t e s a g e i s b y a c c e p t i n g s o m e h o u n d ' s f l e s h f r o m t h r e e c r o n e s (w ho a r e a c t u a l l y t h e d a u g h t e r s o f h i s e n e m y t h e w i z a r d C a l a t i n ) , b e c a u s e h e w i l l n o t s c o r n t h e o f f e r o f p o o r f o o d . D u r i n g t h e b a t t l e , C u c h u l a i n n i s f a r i n g f a r b e t t e r t h a n h i s e n e m i e s u n t i l t h e y c l a i m h i s s p e a r , t h r e a t e n i n g t o r e v i l e C u c h u l a i n n ' s k i n a n d a l l U l s t e r i f h e r e f u s e s . T h e t h i r d t i m e t h a t h e p a r t s w i t h h i s w e a p o n , h i s e n e m y L u g a i d s t r i k e s t h e h e r o

s o t h a t h i s b o w e l s s p i l l o u t . C u c h u l a i n n f a s t e n s h i m s e l f t o a r o c k s o t h a t h e m a y d i e s t a n d i n g u p , a n d L u g a i d w a i t s u n t i l h e i s d e a d b e f o r e c u t t i n g o f f C u c h u l a i n n ' s h e a d . T h e h e r o m a n a g e s t o r e v e n g e h i m s e l f e v e n i n d e a t h , h o w e v e r , f o r a s h i s s w o r d f a l l s f r o m h i s h a n d i t c u t s o f f t h e h a n d o f L u g a i d .

I n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e A n g l o - S a x o n e p i c B e o w u l f , we move i n t o a s o c i e t y l e s s s t e e p e d i n m a g i c a n d g u i d e d b y a p e r m e a t i n g a n d p e s s i m i s t i c s e n s e o f doom . L i k e t h e n o r t h e r n g o d s , t h e G e r m a n i c ( o r A n g l o - S a x o n ) h e r o e s " a r e o n t h e r i g h t s i d e , t h o u g h i t i s n o t t h e s i d e t h a t w i n s . T h e w i n n i n g s i d e i s C h a o s a n d U n r e a s o n . . . ".8 T h e r e a r e b o t h C h r i s t i a n a n d p a g a n r e l i g i o u s e l e m e n t s i n B e o w u l f , b u t a l l o f t h e s e a r e e p h e m e r a l t o t h e c o n c e p t o f f a t e t h a t c o n t r o l s t h e h e r o ' s a c t i o n s . T h e o n l y h o p e o f s u r v i v a l i n t h i s u n i v e r s e i s t h e s o c i e t y , r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e m e a d - h a l l , w h i c h i s b e i n g d i r e c t l y a t t a c k e d b y G r e n d e l b e f o r e B e o w u l f ' s a r r i v a l .

As i n C e l t i c s o c i e t y , a c o d e o f h o n o r w a s p r e d o m i n a n t i n i n d i v i d u a l c o n d u c t , b u t h e r e i t t o o k t h e f o r m o f t h e p e r s o n a l c o m i t a t u s l o y a l t y o f f e u d a l s t r u c t u r e . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s c o n c e p t i n A n g l o - S a x o n c u l t u r e i s c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e d b y i t s f r e q u e n c y i n t h e e x t a n t l i t e r a t u r e , p e r h a p s m o s t s u c c i n c t l y d e s c r i b e d b y t h e v a s s a l B y r h t w o l d , i n t h e h e r o i c poem "The B a t t l e o f M a l d o n " :

C o u r a g e s h a l l g ro w k e e n e r , c l e a r e r t h e w i l l ,t h e h e a r t f i e r c e r , a s o u r f o r c e f a i l e t h .H e r e o u r l o r d l i e s l e v e l l e d i n t h e d u s t ,t h e man a l l m a r r e d : h e s h a l l m o u rn t o t h e

e n dwho t h i n k s t o w end o f f f r o m t h i s w a r - p l a y

now.T h o u g h I am w h i t e w i t h w i n t e r s I w i l l n o t

a w a y ,f o r I t h i n k t o l o d g e me a l o n g s i d e my d e a r

o n e ,l a y me down b y my l o r d ' s r i g h t h a n d . ' 9

B e o w u l f d i s p l a y s a l l o f t h e v i r t u e s o f t h e G e r m a n i c w a r r i o r : b r a v e r y , s t r e n g t h , a s e n s e o f o b l i g a t i o n ( h e c o m e s t o H r o t h g a r ' s c o u r t p a r t l y t o r e p a y a f a m i l y d e b t ) , l o y a l t y t o h i s u n c l e H y g e l a c , l e a d e r o f t h e G e a t s , h o n o r i n f u l f i l l i n g h i s o a t h s , a n d a n e a g e r n e s s f o r f a m e a n d p r a i s e . He i s c r e d i t e d w i t h p r o w e s s e q u a l t o t h a t o f t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l ( b u t h u m a n - l i k e ) G r e n d e l , a n d d e f e a t s t h i s m o n s t e r w i t h o u t u s i n g w e a p o n s . H i s g r e a t e r d i f f i c u l t y a n d n e e d f o r s u p e r n a t u r a l a i d i n c o n q u e r i n g G r e n d e l ' s m o t h e r r e f l e c t s t h e A n g l o - S a x o n p e s s i m i s m : hum an s u c c e s s i s u l t i m a t e l y i m p o s s i b l e , a n d t h e b e s t m an c a n h o p e f o r i s e v e r l a s t i n g f a m e .

T h i s m i n d - s e t a p p e a r s i n s h a r p c o n t r a s t t o t h a t o f t h e N o r m a n e p i c , T h e S o n g o f R o l a n d . F a t e i s h e r e r e p l a c e d b y a C h r i s t i a n c o n c e p t o f g o o d a n d e v i l , w i t h n o r o o m f o r m o r a l a m b i g u i t i e s . C h a r a c t e r s a r e e i t h e r g o o d o r b a d , m a i n l y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s . T h e S a r a c e n k n i g h t s a r e g r a n t e d n o b i l i t y t o m a k e t h e m w o r t h y o p p o n e n t s o f R o l a n d a n d t h e o t h e r P e e r s , b u t

M YTHLORE 47: A utum n 1986 Page 27

o n e c a n s e n s e t h a t t h e e v i l n a t u r e s o f M a r s i l i o n a n d t h e t r a i t o r G a n e l o n a r e i n t e n d e d t o b e d e s c r i b e d u s i n g c a p i t a l l e t t e r s .

The Song o f R o la n d i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a s i m p l i c i t y t h a t i s n o t f o u n d i n t h e o t h e r e p i c s , b u t w h i c h r e f l e c t s m e d i e v a l N o rm a n c u l t u r e - - a m i l i t a r i s t i c f e u d a l i s m b a s e d on p e r s o n a l l o y a l t y . R o l a n d , w i t h a l l h i s f a u l t s , i s s t i l l t h e h e r o , p o s s e s s i n g t h e t y p i c a l v i r t u e s o f t h e f e u d a l k n i g h t : h e i s b r a v e , l o y a l , g e n e r o u s , s i n g l e - m i n d e d a n d r a s h . C h a r l e m a g n e e p i t o m i z e s t h e i d e a l f e u d a l l o r d , a n o b l e , w i s e a n d a g e l e s s m o n a r c h . B u t i n a d d i t i o n t o a c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y , t h i s e p i c , b y t h e t i m e i t w a s w r i t t e n dow n a r o u n d 1 1 0 0 , e v o l v e d i n t o a q u a s i - r e l i g i o u s t r a c t s u p p o r t i n g t h e C h u r c h M i l i t a n t ' s c r u s a d e s a g a i n s t t h e M o s l e m i n f i d e l s . The b a t t l e b e tw e e n C h a r l e m a g n e and t h e E m ir B a l i g a n t i s t h e a r c h e t y p a l c o n f l i c t b e tw e e n Good an d E v i l , i n v o l v i n g t h e w a r r i o r s o f t h e e n t i r e C h r i s t i a n a n d p a g a n w o r l d s . R o l a n d ' s h e r o i s m i s s t i l l a p p l a u d e d a s m a r t y r d o m , b u t a s e n s e o f t h e s h i f t f r o m p e r s o n a l t o n a t i o n a l p r i d e m i g h t b e s e e n i n t h e p o e t ' s a t t e n t i o n t o O l i v e r ' s r e p r o a c h e s o f h i s f r i e n d ' s f o o l h a r d i n e s s .

B o th O l i v e r an d R o la n d l i v e a c c o r d i n g t o a c u l t u r a l c o d e o f h o n o r , w h ic h i s e m p h a s i z e d a l s o t h r o u g h i t s o p p o s i t e - - t h e t r e a c h e r y o f G a n e l o n . D e s p i t e h i s p e r s u a s i v e n e s s a n d b r a v e r y i n h i s f i r s t e n c o u n t e r w i t h M a r s i l i o n , G a n e l o n i s p r e s e n t e d a s b e i n g t h o r o u g h l y e v i l a n d h i s t r e a c h e r y f i t t i n g l y p u n i s h e d : h e i s t i e d t o f o u r h o r s e s a n d h i s body l i t e r a l l y t o r n a p a r t . Even i n t h e m ore c o m p l e x a n d c e n t r a l i z e d s o c i e t y t h a t F r a n c e i s p o r t r a y e d a s b e c o m i n g , t h e b o n d s o f l o y a l t y and h o n o r m a i n t a i n t h e i r p o s i t i o n o f p r e d o m i n a n t i m p o r t a n c e .

A l t h o u g h t h e t a l e s o f t h e h e r o e s C u c h u l a i n n , B e o w u l f a n d R o l a n d a r e n o t c o m p l e t e l y p a r a l l e l , t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l p o i n t s o f d i r e c t c o m p a r i s o n t h a t c a n a l s o b e u s e d t o c o m p a re t h e v a l u e s o f t h e r e s p e c t i v e c u l t u r e s t h e h e r o e s r e p r e s e n t . T h e f i r s t o f t h e s e i s t h e h e r o ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l , a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c common t o c u l t u r a l h e r o e s . 10 C u c h u l a i n n h a s t h e g r e a t e s t s u p e r n a t u r a l a t t r i b u t e s , b o t h i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o f h i s b i r t h a n d i n h i s p h y s i c a l a b i l i t i e s . B e o w u lf i s u n u s u a l l y s t r o n g and i s a b l e t o sw im i n t o t h e m o n s t e r s ' u n d e r w a t e r c a v e , w h ic h t a k e s an e n t i r e d a y - - a l o n g t i m e t o h o l d o n e ' s b r e a t h ! H o w e v e r , h e h a s t o r e l y o n G o d 's h e l p a n d g r a c e t o k i l l G r e n d e l ' s m o t h e r . R o la n d , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , h a s no s u p e r - h u m a n q u a l i t i e s ; h i s s t r e n g t h s a r e t h o s e o f t h e human h e r o , p u r i t y o f h e a r t and f a i t h i n God. T h e s e d i f f e r e n t e m p h a s e s r e f l e c t t h o s e o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s o c i e t i e s : t h e C e l t i c m o s a i c o f o v e r l a p p i n g n a t u r a l and s u p e r n a t u r a l w o r l d s , t h e A n g l o - S a x o n c h a o t i c r e a l i t y o f g o d s a n d m o n s t e r s , w h i c h o c c a s i o n a l l y c o n f l i c t w i t h h u m a n i t y , and t h e Norman C h r i s t i a n i t y w h e re a n g e l s c a n c o u n s e l k i n g s b u t f a i t h i s r e q u i r e d t o g e t t h i n g s d o n e .

O ne o f t h e e l e m e n t s t h a t s e e m s t o p e r m e a t e a l l h e r o i c l i t e r a t u r e i s a s e n s e o f

h o n o r . I t i s t h i s c o d e t h a t c o n t r o l s t h e d e s t i n i e s o f e a c h o f t h e s e h e r o e s , s o m e t i m e s w i t h t r a g i c c o n s e q u e n c e s , a s when C u c h u l a i n n k i l l s h i s s o n i n b a t t l e o r when R o la n d l e a d s h i s r e a r g u a r d i n t o t o t a l a n n i h i l a t i o n . H o w e v e r , b e c a u s e t h e c o n c e p t o f h o n o r 1 i s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e s u r v i v a l o f a s o c i e t y b a s e d on p e r s o n a l l o y a l t y , t h e h o n o r c o d e i s n e v e r r e p u d i a t e d , e v e n w h en i t l e a d s t o d i s a s t e r , a n d i n f a c t i s e m p h a s i z e d i n a l l o f t h e s e e p i c s . R o la n d m i g h t b e g u i l t y o f s t u p i d i t y , B e o w u l f o f a r r o g a n c e , o r C u c h u l a i n n o f s t u b b o r n n e s s , b u t n o t o n e o f th e m c a n e v e r be a c c u s e d o f v i o l a t i n g t h e i r p e r s o n a l h o n o r .

T h e d e a t h o f t h e e p i c h e r o i s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f h i s s t o r y , an d r e f l e c t s t h e c u l t u r a l i d e a s o f f a t e , h o n o r a n d r e l i g i o n . I t i s t i e d t o t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e h e r o a s b e i n g s e p a r a t e f r o m , o r o u t s i d e o f , t h e s o c i e t y i n s o m e w a y . T h e h e r o , a s t h e e m b o d i m e n t o f t h e s o c i e t y ' s i d e a l s a n d a s o u r c e o f - s t r e n g t h s u n a v a i l a b l e t o t h e common m a n , c a n n o t l i v e t h e l i f e o f a n o r d i n a r y m o r t a l .

C u c h u l a i n n ' s b r i e f l i f e i s p r e d i c t e d by h i s t e a c h e r S c a t h a c h a n d b y t h e d r u i d C a t h b a d ; C u c h u l a i n n h i m s e l f m o r e o r l e s s c h o o s e s f a m e o v e r l o n g e v i t y . H i s d e a t h , a s a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , r e s u l t s f r o m an a d h e r e n c e t o a c o d e o f p e r s o n a l a n d c l a n h o n o r . R o l a n d ' s d e a t h , a l s o , s t e m s f r o m a s e n s e o f h o n o r , a n d a l t h o u g h t h e h e r o ' s p r i d e a n d r e c k l e s s n e s s a r e c r i t i c i z e d b y t h e m o re p r u d e n t O l i v e r , i t i s R o l a n d ' s b o d y t h a t i s c a r r i e d i n t o h e a v e n b y a n g e l s . F a t e c a n n o t b e s a i d t o b e i n v o l v e d h e r e , a l t h o u g h C h a r le m a g n e i s g i v e n an a l l e g o r i c a l v i s i o n o f R o l a n d ' s d e a t h i n a d r e a m , a n d s e e m s t o e x p e c t t h e t r e a c h e r y o f G a n e l o n . P e r h a p s t h i s i s a s c l o s e a s m e d i e v a l C h r i s t i a n i t y w o u l d a l l o w F a t e t o i n t e r v e n e i n t h e l i v e s o f h e r h e r o e s .

I n t h i s r e s p e c t , t h e A n g l o - S a x o n e p i c f i t s so m e w h e re b e tw e e n t h e C e l t i c and Norman i d e a s o f f a t e a n d d e a t h ; i t h a s s o m e C h r i s t i a n e l e m e n t s , b u t h a s n ' t i n c o r p o r a t e d t h e s e i n a n y c o h e s i v e f o r m . C .S. L e w i s m ad e an i n t e r e s t i n g c o m p a r i s o n o f C e l t i c a n d G e r m a n i c m y th ( i n c o m m e n t i n g on M a t t h e w A r n o l d ' s On t h e S tu d y o f C e l t i c L i t e r a t u r e ) :

The C e l t i c was much m ore s e n s u o u s : a l s o l e s s h o m e ly : a l s o , e n t i r e l y l a c k i n g i n r e v e r e n c e , o f w h ic h t h e G e rm a n ic was f u l l . Then a g a i n t h e G e rm a n ic g lo w e d i n a s e n s e w i t h r i c h so m b re c o l o u r s , w h i l e t h e C e l t i c was a l l t r a n s p a r e n t and f u l l o f n u a n c e s - e v a n e s c e n t - b u t v e r y b r i g h t .

He c o n t i n u e s :

One s e e s t h a t t h e C e l t i c i s e s s e n t i a l l y P a g a n , f r i v o l o u s u n d e r a l l i t s m e la n ­c h o l y , i n c a p a b l e o f g ro w in g i n t o r e l i ­g i o n , an d - I t h i n k - a l i t t l e h e a r t ­l e s s . 11

I n c o n s i d e r i n g B e o w u l f a s an e p i c h e r o f i g u r e , I h a v e c h o s e n t o c o n s i d e r o n l y h i s y o u t h f u l e x p l o i t s a t H r o t h g a r ' s c o u r t . The

Page 28 MYTHLORE 47: Autumn 1986

l a t e r p a r t o f t h e p o e m - - t h e a g i n g k i n g ' s b a t t l e w i t h t h e d r a g o n — p r e s e n t s B e o w u l f i n a c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t r o l e , t h a t o f t h e w i s e b u t f a i l i n g r u l e r , t h e g u a r d i a n o f t h e l a n d ' s w e l l - b e i n g . A l t h o u g h B e o w u l f d i e s a n o b l e d e a t h , i t i s a n u n u s u a l e n d f o r a n e p i c h e r o . The e s s e n t i a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e h e r o a s o u t s i d e t h e s o c i e t y n o r m a l l y l e a d s t o h i s d y i n g ( y o u n g ) i n g l o r i o u s b a t t l e o r r i d i n g o f f v i c t o r i o u s l y i n t o t h e s u n s e t . L o o k e d a t i n t h i s w a y , B e o w u l f d o e s t h e l a t t e r . He t r a v e l s t o D e n m a r k , k i l l s t h e m o n s t e r s , a n d t h e n l e a v e s , h a v i n g g a i n e d g i f t s , g r a t i t u d e a n d f a m e b u t n o t a t t e m p t i n g t o b e c o m e p a r t o f H r o t h g a r ' s c o u r t . T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f r o l e s i n B e o w u l f i s o n e o f t h e m o s t c u r i o u s i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s b e t w e e n t h i s a n d t h e o t h e r e p i c s s t u d i e d . P e r h a p s n o t e n o u g h t i m e h a d e l a p s e d b e t w e e n t h e h i s t o r y a n d t h e e p i c f o r t h e c h a r a c t e r s t o d e v e l o p f u l l y i n t o h e r o i c a r c h e t y p e s .

O r , p e r h a p s A n g l o - S a x o n s o c i e t y h a d a s h o r t a g e o f w i s e k i n g s , a n d t h e e p i c h e r o e s h a d t o d o d o u b l e d u t y i n t h e s e r o l e s . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e a g e o f t h e e p i c h e r o e s w a s a l s o a t i m e o f g r e a t d e c l i n e i n t h e s o c i e t y . V a r i o u s t a l e s i n t h e I r i s h U l s t e r c y c l e h a v e w a r r i o r s a w e s t r u c k b y t h e f e a t s o f a s e v e n - y e a r - o l d b o y ( e v e n i f h e i s C u c h u l a i n n s s o n ) , o r f i g h t i n g o v e r a d o g , w h i l e t h e k i n g h i m s e l f i s o p e n l y t r e a c h e r o u s . C h a r l e m a g n e c a n f i n d o n l y o n e k n i g h t t o s u p p o r t h i m w h e n h e c o n f r o n t s G a n e l o n ' s o b v i o u s t r e a c h e r y . H r o t h g a r ' s h a l l i s b e s i e g e d f o r t w e l v e y e a r s b y G r e n d e l w h i l e t h e e n t i r e D a n i s h c o u r t h a s n o h e r o e s t o c o m b a t t h e m o n s t e r . B e o w u l f h i m s e l f p r e d i c t s t h e t o t a l d e s t r u c t i o n o f D a n i s h s o c i e t y , w h ic h t a k e s p l a c e i n h i s l i f e t i m e .

T h e s e e x a m p l e s s u p p o r t t h e i d e a t h a t t h e r o l e o f t h e e p i c h e r o i s t o b r i n g s o m e k i n d o f o r d e r t o a n a n a r c h i c , d e c e n t r a l i z e d s o c i e t y , o n e e i t h e r i n d e c l i n e o r w h i c h h a s n ' t y e t d e v e l o p e d a s t r o n g p o l i t i c a l - s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . T h e h e r o h i m s e l f i s i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c , a n d t h u s i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e g o a l s o f a s o c i e t y , b u t h e c a n b r i n g t o t h e s o c i e t y so m e u n i q u e t a l e n t t h a t w i l l h e l p i t f u n c t i o n .

T h e e p i c h e r o i s a u n i v e r s a l c o n c e p t , f o u n d n o t o n l y i n t h e t a l e s o f p r i m i t i v e s o c i e t i e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d , b u t a l s o i n c o n t e m p o r a r y m y t h o l o g y ( p r e s e r v e d o n c e l l u l o i d i n s t e a d o f p a r c h m e n t ) : t h e w a n d e r i n g g u n f i g h t e r i n " S h a n e " , t h e m a s t e r l e s s s a m u r a i o f " Y o j i m b o " , t h e a m o r a l l o n e r c r u i s i n g t h r o u g h a p o s t - a p o c a l y p t i c o u t b a c k i n "The R oad W a r r i o r " . T h e y a l l h a v e t h e q u a l i t i e s o f a C u c h u l a i n n , a B e o w u l f o r a R o l a n d : b r a v e r y , l o y a l t y , a n d m o s t o f a l l , h o n o r - - v a l u e s t h a t t r a n s c e n d a n y s i n g l e t i m e a n d p l a c e .

FOOTNOTES

1F o r s o c i e t i e s s u c h a s t h e s e b e i n g c o n s i d ­e r e d , w h ic h s p a n s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s , t h e " c o n t e m p o r a r y " q u a l i t y may b e a s ­c r i b e d t o t h e p e r i o d d u r i n g w h ic h t h e y w e r e a l l p u t i n t o w r i t i n g . How­e v e r , t h e v a l u e s a n d c u s t o m s o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r e s s t i l l r e m a i n e d ,

a n d a r e r e f l e c t e d , i n t h e m e d i e v a l a c c o u n t s .

2J e f f r e y G a n t z , t r a n s . , E a r l y I r i s h M ythsa n d S a g a s ( H a r m o n d s w o r t h , M i d d l e s e x : P e n g u i n B o o k s , 1 9 8 1 ) , p . 1 .

3H um phrey C a r p e n t e r , e d . , The L e t t e r s o fJ . R . R . T o l k i e n ( B o s t o n : H o u g h to n M i f ­f l i n C om pany , 1 9 8 1 ) , p . 2 6 .

4J o s e p h C a m p b e l l , T h e H e ro w i t h a T h o u s a n dF a c e s ( C l e v e l a n d a n d New Y o r k : M e r i d ­i a n B o o k s , 1 9 4 9 ) , p . 3 1 9 .

5T hom as K i n s e l l a , t r a n s . , T he T a i n (L o n d o n : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 9 ) , pp . 1 5 0 - 1 5 3 .

6K i n s e l l a , T he T a i n , p . 8 5 .

7G a n t z , E a r l y I r i s h M yths a n d S a g a s , p . 14 .

8W alfeer P . K e r , q u o t e d i n J . R . R . T o l k i e n , B e o w u l f : The M o n s t e r s a n d t h e C r i t i c s ( F o l c r o f t , P e n n s y l v a n i a : F o l - c r o f t L i b r a r y E d i t i o n s , 1 9 7 2 ) , p . 1 9 .

9M i c h a e l A l e x a n d e r , t r a n s . , The E a r l i e s tE n g l i s h Poem s ( H a r m o n d s w o r t h , M i d d l e ­s e x : P e n g u i n B o o k s , 1 9 6 6 ) , p . 1 2 3 .

10q u o t e d b y N a n c y -L o u P a t t e r s o n , " B r i g h t - E y e d B e a u t y : C e l t i c E l e m e n t s i n C h a r l e s W i l l i a m s , J . R . R . T o l k i e n , a n d C . S . L e w i s , " M y t h l o r e 3 5 , S p r i n g 1 9 8 3 , p . 9 .

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A dam s, H e n r y . M o n t - S a i n t - M i c h e l an d C h a r t r e s . P r i n c e t o n , New J e r s e y :P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 0 5 .

A l e x a n d e r , M i c h a e l , t r a n s . The E a r l i e s t E n g l i s h P o e m s . H a r m o n d s w o r t h , M i d d l e ­s e x : P e n g u i n B o o k s , 1 9 6 6 .

C a m p b e l l , J o s e p h . The H e ro w i t h a T h o u s a n d F a c e s . C l e v e l a n d a n d New Y o rk : M e r i d i a n B o o k s , T he W o r ld P u b l i s h i n g C om pany , 1 9 5 6 .

C h u t e , D a v i d . "T he A y a t o l l a h o f t h e M ov i­o l a , " F i l m Comment 18 ( J u l y - A u g u s t 1 9 8 2 ) , 2 6 - 3 1 .

G a n t z , J e f f r e y , t r a n s . E a r l y I r i s h M yths a n d S a g a s . H a r m o n d s w o r t h , M i d d l e s e x :P e n g u i n B o o k s , 1 9 8 1 .

K e n n e d y , C h a r l e s W ., t r a n s . B e o w u l f . Ox­f o r d , L o n d o n a n d New Y o rk : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1971 ( 1 9 4 0 ) .

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HNAU, con tinu ed fro m page 41C e r ta in ly , h is work, to o , makes i t s bow to ph ilosophy and th e " g r e a t p ag a n s ." As Ransom la n d s on M alacandra, f o r exam ple, he i s s u rp r is e d to d isc o v e r t h a t in th e moment o f to u ch in g down on an a l i e n p la n e t , he i s w re s tl in g w ith a p h ilo s o p h ic a l problem . Much l a t e r , he f in d s in th e f a c e s o f th e so rn s a rem inder o f C onfucius and P arm enides.[10] C e r ta in of L ew is' rem arks on th e Commedia form an obv ious l in k w ith h i s own space t r i l o g y : "The Commedia com bines two l i t e r a r y u n d e r ta k in g s which have long s in c e been s e p a ra te d . On th e one hand, i t i s a h ig h , im a g in a tiv e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s p i r i t u a l l i f e ; on th e o th e r i t i s a r e a l i s t i c t r a v e l book about w anderings in p la c e s which no one had rea ch ed , bu t which everyone b e lie v e d to have a l i t e r a l and lo c a l e x is te n c e . I f Dante in one c a p a c ity i s th e companion o f Homer, V i r g i l , and W ordsworth, in th e o th e r he i s th e f a th e r o f J u le s Verne and H.G. W e lls ." A P re fa c e to P a ra d ise L o s t , p . 114.[11] Though Reason sp o n se rs th e f i r s t s ta g e o f bo th Dante th e P i lg r im 's jo u rn ey and R ansom 's, bo th jou rn ey s have been in s p ire d by th e O rder o f G race. We le a rn in Canto I I o f th e In fe rn o th a t th e V irg in Mary, S t . L u c ia , and B e a tr ic e have been r e s p o n s ib le fo r V i r g i l 's re sc u e o f Dante from th e Dark Wood. As fo r Ransom, O yarsa e x p re sse s th e though t th a t " i t i s no t w ithou t th e wisdom o f M a le ld il t h a t we have met now" (p . 143) and su g g e s ts th a t Weston and Devine have helped to b r in g abou t g re a t e v e n ts o f a k ind very d i f f e r e n t from what th ey in te n d e d .