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3. The Essentials of Jazz Harmony and Rhythm What follows is a discussion of jazz harmony and rhythm, including two simple methods for effectively voicing chords. With these formulae and a minimum of technical ability at the piano, any instrumentalist or vocalist can work through the harmony of a composition. Both methods use the major scale as a reference for building harmonies so it is essential that the correct spelling and notating of major scales be thoroughly learned. General Theoretical Principles

Scales are built on intervals of seconds played in sequence (ex. A,B,C,D,E,F,G) and chords are built in intervals of thirds, played simultaneously (ex. A,C,E,G).

The tone a scale begins on is called the tonic, thus the tonic in C major scale is the note C.

The bottom note of a chord is called the root, thus the root of a C major7 chord is the note C. The remaining chord tones relate intervalically down to the root, thus the third tone in a C major chord is E, it being a major third above the root.

When defining the individual tones in a major scale, mode of the major scale and the individual tones of a chord, Arabic numerals are used, thus in a C major scale the note C is labeled as 1; D, 2 etc. In a C major 7 chord the individual tones are labeled 1,3,5,7. When defining a chord as part of a harmonic system, Roman numerals are used, thus the chord C Major 7 is labeled the I chord when derived from the major scale of C major. Voicing a chord is the aligning or realigning of the tones within the chord. Not every tone of a chord need be voiced to create a functional chord voicing.

Thinking of the process that will lead to voicing chords as a pyramid, at the very top we find the major scale. Next down would come the tonalities created within the scale – its inherent modes (ex. C Ionian; D Dorian; E Phrygian, etc.) Finally we come to the chords built on each tone of the scale using tones from the scale itself.

Tonality can be broken down by type: 1. Diatonic Tonality refers to music derived from major and their

inherent minor scales. 2. Modal Tonality is based on modes, natural and altered, derived

from the major scale. 3. Chromatic Tonality is derived from the major and inherent

minor scales, plus the use of frequent borrowing from other major and minor tonalities outside the intended tonal center of a composition

4. Specialty Tonalities based on folk scales and modes such as the blues and pentatonic scales and their variants.

Breakdown of Chord Structure Using the Rule of Three

1. The Major Scale 2. Modes of the Major Scale and the Tonal Textures they Suggest (Major and Minor) 3. Chords derived from the Major Scale

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The Major Scale As discussed earlier, the major scale is built on a series of consecutively ascending and descending tones in intervals of minor seconds (m2) and major seconds M2). The formula is as follows:

Intervallic Formula for the Major Scale

Tonic – M2 – M2 – m2 – M2 – M2 – M2 – m2

D Major Scale and its Inherent Intervallic Relationships Modes of the Major Scale and the Tonal Textures they Suggest

The seven tones of a major scale can be ordered so as to serve as their own tonics, thus creating the modes of the major scale. The sequence of tones is not changed, just their point of origin, thus a mode built on a D major scale but using the note F# as its tonic would now create the F# Phrygian Mode and would read F#,G,A,B,C#,D,E. Note that the intervallic formula changes as well:

Intervallic Formula for the Phrygian Mode

Tonic – m2 – M2 – M2 – M2 – m2 – M2 – M2 Heard in relationship to a major scale, the tonal texture produced by the Phrygian mode is of a much darker texture. By description it is a minor mode. Having established that within a major scale can be built seven modes, each containing their own tonal texture due to the intervallic realigning, the names of the modes built on the numbered tones of the major scale are as follow:

1. Ionian Mode (built on the first tone of the major scale) 2. Dorian Mode (built on the second tone of the major scale) 3. Phrygian Mode (built on the third tone of the major scale) 4. Lydian Mode (built on the fourth tone of the major scale) 5. Mixolydian Mode (built on the fifth tone of the major scale) 6. Aeolian Mode (built on the sixth tone of the major scale) 7. Locrian Mode (built on the seventh tone of the major scale)

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Modes Created from the D Major Scale

Each individual mode built from the major scale possesses its own distinct tonal texture. The brightest or most major sounding mode built from the major scale is mode built on the 4th tone of a major scale – the Lydian mode; and the darkest or most minor sounding of the modes is built on the seventh tone – the Locrian Mode. The relationship of brightest to darkest modes is as follows:

1. Lydian (Brightest) – suggestive of a major tonality 2. Ionian – suggestive of a major tonality 3. Mixolydian – suggestive of a tonality between major and minor 4. Dorian – suggestive of a minor tonality 5. Aeolian – suggestive of a minor tonality 6. Phrygian – suggestive of a minor tonality 7. Locrian (Darkest) – suggestive of a minor tonality

7th Chords built on Tones of the Major Scale Having created 7 modes within a single major scale, the next step is to create a chord on each tone of the scale using only the tones contained therein. The primary tones

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in a chord, or the tones that define the chord type are the 3rd and 7th tones of the chord, thus each chord is extended to its 7th degree (ex. 1-3-5-7). A chord can be extended to the 13th degree before returning to the root tone (1-3-5-7-9-11-13 or D-F#-A-C#-E-G-B), but it is important to remember that the key tones, the tones that identify its type are always the 3rd and 7th.

The three main chord types derived from the major scale are:

1. The Major 7th Chord 2. The Minor 7th Chord 3. The Dominant 7th Chord

Of course, there are other chord types – diminished, half-diminished, augmented suspended and altered, but for the immediate purpose the afore-mentioned types will cover about 90% of the chords we will encounter in the performance of music and should be regarded as the foundation chords for all music. Chords Built on the Tones of the D Major Scale

In all 12 major scales the formula is as follows:

1. The I Chord is always a Major 7th Chord 2. The II Chord is always a Minor 7th Chord 3. The III Chord is always a Minor 7th Chord 4. The IV Chord is always a Major 7th Chord 5. The V Chord is always a Dominant 7th Chord 6. The VI Chord is always a Minor 7th Chord 7. The VII Chord is always a Half-Diminished 7th Chord

All three have specific functions and are used to establish tonality (ex. the major

chord can establishes the major tonality) or lead us to tonality via cadence. Using this principle, minor 7th chords are the most versatile as they straddle both barriers – establishing the minor tonality, but also as leading a chord progression to the establishment of tonality, such as in the II-V-I chord progression which shall be discussed in detail. Chord Syntax By doing simple math we deduce that if there are twelve notes in our tonal system we can build from each note 12 scales. From these 12 scales we produce 36 essential chords. Know these chords thoroughly and the door to the understanding of modern harmony has not only opened, it has exploded off the hinges. As has been stated about

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90% of the chords encountered on a lead sheet will fall under the major, minor and dominant 7th category. Then why does it seem there are so many other types? The answer lies in correctly identifying the chord then placing it into one of the three categorized types. This means reducing the chord to its lowest common denominator – the position of the third and seventh tones within the chord. The steps involved to facilitate this are:

1. Correct identification of the chord 2. Correct identification of the primary (3rd and 7th) tones of the chord 3. Correct voicing of the primary chord tones Chord symbols can be regarded as musical shorthand. Due to no common

formula for chord symbol notation, misreading is a common mistake made by beginners. Let us break down the rules for reading a chord symbol by example:

Fm9b5 As simple as this symbol might appear, within is a wealth of information. A chord symbol is read from left to right. Fmin9b5 can be broken into 4 parts:

1. F signifies the root tone (1) of the chord. 2. m tells its type, in this case minor. 3. 9 is the suggested extension of the chord as in 1-3-5-7-9. 4. b5 tells an altered tone within the chord not a part of the major scale from

which the chord derives. Proper identification of a chord is essential. Remember that in the majority of the music we will encounter we are dealing with only 36 chords. Misinterpreting a dominant symbol for major will have a devastating effect in relationship to the melody it accompanies. What follows is a breakdown of the three essential chord types and various ways they may be written:

Chord Syntax 1. D Major 7th Chord:

D D6 D6/9 Dmaj, Dmaj7, Dmaj9, Dmaj11, Dmaj13 DM DΔ DΔ7, DΔ9, DΔ11, DΔ13

D Minor 7th Chord: Dmin, Dmin7, Dmin9, Dmin11, Dmin13 Dm, Dm7, Dm9, Dm11, Dm13 D-, D-7, D-9 D-11, D-13

2. D Dominant 7th Chord D7, D9, D11, D13

Note: The rule of thumb when identifying a dominant 7th chord is a letter immediately followed by a number 7 or greater.

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Once we have correctly identified a chord the next step is to define the tones within the chord. Using a Cm7 chord as an example, the process for this is broken down into the following steps:

1. Define the minor 7th chord by its numeric placement within the major scale: C is the 2nd tone in the Bb major scale and the chord built on that tone is always a minor chord. The parent scale for the Cm7 chord is Bbmajor and the corresponding mode for the Cm7 chord is C Dorian.

2. Using the tones of the C Dorian Mode, build the chord (C-Eb-G-Bb) and identify the 3rd and 7th tones (Eb- Bb), as these will be the key tones used in chord voicing.

3. Voice the chord.

In lieu of a chord with specific harmonic connotation many jazz compositions will occasionally notate a root tone followed by one of the modes, for example D Lydian (D lyd). The implication of this type of voicing leans more toward a melodic approach, but in all variants of major and minor modality the 3rd and 7th tones of a chord remains the same.

The II-V-I Chord Progression The II-V-I progression is one of the most often used in establishing a cadence or point of resolution in music. The progression is derived from chords built on the 2nd, 5th and 1st tones of the major scale. This progression is also used to define a minor tonality, which will be discussed later in this chapter. II-V-I Chords of the D Major Scale

Next step is to ascertain the tones that will be voiced, those being the root, 3rd and/or 7th:

1. Em7 – Root is E; 3rd is G; 7th is D 2. A7 – Root is A; 3rd is C#; 7th is G 3. Dmaj7 – Root is D; 3rd is F#; 7th is C#

Note that there are common tones between Em7 and A7 (G) and A7 and Dmaj7

(C#). When configuring this progression what will occur is a holdover of tones thus creating what is called oblique voice movement. This type of movement not only stimulates a smooth transition between chord movements, but also creates a more complex texture by have two distinct sounds (notes moving and notes holding over) work in tandem.

Examine a lead sheet and notice how often this progression will appear either in whole or part (ex. II-V or V-I). Because of its abundance in music, knowing thoroughly

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the progression within all 12 major scales is essential, thus our exercises for voicing will use the II-V-I progression as its focus. How to Voice Chords Chordal Outlines This first type of 2-note voicing makes use of the root tone of the chord and one of its primary tones (3rd or 7th). It is designed to be played in the left hand and the tones should fall within this range for best results:

II-V-I Progression of all 12 Major Scales Using Chordal Outlines

This sequence should be learned by heart, and also practiced in other configurations such as:

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Etc. Practical Application of Chordal Outlines When basic 1-7 and 1-3 voicings are mastered, expanding the range of these voicings can include:

using other tones of the chord such as the 4th, 5th and 6th to add variety

I’ll Remember April

extending the 1-3 voicing to 1-10 (if keyboard reach allows)

Body and Soul

and using chord inversions, another tone from the chord other than the root in the

lowest part of the voicing. Giant Steps

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In the above example, note how the chordal outlines follow the rhythmic movement of the melody. If the melody itself is rhythmic in character – one that suggests accents on particular beats of the bar – this is a most desirable method of accompaniment as it has the effect of fortifying, thus solidifying the melodic line. In the two previous examples the melody is melismatic or moving in a flowing motion, thus a solid placement of the chordal outlines on the strong beats of the measure provide even pulse for a freer interpretation of the melodic line. Voicing the 3rd & 7th Chord Tones This second type of voicing chords relies on constructing a three-note voicing – root, 3rd and 7th – and is most effective when accompanying a vocalist or solo instrumentalist. The method for determining these tones is the same used in voicing chordal outlines – define the root, 3rd and 7th of the chord and then proceed to voice the 3rd and 7th within this range:

The third tone added to this voicing is the root of the chord and should be placed the interval of a 7th or greater below the 3rd and 7th configuration:

II-V-I Progression of all 12 Major Scales Using Root – 3rd &7th Voicings

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Practical Application of Root - 3rd & 7th Voicings As previously mentioned, voicing the Root, 3rd and 7th is especially useful as a method of accompaniment at the piano. When practicing this, start by playing the voicings according to the beats where the chord symbols fall. In most cases one chord change per measure indicates a duration of the entire bar and is played on the downbeat – the first beat of the bar; two chord changes usually split the bar in half, thus in 4/4 time the chord changes will align on beats one and three. Since this method involves a minimum of notes and rhythmic movement it is essential that the pulse or feel be solidly established. The best way to achieve this is to count aloud the rhythm based on the smallest note value of the melody to be accompanied. Most often this note value will be the 8th note and should be counted 1-&-2-&-3-&-4-&. Using the voice to help sustain rhythm, thus externalizing rhythm is helpful in connecting the mind to the hands and laying the foundation for a solid feel or groove.

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In the following example note the use of held over tones in the accompaniment, creating oblique movement within the chord progression.

Falling in Love with Love

Rhythmic and Textural Variations When Using Root-3rd-7th Voicings In the performance of jazz, an accompanist will often create variety by accenting the off beats in the bar (the “&” part of the beat as in 1&2&3&4&), playing them against the primary beats of the bar (1,2,3,4). In addition, combining textures such as staccato/legato offer a depth of accompaniment that creates a more complex sound. In the following examples, offbeats are switched between hands, as are two textures – staccato and legato. These simple but effective ideas will add depth and rhythmic variety when accompanying.

(Offbeats in right hand, played staccato with primary beats in left hand, played legato)

Falling In Love With Love

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Falling In Love With Love

(Offbeats in left Hand, played staccato with primary beats in right hand, played legato)

Of course, the two can be combined:

Minor Tonality Every major scale contains 4 modes within it that are classified as minor. Minor tonalities can be established through these, but most often when using minor tonality the reference is to what is called relative minor scales. The relative natural minor scale to a major scale is built from the 6th tone in the major scale, thus the relative minor scale to C major would be A minor. However, when building chords on the degrees of the minor scale, we find that the important chord used in establishing cadence, the dominant 7th chord, does not lie in the V position but in the VII, thus its function in a cadence will still suggest resolution to C major or C minor as opposed to A minor. To rectify this, there are two variants used to establish the V-I cadence in minor, those being the harmonic minor scale and the melodic minor scale. The harmonic minor scale is created by raising the 7th degree of the natural minor scale a half step and the melodic minor scale is created by raising both the 6th and 7 degree a half-step. In doing this, the V chord now becomes a dominant chord, however the I chord is no longer a minor 7th chord, but a minor/major 7th chord, so to effect minor

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tonality, we must borrow from the harmonic or melodic minor variant for the V chord, but resolve to natural minor to establish the minor tonality. The Major Scale *

The A Natural Minor Scale

The A Harmonic Minor Scale

The A Melodic Minor Scale

The II-V-I Minor Chord Progression The II-V-I progression functions the same in minor tonality as it does in major – the key being the strong sound of a dominant chord leading to a resolution of particular tonality. However, note that the II chord built on the second tone of the natural and harmonic variants is a half-diminished 7th chord (m7b5) and the II chord built on the second degree of the melodic minor variant is a major 7th chord. The choice of using the natural and harmonic variants for the II chord is the logical one for maintaining consistency in the establishment of minor tonality. In fact, often the appearance of a half-diminished chord will quite often suggest if not lead with certainty to a minor resolution.

The II-V-I Minor Progression in the Key of A minor

Source: A Natural or A Harmonic A Natural Harmonic Minor Minor Minor

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II-V-I Progression of all 12 Minor Scales Using Root – 3rd &7th Voicings

Other Chord Types Major, minor and dominant 7th chords comprise the bulk of the harmonic language, but there are other chord types. Though most of these chords are secondary in function to the three essential 7th chord types, they must be considered when encountered. Some are merely substitutes for the three basic chord types, but others are essential to the proper definition of melodic accompaniment. The most important of these chords are the half-diminished and suspended chords. Half-diminished chords shall be covered in depth later in the discussion of minor tonality, but for now, let us examine suspended chords.

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A suspended chord, like its name implies, is a chord in suspense, one that hides its intention. This is achieved by substituting the 4th degree of a chord for the 3rd, thus removing one of a chords primary tones and creating a mild dissonance by introducing the interval of a major 2nd to the chord:

Suspensions are almost always used in relation to the three primary function chords – major 7th, minor 7th and dominant 7th. The unresolved sound creates a moment of tension in the chord, and also, because no 3rd is being sounded, a lighter, less definitive sound. Modern jazz often uses suspended chords as a basis for modal tonality, such as in the now classic composition by Herbie Hancock, Maiden Voyage:

Maiden Voyage

In this composition, suspended chords appear throughout. The tonal texture is derived from Mixolydian modes and the suggestive use of harmony gives a very impressionistic feel to the composition. Another aspect of this composition is the use of ostinato, or a repetitive rhythmic figure played in the accompaniment. This creates a drone-like effect and displays a deep meditative quality. The “openness” of suspended tonality greatly enhances this mood. A suspended chord can also serve as a substitute for the II chord in a II-V-I progression, using Vsus V-I as its alternate. Note that the 4th and 7th chord tones of the Vsus4 are identical to the primary chord tones of the II chord. Because of the non –

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moving root tones of the Vsus4 and the V, the progression assumes a subtler characteristic: II V I Vsus4 V I

Diminished 7th and Augmented 7th Chords As their name implies, these chords either expand or contract the distance of intervals within in their construction. They serve either as secondary function chords – chords that are enhancing to a harmonic/melodic progression - or they are used as substitute chords for the primary chord types - the diminished 7th chord is most often used in this function. Neither chord type is found when building 7th chords on the major scale so both involve the use of chromatic alteration in their construction. The diminished 7th chord is built entirely on intervals of minor thirds. It is the only chord that when inverted (bottom tone of the chord moved to the top etc.) retains its intervallic construction and because of this creates 3 “families” of diminished chords as opposed to 12 individual diminished chords:

(First “Family”) (Second “Family”) (Third “Family”) The chords of each “family” function in partnership and can be interchangeable in a harmonic progression depending on the movement of the root tones of the progression. Diminished chords also serve very well as substitute chords, most often for dominant 7th chords. The effect achieved is often the smoothing out of the root tone movement:

* *

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Diminished 7ths Used as Dominant 7th Substitutes to Create Melismatic Root Tone Movement:

In the following example Bdim7 substitutes for G7.

How Deep Is The Ocean

And in this example a chromatically ascending bass line is created by substituting Edim7 for C7 in the first bar and F#dim7 for D7 in the 2nd bar.

Ain’t Misbehavin’

Substituting diminished chords for their dominant counterparts is accessed through common tones. Note the common tones between the above used substitutions:

1. Bdim7 and G7 – Common Tones are B, D and F 2. Edim7 and C7 - Common Tones are E, G and Bb 3. F#dim7 and D7 - Common Tones are F#, A and C

Whereas diminished 7th chords work well with the movement of root tones, augmented 7th chords often define the movement of inner voices within a sequence of chords. This can reflect the contours of the primary melody or can suggest a counter-melody created through the altering of tones within the chords of a sequence. The intervallic construction of augmented chords is Root-Major 3rd-Major 3rd-Minor 3rd.

The notation of augmented chords can be misleading. Because of a common tendency to put chordal alterations in relationship to one of the primary chord types a D augmented 7th chord can also appear as D maj7+5, meaning that the fifth tone in a major 7th chord is raised one half-step. The other method of notation is simply Daug or D+. Daug7 or

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Augmented 7th Chord used for Inner Voice Melodic Movement:

Make Someone Happy

Chordal Alterations As previously discussed, when reading a chord symbol left to right, the last thing shown will be, if necessary, an altered tone or tones within the chord borrowed from a source other than the major scale from which the chord is derived. Tonal alterations are easily explained – they almost always reflect a chromatic alteration within the melodic line the chord accompanies. It is not necessary to reflect an altered tone within a chord voicing, but it is imperative to be aware of not voicing the natural tone of that voicing, as it will likely create an unwanted dissonance. The formula for determining the altered tone within a chord is as follows:

1. Correctly identify the chord type 2. Find the parent scale or mode of that chord 3. Raise or lower the tone altered, as indicated by the chord.

Using the chord F#7#9 as example, the procedure is as follows: 1. Correctly identify the chord type – Chord type is dominant 2. Find the parent scale or mode of that chord – F# is the fifth tone in the

B major scale and the node built on that tone is called F# Mixolydian F# Mixolydian Mode

1 2 (9) 3 4 (11) 5 6 (13) 7

3. Raise or lower the tone altered, as indicated by the chord.

1 2 (#9) 3 4 (11) 5 6 (13) 7

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Some commonly altered chords:

Major Chords #11 Chords may be written as alterations, as example EΔ7#11, but

actually are modally derived so their alteration reflects a deviation from the major scale using the Lydian mode as the source of major tonality. Minor chords m7b5 Chords also known as half-diminished chords usually reflect the II chord in a II-V-I chord progression used to define minor tonality. Technically they are not altered chords since the tones within the chord bear direct relationship to the scale from which they derive but it has become common practice to notate them as altered chords. The proper notation for a half-diminished chord as example would be EbØ7

Minor/major 7th Chords again are most often derived from either the harmonic or melodic variant of the natural minor scale, thus reflecting the raising by a half-step of the seventh tone of the minor chord and creating the interval of a Major 3rd between that tone and the tone immediately below it, that being the 5th tone of the chord. It can be written as example, Fmin/maj7 or Fm+7.

Dominant Chords

#5,b5, b9 and #9Chords reflect alterations that can be used singly or in combination such as A7#9b9, Bb7b5b9 or C7b5#9. An often misread alteration is the #5 when referring to a dominant chord. Of course, the correct way to notate this chord is, for example D7#5, but for some reason most often appears as D+7.

Pedal Tones Pedal tones or pedal points are single tones played as the root of a chord other than the actual chord root, as example, Cm/Bb. The tone can be derived from the chord itself or can be a borrowed or non-harmonic tone. Their function can be to define a specific root movement, but are often used to anchor a chord progression by an unchanging bass tone. This is a common practice used in jazz performance and the sustaining effect created gives the feeling of a sort of static and complex tension John Coltrane made extensive use of pedal tones, often improvising over the harmonic sequences of an entire composition with a single bass tone sustained throughout.

Pedal Tones Used to Define Root Movement

Like Someone in Love

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Pedal Tones Used to Anchor an Harmonic Sequence

Every Time We Say Goodbye

(without Pedal Tones)

Every Time We Say Goodbye (with Pedal Tones)

The Jazz or Swing Eighth Note The jazz or swing eighth note, which is the building block to the jazz or swing feel is something that is impossible to understand unless it is heard first. There is no accurate way of notating them – a quarter + eight triplet; a dotted eighth + 16th note only confuse the issue, so jazz eighths are best notated simply as eighth notes. The only way to know when a swing feel is applied to a composition is to research performances of the composition itself. Popular standards such as “All the Things You Are,” “Night and Day” or the previous examples given in this essay in addition to thousands of others are compositions that can be performed in a great variety of ways. How a composition is performed is determined by the performers themselves – there are no set rules as to what feel or what tempo a piece can be performed, only the prerequisites governing good taste which in itself can only be developed through detailed study, determine such things. If we choose to perform a swing or jazz eight note feel there are methods used to assist in attaining a natural feel. Firstly, listen to a lot of music that contains this feel: Secondly, learn to count, in eighth notes, along with these recordings. Thirdly, learn to count the eighth notes without the recordings. As an aural aid, using phonetics such as dah-ba, dah-ba, dah-ba, dah-ba etc. while thinking 1&2&3&4& etc. will provide some assistance. Set a metronome on a medium quarter note tempo, say 126 then start counting straight or even eighths aloud. When the tempo is comfortably established, switch to dah-ba, dah-ba, dah-ba, dah-ba while thinking the eight note. The first syllable should be slightly accented and long and the second not accented and short.

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Dah – ba Dah – ba Dah – ba Dah – ba Dah – ba Dah– ba Dah – ba Dah – ba Of course, the emphasis on listening to this style of rhythm cannot be stressed enough. Another aspect of the jazz feel is the use of rhythmic anticipation. Physically, this is accomplished by anticipating a primary beat by accenting the eight note previous to it. In other words, beat one of a bar is often anticipated by playing the & of the 4th beat of the previous bar:

Note that the downbeat of the second bar is not played or reiterated. This rhythmic device gives a certain edge to a jazz feel that is essential to the maintaining of groove or feel. Listen to pianists in jazz ensemble and notice how infrequently they accompany (or “comp’) chordally on the primary beats of a bar when supporting a vocalist or instrumental soloist. The majority of their chord placements are done on the offbeats of the bar. Rhythmic Phrasing Vocalists and instrumentalists will often take rhythmical liberties with a melody, shaping and contouring the phrases within the melodic line to suit their own individual character. Again, good taste governs these liberties and it is the opinion of the author that before interpreting the melody of a composition, it is important to know the composers original intent. This re-rhythmizing of a melodic line is most often done to give the melody a natural feel when aligned to a specific rhythm, such as the jazz rhythm. For a vocalist it is imperative to project the meaning of the lyric of a composition, thus, the rhythmic re-interpretation often reflects speaking rhythm. Let us examine the first four bars of a melody in its pristine state, and then add some examples of re-rhythmization:

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Example #1 is the melody in its pristine state. The three that follow are rhythmic variations of the same melody (note that the notes didn’t change, just their rhythmic valuation). Advanced interpretation can include tonal variation in addition to rhythmic variation. Note the use of rhythmic anticipation in examples 2,3 and 4. If the method of rhythmic accompaniment to the melody leans too heavily into primary beats, the feeling of swing will be stifled and the result will have a leaden, lethargic quality. The accompanist must regard this element and the use of rhythmic anticipation will add grace and buoyancy to the overall performance.