From: Ethnobotany in the Neotropics G. T. Prance & J. A. Kallunki,

Editors Advances in Economic Botany

1: 62 - 111.

The Ethnobotany of Coca (Erythroxylum spp., Erythroxylaceae)

Timothy Plowman

Ofall the botanical wondcrs discO\TrL'd in thc New World by thc lirst Eurupcan cxplorers. few can compare with tlw l'oc1 plant for its fascinating history. 1ts rcmarkable medicinal propcrties. and 1ts continuing cconomic and pol!t1cil 1m­portance. For millions of South Amcri,·;111 na ti ves. coca not on l y furn i shcs a mi ld stimulant and sustenance for working undn harsh cnvironmcntal co11d1tions. hut also serves as a universal and cffcct1\ e houschold remcdy for a widc rangL' or medica] problcms. The traditional use of coca also plays a crucial symbolic and rcligious role in Andcan soc1ety. Its us,· 1s accornpanicd by complcx rituals. cn­cmony and protocol. such that coca functions as a focus of cultural and social integration. lt has bccn said that chcwing coca is thc most profound cxprcss1011 of Andcan culture ami that. if coca wn,· takcn away from thc India ns. thl·ir tra­ditional culture would rapidly disintq:ratc (Wagnc~. 1978~ Cartcr et al.. ] lJ8(b.

l 980b). In sharp contrast to thc unifying and stabili1ing cffrcts of coca chn\in¿~ on

Andcan culture is the disruptive and convoluted phcnomcnon of coca1m· use 111 \Vcstcrn societies. Because all cocain,· cntcring world markcts is dcrivcd from coca !caves produced in South Amc1wa. the staggering incrcasc in dcmand for cocainc for rccrcational use has a dirt·,·¡ impact on South American econom1cs. politics and. ultimately and most tra~·xally. on indigenous cultures. Thc .\\idc­sprcad use of cocaine, eithcr for pleastm: or work. is a vcry d1ffcrcn1 psycholog1cal cxpcricnce than using coca in a trad11innal setting: thc differcnces bctwccn thc pharmacological cffects of cocainc hyJr,)chloridc takcn. say. intranasally. and thc cffccts of chewing coca lea ves ha\T lxxn cmphasizcd repcatcdly (Mortimer. 1901. Wcil. 1975: Grinspoon & Bakalar. 10"(1: Antonil. 1978: intcr alia). Yct man\ pcoplc still equatc thc use of coca \\1th that of cocaine and f'ail to comprchcnd bolh thc pharmacological and cultural diffcrcnccs bctwccn thesc two rclatcd yct uniquc substanccs. In modcrn socic11c~. pcoplc are fairly wcll acquaintcd w11h both thc plcasurable and dcletcrious l'lkds of cocaine bccause of cxtcnsi\C ncws co,eragc ofthc cocainc .. phenomcn,,n .. rn recen\ ycars. Yet fcw pcoplc are aware

.·ld1·¡¡,1(-t'_1 ¡rz Ft-(lrJOf1lfi.' Rotan\· l 62- l 11. 11./t-..! _, 1 q:--;.,i Thc Ne" York Bntanical Gardcn

of thc bcnclicial cffects of coca chcwing. of thc impo rtance of the use of coca 111 Andcan lifc. or of thc origin and C\'Olution of thc coca plan t.

During thc past d<?cadc. wc havc secn enorm o us progrcss in rcscarch on thc history. chemistry, botan y. and cultural imponancc of coca. Unfortunatcly. most of these st ud ies ha ve be en ovcrshadowcd b y a m uch grca ter prof usion of st ud i,·s on thc pharmacology and chemistry of cocainc and o n its physiological ami ps\ -cholugical dl(:cts. lt is my purposc hcrc to prcscnt an ovcr\'icw of thc botall\. chemistry . and uses of coca by South American nativcs and to rcview pcrtincnt rcsearch on coca which has app<?ared sincc approximatel y 1970. Arcas ofpanicular interest includc recent studies on thc botanical origins of coca . which until thc l 970's rcmaincd muddlcd and misunderstood cvcn by taxonomic botanists: on thc archco logical record of coca. which. although rathcr scanty. had bccn largdy misintcrprctcd by archcologists: and on thc chcrnistry of the coca lcaf. which had nnTr bccn adcquatdy analyzcd bccausc of carlicr tcchnical problcms in making eflicicnt cxtractions and quantitativc measurcments ofthc containcd compounds Thcn'. has also bccn rcncwed interest in the efkcts of coca chcwing. but wc still know rdati.,.cly little about thl' subtlc and complex pharmacology of thc c.xpcri­ence. Lastly. there has been an effort on the pan of anthropologists to d ocumc nt more completely the religious and cultural aspccts of coca in traditional cultures.

Onc arca of study which l will not consider hcrc is the long and cornplcx histor\' of coca aftcr thc Spanish Conqucst. This topic has becn investiga tcd in dcpth by m a n y scholars ovcr a long pcriod oftime but spacc limitations prccludc discussing it herc. Thc rcader is referred to the following works 1n which ncw and notcworthy f1ndings on thc history ofcoca during thc Colonial pcriod are prcsrnted: Uscátcgui. 1954 : Gagliano, 1960 . 1963 , 1965. 1968, 1979: Patiño, 1967 ·. Martín. 19 70: Peña Begué. 1972: Burchard. 1976: Chávez Yelásquez. 1977: Antonil. 1978: Carter et al. , l 980a: Castro de la Mata. 1981 : Bra y & Dollcry, 1983 : Plowman. 1984).

Botany of coca

Many scholars have underes timatcd or ovcrlookcd entircly the irnport:ince or thc existencc of distinct varieties of coca. Although gcographical. ccological. and morphological differences in coca varieties were recorded as early as thc l 6th century . the1r significance was not recognized until the l 970"s (Rostworowski. 1973 : Antonil. 1978 : Plo\.vman. l 979a: Bray & Dollery. 1983). No t until coca leaf becamc an important pharmaceutical product in thc late l 9th century. d1d thc bo tanical origins and varietics of coca become thc object of scientific inquir\ (Plowman. 1982)

Thc crn:a shrub bclongs to thc gcnus Eryrhro.\'_\'/11111 P. Brownc of thc tropical plant family Erythroxylaceac. Most species of En·rhroxy/11111 are found in thc American tropics with about 200 spccics , although the genus also occurs in A frica. l'v1adagasc:1r. India. tropical Asia. and Occania. In thc Ole! World . many wild spccics are c111ploycd in folk medicine (Hegnaucr. 1981 ). but it is only in tropical America wheíe Eryrhroxylum leaves are chewed cxtensivcly as a stimulant and wherc thc plants attain major cultural importancc (Martín. 19 70: Ma yc r. 19 78: Antonil. 1978: Carter et al.. l 980a).

Ali cultivatcd coca is derived from two closcly rclated South American specÍL'S ­E·r.\'!h roxy/11 111 coca Lam. and E. 11o rogra11arc11sc (Morris) Hieron. \Vhereas othcr ncotropical \\·ild spccies of Er1·1hrox1·/11111 may be cmploycd locally as medicines. discussions of "coca" should be confined to thcse two specics.

Until rclativcly rcccntly. only onc spccies of coca-Er.1·1hruxd11111 corn -wa s gcncrally rccogni1.cd (Monimer. 1901: Hcgnauer & Fikcnschcr. 1960: M:1rtrn.

64 FTH~UBOT A:-.:Y ¡:-.; THr t'HH KOPI CS

1970). HowC\-cr. C\"ldcncc. rcsulting from intense ficld and lahoratory studics of coca. has accumulated during thc past dcc:ide and dcmonstrates incontrovcnihl) that two distinct spccics of coca should he recognizcd (Schul1. 1907: Machado. 1972: Gentner. 1972: Plowman. l 979a: Rury. 1981. 1982: Bohm et al.. 1982: Plowman & Rivicr , 1983). In addition. each ofthc two specics ofcultivatcd coca has onc varicty. dcsignatcd E. coca var. ipad11 Plowman and E . llOl'(>gra11a1c11.1< ' var. rruxillcnsc (Rusby) Plowman , respectively. Thc four cultivatcd cocas ofSouth AmC'rica arC' thus trcatcd as follows: E. coca var. coca. E. coca var. i¡wdu. F. 11orogranarc11sc var. nm·ogra11ate11sc. and L. nm·ogranatcnsc var. truxillc11sc.

Ali of thc varicties of cultivated coca werc domesticatcd indepcndcntly in pre­Columbian times and are still employed by native coca chewt>rs in South Amcrica. Each ofthcm was known by a different native name beforc the Spanish popularizcd thc now widesprcad term '"coca." Although they differ appreciably in the contcnt of minor alkaloids and other chemical constitucnts. ali of thc cultivatcd coca s contain thc alkaloid cocaine. Additional importan\ differences among the four varieties , which hithcrto ha ve been overlooked, are found in their leaf and stcm anatomy. ecology. geographical rclationships . and in the methods of thcir culti­vation and preparation for chewing. These differences refkct intensive human selcction overa long period oftime for spccific traits and for successful cultivation in a variety of habitats in distinct geographic arcas (Fig. 1 ).

Although cenain wild spccies may yet be ímplicated in their evolutionary rc­lationships (Plowman & Rivier. 1983). thc four varictics of cultivatcd coca a!"L' more closely rclated to each other than to any other species of Eryrhrox.\'111111. Supcrficially. thc cultivatcd cocas are very similar morphologically, which explains ín part earlicr confusíon in thc identiflcation o f coca spccimens. espccially by non­spccialists (Plowman. l 979b, 1982). Thc varíetics can be distinguishcd b y char­acters of thc branching habít . bark . lea ves. stipules. ílowers. and fruits: but oftcn . cspccially in the case of dried hcrbarium spccímcns. complete specimcns may be nccC'ssary for positive identification . Howcver. in most cases isolated coca lcavcs can now be identified to spccies if not to variety. especially if thc provcnancc o f thc samplcs is known.

Rcccn t studics ha ve provided additional new characters thal permit thc accuratL" and positiw identification ofcoca Jeaws. including archeological spccimcns. Thcsc studies focus on leaf anatom y (Rury, 1981. 1982 ; Rury & Plowman . 1984). íla­vonoids (Bohm et aL 1981 ), alkaloids (Rivicr, 1981 : Plowman & Rivier . 1983). rcproductive biology and breeding relationships (Ganders. 1979: Bohm et al.. 1982). and ecology and geographic distribution (Plowman. l 979a. l 979b, 1984) As a rcsult of thcsc invcstígations. the taxonomic and evolutionary rclationship~

among thc four cultivatcd cocas are now fairly well undcrstood.

ERYTHROXYLU M COCA VAR. COCA. H U.Á,,NUCO OR B OLIV IAN COC.J\

Eryrhro.\T/11111 coca consists of the wide-ranging and economically importan! Andcan variety of E. coca var. coca and thc gcographically restricted Amazonian varicty E. coca var. ipadu. Eryrhroxr/11111 coca var. coca is often refcrred to as '"Bolivian" or '"Huánuco" coca. but neithcr ofthese terms conveys the extcnsivc gcographical rangc ofthc variety. For convenicncc. 1 will use thc tcrm "Huánuco coca" hcrc.

Er_1·rhrox1·/11111 coca var. coca. a shrub 1to3 m tall (Fig. 2). grows mainly bctwecn 500 and 1500 m elCYation but ma y reach 2000 m in sorne arcas. lt is cultivatcd in rcgions or moist. montanc tropical foresta long thc eastern slopcs of the Andes aml in the wctter inter-Anclcan valleys. in thc ecological zonc known gcncrally as

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PLOWMAN : COCA

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65

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66 ETHl"OBOTANY IN THE NEOTKOPI CS

} - 1 ~ 1 . 2. H ah:. 1.il ~ 111a ture . fruiting spccinH._· n of Lrythru.\Thnn n 1ú1 " ar . cocacult i Y 1cd at Tar:1p<.110.

Dcpt . San ~Lir •.¡11. Pcru (!'/1 111 man 6042 ) .

.. monta11a·· (Fig.. 3) . lkca usc it has a L,; rly l irn it C'd ccologícal rangc H1 1{1;1 uco coc:1 is litt k kn O \\ll uu ts1dc it s origi n al a · ;1 in South A mnica. 1-! owc\'n. this var icty i ~ th c principal commc rc ial sourc J coca k aY CS and of m ost oí th c· \\·o rlLl' -. Clicainc supply .

fr <. ;. 3 . Plantat1 o n o f Lry 1hr('.\'\'Í111n coca \'a r. n •n1 in 1hc mni~I. tropical 111011taii;1 hab1t;1t. \;i11

Fran c i~cu . Río :\purimac. D q1t. A yac ucho. Pn u (/ '/<1 1,.,1w11 & Jacol•s 47 1 !) .

Thc gcographical di stribu ti o n of Huánuco coca cxtcnds fro m Ecuador south t<. l Bo li\'ia and no rth,,·cs tcrnmos t Arge ntin a (Fi¡! . 1). Only in Ecuadur. ' 'h l'l'l' sui1:1hk nwist fo rl'st hah11:1t ~ occur on bo1h sidL'!> uf lh l' A nde s. docs th 1s \' ;11·ict\ rc;1 ch lh (· Paci!lc slo pc . It is unkn o wn in Colombia or in thc Ama zon l owl;111d~ .

Through ou \ ib rangc. Huúnuco coca is fo und as wild-growing or !Cral indi' id ­uals in thc und crswry ofpri mary o r scco ndary forcs ts. bo1h ncar and rcrn o tc fro111 arcas o f'prc scnt coca c ulti\'ation. lt is wcll adapted to the montaña habita! ,,Jinc it appears to be a natural compo nen ! of th c f'orcs l undcrstory and ocr ur~ sy 111 -patrically with sncra l wild c rythro:-.ylum s including L 11/ei O. L Schul1 . F . ma111aei Jca :'-. lan .. F . 1110c roc ncnii11111 Mari. . a nd L. 11111cro11u1un1 Uc nth .

l t 1s oftcn impossiblc to distingui sh bct wcen truly wild-gro wing /:' . corn , ·a r. c c>co and plants that ha\'C cscapcd from coca plantations o r that persist ;lf°tl'r plantati o ns arL' ahand oned . Thcrc are apparc ntly no barricrs t\l gene 11uw l>ctwecn '' ild and cu lti\atcd populations. \vhich frcc ly intcrhrccd when growing in prox­imity . Th c small red fruits are caten by bird s whi c h di ssc minatc th c sccds th rough­o ut th c montaña ha bitat. Thcrc are no cssc ntial struct ural ditrcrcnccs hctWL'l'll wild-gro wing and culti\'atcd plants of E. coco var. coco , and thi s vanct~ SL'L' rll S to be 11ttk a ltcrcd morphologicall y. gcne ti ca ll y. o r physiologically through d o ­mcst ication. In this feature . L. caca \'ar. coca difkrs fundamcntall y from man ~ o thcr culti\'atcct plant s. c spccially food plant s. whi ch may bcco mc isola tcd gc­nct1cally from thc ir wild p rogc nit o rs and lose thcir ahi lit y to rcp rodun· in th c \\ ild (Pickn~gill 8: J ki sc r . 1976).

f :' ry t hru xr/11111 coca Ya r. coca is now thought to be a naturally occurring wild spcc ics of th c m o ntaña. from wh ic h thc othcr thrcc cocas ultimatcl y \\Cl'l' dcriH'd

68 ETHNOBOTANY IN THE NEOTROPICS

as cultigcns through human sclcction . Probably L. coca var. coca I• 1cl a morl' limited distribution as a wild species. possibly in castern Pcru in thc arc.i ccntn111g on the Huallaga Yalley. where it frequently is found grov.·ing wild. Subsequrnl rangc extensions northward to Ecuador and southward to Bolivia·. and Argentina probably occurred through man's activities.

ERYTHRO:XYLl l ll.1 COCA VAR. IPADll, AMAZONIAN COCA

Although long-neglected by anthropologists. Amazonian coca. Erythro.\1-/11111 coca var. ipadu. recently has been re-examined by botanists (Prancc , 1972: Plow­man. 19 79 b. 1981; Schultes, 1981; Rury. 1981. 1982 : Plowm:.in & Rivier . 1983) and pharmacologists (Holmstedt et al., J 979). Amazonian coca is closel y allied to E. coca var. coca from which it has originated in relatively reccnt times (Plow­man. 1981 ). The Amazonian variety is cultivated on a small scak by a numbcr of tribes of the upper Amazon in parts of Colombia. Bra1.il and Pcru (Fig. 1 ). Propagated by stcm cuttings, it is wcll adapted to the pattcm ofshif1ing agriculture practiced by semi-nomadic Amazonian peo ples. Amazonian coca d 1 •c·s not surv1 \T

as a feral or escaped plant in the lowland Amazon and may be con, idcred a true cultigen.

Amazonian coca is littlc differcntiatcd from E. coca var. co, ''· and thc 1wo varieties appear to be fully interfcrtile. Amazonian coca contain' thc same leaf ftavonoid profilcs as thc montaña variety. Thc leaf flavonoids hFc been found to be a uscful and unvarying taxonomic character for identifying h"lh cultivated and wild cocas (Hu hm et al .. 1981, 1982). A surprising chcrnic; ,, J iffcrence in Amazonian coc;1 1' a consistently lower cocaine content: this varie 1· 11sually con­tains only about h:dfthe concentrations found in other cultivated coc .. , ¡ Holmstedt c1 al., 19 77 , 19 7q Plowman & Rivi cr. 1983).

Erythrox_11um «uca var. ipadu was unknown to Europeans until the middlc or thc l 8th century. Dctails of its cultivation, use, and geographic distribution wcrc not recorded until the present ccntury. Amazonian coca has no archeological record with which to date its origin in Amazonia, but based on linguistie, eth­nographic, historical and botanical evidencc. Amazonian coca appears to he a relatively recent development. It surely evolved rrom stocks of E . coca var. cod . introduccd from ihe Andean foothills through sekction for traits conducive to it~ cultivation in Amazonia. It is now geographicalh isolated from other coca va rieties.

ERYTHROX YLUM NOVOGRANATENSE

Ervthroxv/um nol'ogranatense now is recognized .. . a distinct species of culti , ·a tcd coca. altlwu¡;.h in the past it oftc1 · as confused -.-. 11h , or considered a varie t of. E. coca (Plowman. 1982). Appreci: e cvidence h:•.\ accumulated that suggesl that this species arase as a domestica: plant throu¡;.ii human selection from 1 coca var. coca (l~,ihm et al. , 1982). Er. 1roxy/um nm·o_i.: · matense differs from l coca var. coca in a number of morph • ; igical features . ·t more significantly, has evolved dist1ndive chemical and c,·ological traits anc ' S become genetical isolated from partntal E. coca var. cr ú l.

Erythroxy/um 11 .>l'ogranatense con ~i sts of two well definnl varieties: E 1101 -.

gra natense var. trllxiflense, Trujillo coca, and E. nol'ogranatl'nse var. 11 0 1·ogr

na tense. Colombia 11 coca . Thcse va rict ies are more strongly di fferentia ted fro each other than E. coca var. coca is from E. coca var. ipad11. Th i ,, suggests great antiquity for the \ ·arieta! isolation and differentiation within . '~ . 110rngra11atc1. than within E , oca.

69

l3oth varicties of F. nnrngrana1c11sc are known today only as cultivatcd plants . Both varictics arr wcll adapted to arid conditions and usually are grown in art'a~

wherc J:.:. cuca could not survive. In both alkaloid and ftavonoid chcmistry. L non.1grana1cnsc differs fundamcntally from E. coca (Bohm et al.. 1982: Plowman & Rivier. 1983). Brceding experiments bctween E. coca var. coca and tht· varictic~ of E . no rograna tcnsc ha ve demonstrated genetic ditferentiation among thcsc taxa . funher clarifying their specific and varietal rclationships (Bohm ct al.. 1982).

ERYTHROXYLUM NOYOGRANATENSE VAR . TRUXILLENSE, TR U JILLO COCA

Trujillo coca is cultivated today in thc rin-r valkys of thc north coast of Pnu bctwccn about 200 and 1800 m elevation and in thc adjaccnt. arid. upper Marañón rinr valley (Fig. 1 ). h is grown today on a relatively small scale for coca chcwing andas a ftavoring for the soft drink Coca Cola :;·. Although it is a highly drought ­rcsistant shrub . it still requires sorne irrigation throughout its rangc (Plowm;1n . l 979b).

Trujillo coca bcars a leaf that is smallcr. lightcr green. and more brittk than k;\H'S of F. <«>ca (Fig. 4) . lkcaUSl" it contains flavoring compounds not found in L. coca. Trujillo coca long has been valued for coca-ftavored wines and ton ics. In the last century. it was highly prizcd in the European and North American pharmaceutical industry for medicinal prcparations (Morris, 1889: Plowman. 1982).

Today. Trujillo coca is gcographically and ecologically isolatcd from othcr cuca varictics. and no hybrids bctwecn thcm have bccn found. Howcver. L m11 ·n ­gru11all'11sc var. 1ruxi!lc11sc has been successfully crosscd with both L. coca var. coca and E . no rogranatens(' var. 1101·ogra11a1cnsc. Successful crosscs wcrc obtained in both dircctions bctween E . 11ovogra11a1cns(' var. nm·ogranatcnsc and E. 11m·u ­gra1101cns(' var. truxil!cn.w The resulting hybrids were vigorous and vegetaliH~ ly

normal and exhibited morphological characters intermediate bclween the two parents. However. most of the hybrids bctwcen these varietics which ftowcrnl showed only 50% pollen stainability anda much reduced seed set. This suggesh at lcast partial rcproductive isoJation bCIWCCn the varieties of E. llO\"(}grana /C ll .\c" rcsulting from their geographical isolation in somewhat diffcrent habitats ovcr a long period of time (Bohm et al. , 1982).

Err1hroxr/11m nnl'Ogranatc11sc var. 1n1xi//cnsc also was crossed wi1h L. cocu var. coca, bu\ with limited success. Although F 1 hybrids wert." obtaincd. thcsc were morphologically and developmentally abnormal. anda number ofthem dicd as st."edlings. Thcy produced no ftowcrs and clearly werc ill-adapted for survi,·al (Bohm et al. . 1982). Although Trujillo coca is in severa! features intermedia1e between E. coca var. coca and E . no rograna1ens(' var. no1·ogra11a1cnsc. it is gc­neti call y much more closely related to the latter. with which it shares impo rtant chemical and ecological charactt."rs.

The leaf ftavonoids of Trujillo coca rcftect tht." intcrmcdiatc nature or th1s va ric ty. lt shares with E. enea (both varieties) the 3-0-arabinosides ofkaempferol and quercetin. whi ch are abscnt in F.. nnrngranatcnsc var. 11m·ograna1c11.1c. How­ncr. both ,·arictics of L 11 0 \'0g ra11a1c11sc contain thc rare ílavonoid ombum-3-0-rutinoside, which is absent in E . coca (Bohm et al.. 1982).

l3ascd upan data currently availablc. Trujillo coca is placed corrcctly in thc spccies E. no m gra natcnsc but must be recognized as a distinct variety withm \ha\ specics becausc o f notcd diffcrences from the Colombian va rict y. Ba sed upon genetic and geographical relationships. i1 is highly probable that Trujillo coca cvohTd dircctly from E. coca var. coca through intensi ve selection for cultivati o n 111 drier habitats and possibly for the more delica1e and ftavorful lea,Ts and a

7(}

Fi( ;. 4 . fl ow<"ri n~ i'r3nch or Truj i llo coca. Fn·1hn i.\TÍ 11111 11orogra11at e11.<r· va r. 1rux1/!c11s1-. culli , ·a ted at Cuilamh;i\. Depl. L1 Lihcn:id. Pcru (J'/ ,lln11an 5t>Cli•).

more robust, lca fy h:ib1t. Trujillo coca subsequcntl y gavc risc to the Colombian variety of E. nm·ogranarcnsc in thc northern Andes undcr similar conditions of gcographíc iso lation and continu ing human -,clcction pressurcs.

ERY T HRO:-: Yll ''.1 :---.:ovoc;RANATEN SE VAR. NO\ ( •C;RANATENSE, COLO MBIAN CC>C A

Thc founh varíety of cultiva ted coca is i.1·.,·rhrox\·/u 111 11m·ograna1cnsl' vai no1·ogra11 ar c11sc. or "Colombian coca." Th1 s -.aricty is distinguí shcd morpholog-

¡ 1

ically frnm othcr \'aricties by its hrig.ht ycllow-grecn foliagc and lack of persisten! stipules. In dried lcaf spccimcns. identification s m;iy he more difficult and rcquirL· anatomical study (Rury . 1981 ). Likc Trujillo coca. thi~ varicty is wcll adaptcd to dry conditions and often is cultivated in the arid . intcr-Andean vallcys ofColom­bia and a long the Caribbean coast (Fig. 1 ). Howcver. it is also grown in moister pans of the Colombian Andes. especially at elevations of J 000 to 1800 m.

Unlike any of the other three coca varieties. Colombian coca is quite toleran! of diverse ecological conditions. and for this reason the variety was introduccd widely in horticulture in the last century and distrihutcd to many tropical coun­tries. both asan ornamental andas a cocaine sourcc (Plowman. J 979a. 1982). lt became an importan! cash crop in Java during thc carly part of the 20th ccntury. introduced there by enlerprising Dutch colonial planters (Reens. J 919a. l 9 l 9b) .

Colombian coca is isolated geographically from other coca varieties. in contras! to the more complex distribution patterns seen in Trujillo and Huánuco cocas . This isolation is accompanied by fundamental changcs in flavonoid chcm1stry and rcproductive biology of Colombian coca . In its leaf ftavonoids . Col o mbian coca lacks the quercetin and kaempfcrol arabinosidcs found in E. 11m·o~ra11a t c11sc var . rruxil!cnsc and E . coca var. coca. but it contains the rutinosidcs~ includin g ombuin-3-0-rutinoside, which are prcsent in L 110 1·11¡.:ra natcnsc \'ar. 1ru.ú l le11sc but lacking in L. coca \'ar. coca (Bohm et al.. 1982).

As mentioned earlier, Colombian coca will not cross with E. coca var. coca . lt does produce vigorous hybrids with Trujillo coca. although the resulting hybrids showed reduced fertility (Bohm et al. . 1982). This suggcsts that E . 11orogra11at<'11sc var. 11 o mgranatcnse is genetically closely related to L. no rogranaten.1·<· var. 1ru ­xil!e11sc n ·cn though sorne rcprodunivc harrins bL·twccn thL·m han.: dn·clopcd as a rcsult of thcir geographic isolation. On thc othcr hand , E. n o i·ogra11 a tN1sc var. no rngranatcnse is genetically much more distan\ from E. coca var. coca . In their hreeding mcchanisms. most erythroxylums are strongly self-incompatibk . distylous spccics. Colombian coca is exccptional in bcing partially sclf-compatihlc and isolated indiYiduals may produce ahundant viahle sccd . Sclf-compatibility is considcrcd a dcrivcd statc in plants with a hetcrostylous breeding systcm. a fa ct that favors the view that Colombian coca is the most specialized and most ren:ntl y deriYcd \'ariety of the cultivated cocas (Bohm et al.. 1982).

Colombian coca is known only as a cultivated plant and rarelv. if e ver. escapes from cultivation. Today it is grown on a small scale by isolated lndian trihcs of the Colombian Andes. primarily in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Mana and in the Departments of Santander. Cauca. and Huila . It is not extensivcly cultivatcd for coca ine production owing to the same difficulties in extracting the alkaloid that are encountered with Trujillo coca leaves; rather , Colombian coca is employcd mostly far chewing andas a household medicine. lt is commonly planted asan ornamental and medicinal plan\ throughout Colombia .

DiscoHry and early cultirntion of coca

A sccnario far man's first discovery and cultivation of coca in thc montaña has becn outlincd earlicr (Antonil. 1978: Plowman . 1979a: Bohm et al.. 1982). Thc palatable. relatively tender. young !caves of E. coca var. coca must have bccn sampled first as a famine food by groups of nomadic hunter-gatherers who carly inhabited thc eastern Andes. At this time. coca existcd as small. scattcrcd pop­ulati ons in the montaña. similar to the distribution pa\lerns ofmany wild spccics toda\' . The stimulant and medicinal properties of the leaves were discoven:d. prob-ably more than once , during this early pcriod of expcrimentation . Once thc stimulating effccts of the leavcs were known . they wcrc routincly gathered fro m

72 ETHNOIJOTANY IN THl. NEOTKOPICS

thc forcst for daily use . Rcfincmcnts in thc use of coca. including sun-d n ng thl' lcavcs. holding thcm in thc mouth as a quid. and thc addition of an :1 ikal1nc suhstancc. gradually dcvelopcd and bccamc customary. Numcrous alkalmc sources have been employcd in chewing coca and with oth cr drugs such as tohacco . In the montaña. the simplest and most rcadily availahlc alkalinc sourcc is the ashes prcparcd fro m a widc varict y of plants (Plowrnan. 1980: Rivicr. 1981 ).

As supplics of coca in the wild became insullic icnt to m ee \ thc nccds of a grcv .. ving. coca-chcwing population. coca shrubs werc transplantcd from the wild. nearcr 10 habitations. so that a constan\ suppl y of leavcs would be availablc. In th1s contcxt. coca must have bcen one of the earliest plants cultivated in thc m ontaña and is impli catcd in thc earlicst developmcnt ofagriculturc in this arca. The lirs t use and cultivation of coca ccrtainl y antedates the first appca r:rncc o f an y archeologi ca l cvidcncc (such as ccramic rcprcscntati o ns of coca chn' n~ or coc1-chewi ng para phnnalia) by severa] thousa nd y ca rs.

Archeologícal eYidence for coca chewing

Th c ca rl ics t suggestion of coca chewing is found in thc Ya Id i via C ul t ur« nn t lw Sama Elena Penín su la in southwestern Ecuador. Hcre small ccramic li rnc· con­taincrs bclincd to be uscd in coca chewing have bccn found that date to\ .1ld1\·ia Phasc 4. about 2100 B.C. (uncorrccted radiocarbon dating). A tradition ' · small. dccoratC'd lim C' pots cxtends through thc Machalilla Cu hure to Chon,·1.i i Ímc~

(300-1000 B.C.) . whcn it rcached it s maximum dcvclopment . A smal l. c·<"ra mi l· figurine ofthe Chagras style also was discO\-ered at Yaldivia that cka rly rc i' l \ ·scn t~ the prominent check hulgc of a coca chcwcr. This piccc is datcd L'lte \ ·a ldiYia ( 1500-1600 B.C. ) and 1s thc ca rlicst known cxamplc ofa long Ecuadorian uadition of figurines dcpi cting "coqueros" (Lathrap et al.. 19 76). Skulls contai 11 111g hc¡l\·y accumulatio n s ofdental calculus. interpreted as an indication ofhca\·y lº\)c-.1 chcw­ing v,ith lime . havc bcen found in a late C ho rrera cemctcry on the Sant :1 Elena Penin sul a (Klepinger et al.. 19 77). Based on the archeological evidence. it .1rpears that the custom of coca chcwing. and perh a ps coca cultivation. was fulh cstab ­li shed in the Valdivia arca by 3000 B. C.

Early CYidence for coca chcwing has bcen found also on thc Peruvia n uias t in thc La te Preceramic Pcriod 6 (1800-2500 B.C.) in thc form ofanifacts rn 1ploycd 111 coca chewing and possibly ofactual coca lea ves . although the bo tanical material has not been idcntif1ed taxonomically. Engel ( 195 7) reponed a bottlc gourd and three .Hn ilus shell s. ali containing powdcrcd lime thought to be used with coca. from a hu rial a t Culebras (Dcpt. An ca sh). Bray and Dollcry ( 1983) ha n datcd this sitc at :1 roLmd 2000 B.C. Engel ( 1963) also found "lea ves looking like coca" al ong with la rge dcposits of burnt lime a t the sitc of Asia in the Ornas Yallcy (Oept. Lima). Asia is radiocarbon dated at 1314 ± 100 B.C. but probably dates to ahout 1800 B.C. (M. Moselcy. pers . co mm.) . Pattcrse>;1 ( 1971) cxcavatcd prc­scrved coca kavcs ncar Ancón (Dcpt. Lima) in thc Gav 1 ·;1 phase datcd betwecn 17 50 and 1900 B.C.: Cohen (1978) al so reportcd coca ' 11 An cón with a date of 1400- 1 ~00 B.C. Coca was one of the items (along h maize and ma rine shclls) swckpiled in a gro up ofstoragc structures at Huan, o Alto in thc Chillón Yalley (Ocpt. Lima), dating between 200 and 800 B.C. (l ehay. 1979). Unfor-tunately . n ·>ne of these early records of preserved "coca" i ves has been botan­ically idcn : if1cd becausc nonc ofthe e 6inal spccimens car · . ., . located .

Archcn lvg.ical coca !caves from mi 1 later sites , primari h hurials. o n thc Pc­ruvian co;t ,• have been availablc for udy , and these ali bcl < · 11 ~ to the varicty L norogra nu: nsc var. tm.Yi//cnsc. Tr· lo coca (Fig. 5) . Thesr •:1Cludc specimcns

l'I ( )\\ ~ 1.-\ ;--; : \ \ )\ ·\

F1< .. ) .. .\rchco lo¡>.1 cal Truj illo coca \caves frc>m an Inca rem eter,·. Tarug.a \' a lkY . Dc pt. k a . l'cru Low1,· 1\1 u; cum of A n th ro po lo g.Y. accession no. 16-1 :14 26. Photogra ph co urt c\\ or thc l .owic 11. l u"· um llf :\ n 1h1u¡ h1 l~1 F ~

from \ ·1sta Alegre in thc Rimac Valky (Dcp\. Lima. apprnx. 600-1000 A D.l: frurn 1lw Yauca \'allcy (Dcpl. Arcquipa. Late Horizon): from Monlc C:irand l' in thc R1 0 Cirand c Vallcy (Dcp\. lea) : and from Chaco ta ncar Arica in rwrthcrnmo sl C hilc (Late H ur i1on ). A numhcr of thcsc spec imcn s wcrc studicd anatom1calh ancl found to corrcspond cl o scly with m odern Trujtllo coca. altlwugh general!; the archcological lea Yes were smallcr in size (Rury & Plowman . 1984) C oca rnd oca rps rcfcrahle to Trujillo coca wcrc reponed from Vista Alegre (Towlc. 1961) and more recently werc cxcavatcd at Chilca (Dcp\. Lima. Lat e lntcrrn cdiatc Pc ­nod ) by Jeffrcy Parsons (pcrs. comm.).

Latcr n iden ce for coca chewing. ineludtng lirrn.' pots. ltmc dippns. and ccramic coca-chc\\ll1g human ligurincs. as well as occasional prcscrvcd ]caves. ha s bcl'n fo und thro ughoul thc Peruvian coast from thc early ce ramie pcriod to Inca times . l3 o th Na1ca a nd Moche ce ramics depict numcrous examplcs of coca chcwcrs \\·ith check bulgc s. o ftcn carrying lime gourd s and dippcrs (Yacovletr & Herrera. 1934: .I o nes. 19 74 : D onnan. 1978 : Jerí. 19 80 ) (Fig. 6)

Fo ll o \\ing thL' early appcarance of coca chewmg throughout thc Formatin· t!l

Ecuad o r. n ·id c ncc for coca chcwing in th c form of lim e pot s ancl " coqu cru" ligurincs aH' rc prcsentcd in ali latcr phascs up until Inca times. cspl'c ially in thc proYin ccs of Manabí . Esmeraldas . and Carchi (cí. Mcggers. 19 66: Drolet. 197 4: '.\:aranj o . 19 74: Joncs. 1974: l3ray & Dollcry . 1983) (Fig. 7).

74 ETH~OBClTAt"Y !'." Tl-11 t"FOTIHl l'I( S

¡., , , (• . Miniawrc n ·ssd dcpic tin¡: thc h,·ad ofa man chcwin¡: coca . Sau,al. Ch1,;1111;i \ ";die '. l >q>t

La Li~rtad. Peru . Moche 111-IV. ca. 300- 600 A.D. Peabm1y Musc um of'Ard1acolot:' and l 1l11H•h•e'.

acce ssion no. 46- 77- 30 49 93 .

.-\rc!Kulogical C\'idcncc for \\·idcsprL'ad coca chcwing in ( ·o lomh1 a is wdl d PL­umcntcd b y a grcat man y coca-rela ted artifac ts. During the first milknn1um .-\.1 > .. 1lw Quimbaya cu hure of1hc middk Cauca Valky (ncar thc modnn cil\ or l'n\'ir:1 l produced numerous, beautifully crafled. gold lime pots. along wi1h gold lirnt· d1ppc rs . Sorn e a re furni shed with gold-bcadcd ncck laccs so that thn ma\ be wurn ln add1tion. gold figurines carry ing gold lime po ts in thcir hands ha\C bccn rc ­covcn: d from this culture arca (.I o nes. J 974~ Antonil. 1978: !fray. 1G78:1 krn1rn11 g. 19 78). Ceramic lime pots reprcsenting coca chcwcrs are also known frnm Cul,Hn ­bia (Fig. 8).

In tht' San Agustín cu liurc in thc Dcpanmcnl uf Hui la in southcrn ( "cil<>mhia. a number ofmonolithic sta tucs ha\'(' bccn found tha t s trongly suggcsl coca cht·wing by th e prcsencc of extended check bulgcs and small bags (for coca lc;1\cs) slu11g across thcir chests (Pérc1 de Barradas. J 94(' Uscát egui. 19)4: Re1ch cl-Dolrna1 ofl . 1 ()72: Antonil. 1978 ) (Fig. 9) . Onc partia ll1 dcstroyed statuc known as 'TI Ct• ­qunn" al El Tahlú1 · !ll 1hc \·;ilky or San :\ idn"s de l'is1111hal:1 d1\\1ll t' lh slH>WS ;¡

PLO\\'MAN: COCA 75

F1ci. 7. Tairona rniniature jar depicting seated figure with large check bulgc. probably a lime poi reprcsenting a coca chewer, San Pedro de la Sierra. Ciénaga. Dept. Magdalena. Colombia. Museo de Oro, Bogotá. accession no. CT 1383. Photograph by Roben Feldrnan.

small pouch hanging from one side and a lime gourd from the other (AntoniL 1978). The San Agustín statues are dated approximately to the first millennium A.D. The town ofSan Agustín long has been, and continues to be, a major center of coca cultivation and distribution in thc upper Magdalena Vallcy.

76 U HNU!llfl Al'Y IN THE NEOTROPI( ·s

Fic,. 8. Cnamic figures of coca chewcrs of thc Capuli stylc from Dcpt. Nariño, Colombia. 800-1250 A.O. Righl figure from Museo de Oro. accession no. CN 3115: left figure from Musco Arqueo­lógico del Banco Popular, Bogotá. accession no. N-8511. Photograph by Rotx-n Fcldman.

Although therc is archeological evidence that coca also reached funher north into Central America, these findings are of a considerably la ter date than thosc in South America. Lothrop ( 193 7) reponed a small, carved bon e head with a prominent cheek bulge from Sitio Con te in the Coclé culture of Central Panama. which is dated betwcen 500 and 700 A.O. This figurine closcly resemhles figurines from Manabí Provincc in coastal Ecuador as wcll as the early Yaldivia figurinc discussed above. Stone ( 1977) mentioned small figures of gold and stone from the Diquis region of Costa Rica that show the characteristic check bulges of coca chewers.

Only in coas tal Peru can we identify thc variety of coca being employed beca use of thc remarkablc prcservation of delicatc plant materials in thc arid descrt cn­vironment. Trujillo coca appears to be present herc around J 800 B.C., although it probably cvolved as a distinct variety clsewhere (Plowman, J 984). Wc havc no direct cvidence from archeological leaves. but it may be prcsumed that L. coca var. coca was being cultivatcd and utilized for chewing much earlier in thc east Andean montaña of Peru and Bolivia. Both Trujillo and Huánuco coca probably were used in different parts of Ecuador, where appropriate dry and wct habitats for thcsc varieties are prcscnt. Colombian coca certainly was thc variety

PLOWMA N: ('()C A 77

- -- ... \.. ... .. . 4 - - - - - ...,,--

-~~ .~ :·~~:¡~~

_~,~~ ;:}~:~~~~,~~~~? -~·- .. . ;.. ;

. __ ,,.

..... \.. . -.... .

______ :... ...... -----t ... -·-.---,....-· ...-_ .... .... ~.-- - - 1 1 . - ,

~-:~· ........ -, .. . • ·:.. _..

j-' ..

• ~ . t . • ' .. '

F1G. 9. Largc triangular stonc fa cc with styliz.ed check bulges suggesting coca chcwing. San Agu stí n Culture . San Agustín, Dept. Huil a, Colombia , first millennium A .D.

uscd in thc m o untains of Colombia, along the Caribbcan coast and probably 111

Central Amcrica (Plowman, 1984).

The cultirntion of coca

The severa! varieties of coca are grown under diffcrcnt ecological cond iti ons and their methods of cultivation vary from region to region. Coca is grown on a much largcr scale and in a more organized way in Peru and Bolivia than in Colombia or in Amazonia , where until recently there has been little commcrcial production.

COLOMB!AN COCA

Colom bian coca (E. novograna !ense var. novogranalense) is produccd in rcl a­ti vely small plots , averaging perhaps one-half hectare (Antonil, 1978). Plantings are laid out on ftat or gently sloping areas rather than on steep slopes as practiccd in Peru and Bo livia . Although most planta tions are found between 1000 and 2000 m elevation , the better quality coca (i .e., higher cocaine content and srnaller leaf) is grown at the upper limits ofcultivation. Colombian coca shrubs are allowed to grow much larger and bushi er and are more dispersed within a planting, in contrast to Huánuco and Bolivian cocas which are kept relatively small and are planted in neat , straight rows.

78

.--:---

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:_:_- : .· :: ... • .--.--.

--: ·t;-

. . ' ~ .

ETHNOllOTANY IN TI!l-_ NEU1 RllPICS

' . -~~ ~- .

\ ·-1 -- . -~ ..

F1c;_ 10. Plantation ofTrujillo coca . Er_1·1hroxylum nol'ogranatcnsc var. tmxillcnsc. growing under sh ade of Inga _kwllci in it~ arid habita! at Collambay, Dept. Trujillo. Peru .

Colombian coca is gro\\'n cxclusivcly from sced that is gathcrcd in conjuncuon with thc main harvcsts. Thc sccds are plantcd immcdiatcly in a shallow scccl hcd . \\' hcn thc young scedlings emerge. thcy are shadcd from direct sun: thcy are not planted out until they are 20 to 30 cm tall. Plants are ready for harvcsting aftcr ahout two ycars. Dcpcnding on local conditions of climate and soil. lea ves may be harvcsted two to threc times per year. Each bush produces about 500 g of lea ves per harvcst (Bejarano, 1945). Throughout thc mountains of Colombia (111 contras! to thc Colombian Amazon). coca is pickcd exclusively by women and children . Only thc mature leaves are harvcstcd . and they must not be overripe (Antonil, J 978). Thc middle-aged to oldest lea ves on a branch ha ve thc highcst cocainc contcnt. wh erca s the youngcst )caves havc considcrably lowcr valucs (Rivicr, 198 1). During harvcsting. a branch is hcld in one hand whilc thc ripc !caves are picked off one at a time with thc othcr hand. As in the harvesting of ali varieties of coca . it is very importan! not to damagc or break thc terminal huds on thc twigs, since these will furnish the flush of leaves for thc subsequcnt harvcst.

TRUJILLO COCA

In coastal Pcru ancl thc upper Marañón valley. Trujillo coca (E. 11oi-ograna1c11sc var. 1 nn-illl'l1sc) is cul 1 i va tcd in reta ti vcly tla t arcas a long thc vallcy bot to.ms known as "playas." where the fields can be irrigatcd from rivcrs by means of irrigation canals or "aséquias." Trujillo coca shrubs resemblc Colombian coca in habit and are allowcd 10 g.row rclatively largc and bushy. with ample space lcft bctwccn

PLOWMAN : COCA 79

F1 (;_ 11 . T c rr;1e·cJ planlal1011s o!" llo li \"Í:rn coca (lc"rnhru.\·_)"/11111 coca '"ªr. coc·,1) in thc Yu ngas rcg.iun

bc twccn Coro1co a nd A yapa ta. Dcpl. La Pa7. Boli'"ia (l'/mn11a11 & Dans 5 ¡ c 9¡_

cach plan\. Fidds must be irrigat cd rcgul arly bccause Trujill o coca is grown cxclu siYcly undcr arid conditions; howcvcr, it is rcmarkably resistan! to droug.ht and surviYes long periods when no irrigati on wa ter is aYailable. Bccause of th c intense and desi ccating solar radiation in thc Peruvian desen. Trujill o coca o ftt'n is provided with up to 50% shadc by bcing planted undcr the lcg.uminous tfl'L' lngu .f(•uil/ci D C. (Fig. l 0).

Trujillo coca is harvested similarly to Colombian coca. bu1 beca use about 7 5t}o

of thc Trujillo crop is so ld for industrial purposcs (Coca Cola' production) . lhc !caves may be harvested less carcfully , with an entire branch be ing stripped of its !ca ves in one fcll swoop. Trujillo coca m ay be ha rvcsted three times ayear , usua ll y in December. l\1arch or April, and July. Durin g thc Peru,ian wint cr (Junc tu Septcmbcr). thc shrubs grow very slow ly and produce thc smallc st crop of th c year.

Hü Ál"UCO COCA

Huá nuco o r Bol ivian coca (E. coca var. coca) is cultivated along the eastcrn fl a nk s of thc Andes from northern Peru to Bolivia (Figs . l &: 3). Thi s is an area of gencrally high rainfall and fertile soils. covered naturally by m oi st tropi cal fo rcs t Alth ough 1hi s variety is cultinted generally bet wcc n 500 and 2000 m. th c best quality and highest yicld s are produced a! l 000 to 1500 m. Thc highcs1 cocaine con tcnt in Huánuco coca is fou nd in plants grown above 1500 m. but plants grow much slmver at this altitude.

80 ETHNOiH) TANY IN THE NEOTROPICS

Plantations of E. coca var. coca may be constructed with or without tcrraccs on stcep m ountainous slopcs ("coca de la altura") (Figs. 11 & 12) or on ftattcr arcas without terracing along valley bottoms ("coca de la playa") . Coca rcquires a well drained soil; plantations on slopes are preferred and produce a better quality. stronger lcaf. Howcvcr, in sorne dricr valleys, such as La Convención in Cuzco . coca de la playa has the advantagc of available irrigation during thc more markcd dry season (July to October) (Gade. 1975).

New plantations, with or without terracing. are carefully constructed on ncwly clcared land (Fig. 12). Bccause of the high rainfall and steep slopcs throughout much ofthe eastern Andes, soil erosion is a serious problem . Terraces constructed a long the con tours of the slopes help to prcvent excessive run-off. but thcse must be constantl y maintained . The best constructcd terraces are found in the Yungas coca-growing region of Bolivia. but even hcre erosion has destroycd many arcas for further production and many extant "cocalcs" are planted on poor rocky subsoils (Fig. 13).

After a field is prepared. new plantings are started in at least two different ways. Traditionally, seeds culled from a recen! harvest are planted in a protected, shaded nursery ("almáciga") with a light covcring of fine soil. The young sccdlings grad­ually are cxposcd to more and more sunlight, and after about threc to four months. they are ready to be set out in rows in the fields. Seedlings are plantcd fairly close together to allow for la ter thinning of unhealthy or discased plants and for natural attrition. Density ofplants varies from place to place. In the Peruvian departments of Ayacucho and Cuzco, coca shrubs are allowed to grow taller and are spaced further apart than in the Bolivian Yungas, where plantations resemble rows of low coca "hedges." In Cuzco and Huánuco. the young coca seedlings in a ncw plantation may be interplanted with manioc (Manihot escu/cnta L.). which serves as protective shade during the first nine months or so of growth.

In Huánuco , coca seeds may be planted directl y out in the fields. Shallow holcs 20 cm square and 40 cm apan are dug in rows running up and down the hillsides without terracing (Fig. 14) . Manioc is often pre-planted in anticipation to provide shade for thc young coca seedlings. Seeds are planted directly in the boles and thinned eventually to four plants per hole, which then are allowed to grow up in place. Because there is no terracing and plants are planted in rows running up and down the slopcs , erosion is cspecially scrious in Huánuco . Topsoil from a newly prepared field soon washes away. As the roots ofthe shrubs become cxposed with the heavy rains, soil from between the rows is heaped up around the plants. resulting in gullying ofthe fields (Fig. 15). Although coca will produce surprisingly well under thesc conditions . the lateritic soil eventually becomes hard and will support little orno vegetalion , including aggressive wccds. aftcr coca is taken out of production.

Once establishcd, a plantation of E. coca var. coca will start producing after one to two years and reach maximum productivity in about five years. If plan­tations are wcll maintained by weeding and erosion control, they may be pro­ductive for 40 years or more, ahhough producti vil y decreases after 1 O to 15 years (Albo, 1978). In most arcas where E. coca var. coca is grown, three to four harvests ayear are possiblc. In mos\ arcas. there is lil\le orno fertilization ofthe plantations . In ecological tcrms. coca is an ideal crop for the steep. wet slopes of the eastern Andes since it is able to surviYe and remai'1 productive for years on heaYily leachcd soils that will suppon no other crop plants. In Huánuco. owncrs of largc coca plantations ("fundos") employ modern agricultura! methods by fertilizrng their plantations and applying herbicides and insecticidcs (Plowman & Weil. 1979). These well managed cocales. which largely suppl y the clandestine cocainc mark et, may produce up lo six crops a year.

PLOWMAN: COCA 81

F1Gs. 12-13 . 12 . New\y cons tructcd tcrraccs for planting coca (Erythro.\du111 coca Yar. coca) in thc Apurímac Vallcy. Dcpt . Ayacucho. Pcru . 13 . Ncwly plantcd sccdlings of Boli Yian coca (Eryt hr,,x. y/11111 co,·a Yar. coca) in high ly crodcd soils in thc Yungas rcgion ncar Ayapata . Dcpt . La Paz. Bo li Yia .

82 ETHNOBOTAl"Y IN THE NEOTROPICS

fJ(;. 14. Typica\ construction of a new plantation of Huánuco coca (Errrhro.\T/11111 coca var. cc>rnl near Trngo María. Dept. Huánuco. Peru. Secds are plante-el clircctly into the f1clds in shallow. squarc pits excavatcd in vcnical rows on hillsicles.

fJ(;S. 15-16. 15. An olcl p\antation ofHu:inuco coca (Ln·1hro.\y/11111 coca var. coca) show1ng h1gh\\ lcachcd soil and gullying of f1elcb. Tingo María. Dcpl Huánuco. Pcru 16 Sun-drving of ka,·c\ cd Tru.11'!0 coca (Lrnhroxrlum 1wrugra1wrc11.1c var. 1nn1//ensc) at Collamh:l\. Dcpt. La Libertad. Pnu

15

---. "· • .

1 i

' : , \

83

84 ETHNOBOTANY IN THE NEOTROPICS

F 1c ;. 17. Mixing lea ves ofTruj illo coca ( L ry1hrr>.Yl'iu111 n1 •1·ogru n a1c11s<' var. 1n1.11 ;'.',·11st') fn1m J1f­

ferent arcas or nonhcrn Peru at the warehouscs of E NACO in Trujillo.

Produc1ion yiclds ,·ary considcrably from arca lo arl·a. In Pcrn . yiclds in 19 7 1 varied from 41 O kg/ hectare (Dept. Madre de Dios) 10 1200 kg/ hcctarc (Dcpt. San Manín) . \vith a national average of 810 kg.lhcctarc. Yiclds of Trujillo coca grn­erally were highcr than those of Huánuco coca (Da ncri Pérez. 19 74). In Bolivia. 197 2 yields in the traditional coca districts of thc Yungas averaged only 260 kg hectare. whcrcas the relativcly new Chapare districts avcragcd 851 kg •hectarc (South. 1977).

AMAZONIAN COCA

In contrast to other varieties of cult1vaté'd coca , Amazonian coca (E. coca qr. ipad11) is grown from stem cuttings. Entire plots may be dcrivcd from a single clone. ami fcnile seed rarely is produccd. Ycgclativc propagation of Am;11onian coca is an adaplation 10 the shifling slash-and-burn agriculturc that is practicnl among tribes in the Amazonian lowlands. Soils are poorer than in thc Andes . and new fields must be cieared every two or thrf'e years. Stem cuttings up to 30 cm long and onc cm in diamctcr are mcrcly inscrtcd in to thc ground tlÍa n·cwly cica red and burned fieid. Root formation is rapid. a nd within six wccks the ncw plan1s ha ve lcafcd out. Plants are ready for first ha rvcsting aftcr about s ix months (Pl uw­man, 1981 ).

Thl' pn·paration of coca ll'aH·s for chewing

Aftcr harvcs1ing, coca lea ves of ali \aric1ics must be dricd quic kly and co m­pktely to preserve 1hcir llavor and tcxlurc for chcwing and thcir alkaloiú conll' lll

··---- ---------

PLOWMAN: COC A 85

for chcwing and for cocaine extraction. Techniques of drying vary considcrably depcnding on variety and geographical area.

C OLOMBIAN COC A

Colombian coca (E. nol'ogranatense var. novogranatense) always is dried by toasting in ceramic pans overa slow wood fire while constantly turning the lea ves to prevcnt buming. The characteristic bright yellowish green color of the lea ves changes to a yellowish brown during this process. The strong aroma of methyl salicylate prcscnt in the fresh leaves is largely lost during toasting and is rcplaced by a grassy, smoky ftavor. When the leaves are completely dried and removed from the pan, they are extremely brittle and cannot be chewed in this state. As in the case of ali coca in which the leaves are chewed whole, it is necessary to allow them to reabsorb ambient humidity until they become soft and pliable . This sometimes is referred to as .. sweating." After it is picked, Colombian coca may be packed into large sacks and Jeft to ferment slightly ovemight befare it is dried. This technique, along with pan-toasting, alters the taste as well as thc chemical composition of the leaf, but the details of thesc chemical changes are unknown.

Most Colombian coca is consumed locally for the purpose ofchewing by Indians and mestizos. Only in southern Colombia is there any significant commerce in coca lea ves for chewing, and then only on a small scale. In spite of the problems oí extracting cocaine frorn Colornbian coca (Plowman & Rivier, 1983), therc exists sorne illicit production in both the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and in the southern mountains. Most cocaine exported from Colombia, however. is processed thcre from crude cocaine paste manufactured in Peru. Bolivia. and recently the Amazon (see below under Huánuco coca).

TR U JILLO COCA

Trujillo coca (E . no\'Ogranatense var. truxi/leme). owing to the hot. dry clima te where it is grown , always is sun-dried . The leaves are laid out on large cement or earthcn patios and constantly tumcd until they are completely dry (Fig. 16). During the drying proccss, Trujillo coca emits an intense odor of wintergreen, which is immcdiatcly noticeable in storage rooms, even days aftcr drying has bcen com­pleted . The odor, however, diminishes rapidly and oíten is gone by the time the !caves reach the highland markets.

Trujillo coca represents about 6% ofthe "official" Peruvian crop, not counting illicit coca production for cocaine manufacture. Ofall a reas where coca is produced in Peru, those a reas ofTrujillo coca are most closely controlled by the government coca monopoly, the Empresa Nacional de la Coca (ENACO). Plantations are carcfully overseen by ENACO officials, especially in the Department oí La Li­bertad near Trujillo. Relatively little of the Trujillo crop is used for cocaine manufacture, but we have almost no information on Trujillo coca production in the re mote a reas of the upper Marañón valley.

Seventy-five percent of the Trujillo crop is destined for export to the United States for extraction of ftavorings for the soít drink Coca Cola® and, as a by­product, for the extraction ofpharmaceutical cocaine. Trujillo coca from the en tire growing arca of this variety is shipped to ENACO warehouses in Trujillo. wherc lea ves from different areas are mixed together to produce a more uniform product (Fig. 1 7). These are then packed into bales of 80 kg each and shipped to New York from the port of Salaverry near Trujillo (Fig. 18). In 19 70. o ver 45 0 mctri c tons of Trujillo coca were exported.

86 ETHNOBOT ANY IN THE NEOTROPICS

t.

~ ·.• (

~

-.

F1c. 18. Packing !caves ofTrujillo coca (Eryrhroxylum 11ow¡gra11a1e11sc vac rno:illcnsc) into bales al thc ENACO warehouses in Trujillo. Peru. Thcsc !caves are destincd for export to Ncw York for use as tla,·orings in Coca Cola.

PLOWMAN: COCA 87

F1 G . 19. Large drying oven (secador) for drying !caves of Huánuco coca (Ernhroxv/11111 n•<"il va r . .-c•,·11) on the nu1sk1rts ofTingo l\laría . Dcpt . Hu:\nucu . Pcru .

Hl .-\1\LJCO COC.\

Leaves of montaña-grown coca (E. coca var. coca) ma y be sun-dried or O\Cll­

dricd. Ocpendmg on local clima te and the time o f yea r. lcaq:s may be la1d out on open patios to dry 111 the sun like Trujillo coca. Beca use of thL' constan\ thrcat ofrains in man y parts ofthc montaña , thc crop frcqucntly is damaged by moi sturc. lf !caves become wet during the drying process , they quickl y begin to fcrnwn t. turnmg brown and becoming highly unpalatable. Leaves of t .'. coca var. coco are most susceptible to dcterioration of any of the varicties and rapidly undngtl chernical changes during fermentati on m which malodorous anúnes are prociuccd. The prese ncc of high levels of aromatic o ils in Colombian a nci Trujillo coca may retard or pre vent this decomposition. since these varieties deterioratc less rap id ly. Coca that has been poorly dried is considered of lowest quality and commands the lowest price: it is unsuitable for chewing and has lost most of it s alkaloid con ten t.

lkcausc of tht' probkms of drying largc amounts of coca in thc mont;1iia. commercial growers in Huánuco now rely on large drying ovens ("secadores") !irl'd by wood (Fig. 19). Thcsc oftcn are two- o r thrcc- storiecl buildings with many layers of racks covered with po rous cloth on which the lea ves are placed . The firc is built in a furnace at ground leve! so that heat rises throughout the building. Large quantities of !caves can be dried thoroughly and quickly in as few as 12 hours. Therc are numerous secadores in the coca districts around Tingo l\1aría. and small growers often sell their fresh coca to the owners of thc secadores for drying. A number of the larger and more conspicuous secadores around Tingo l\laría havc lwcn closcd by thc authoritics b\_·causc of thcir associat1on with illicit

88 ETHNOOOTANY IN THE N EOTROPICS

F1G. 20. Prcpara ti o n o f coca pi sada in which lea ves o f Lrythroxy/11111 coca var. coca are pourn.kd or tra mpled prior to drying to create a distinctive fla vo r, Mantaro Yalley. Dcpt. Huancavelica. Pi:ru. l'h o tograph court csy o f O sear T o var.

coca ine production. C oca production in Huánuco far exceeds that whi ch 1s rc­quired by nativ e chewers.

High quality , :nontaña-grown coca is recognized by i1 ight to mcdium green co lo r and fr csh, "coca .. odor and flavor. Huánuco coca i ~ ·izcd for its uniform. intact , freshl y d r:cd !caves. which result from thcir be in , •ven-dri cd and th en sifted to rcmov l· .maller and brok rn !caves (Weil . 1976). ;e re is cons id erable commerce in co i» leaves for nativc •. hewing within Peru an c. i'.olivia. since high­land chewers oiL ;1 prefer lea ves f1 ' •m onc growing district ,,r another. As with any \·cgetabk ¡•:.»luct. coca cons1 :qcrs are highly sophis tiu11,:J in thcir apprc­ciatio n o f coca · ::dity and variet rnd m ost ha ve specializcd individual prc ícr­ences.

O ne intcrestin ':uiation in th< 1 rc paration ofmo ntaña coca is known as " coca pi sada" o r ''tra1 ¡' :cd coca." TI '~ proccss is employcd in sou thern l'eru in the coca-growing di s• r:cts ncar Cuz• u . in the tvlantaro vallcy in J !uancavclica, and probably elsewll<.' rl~ . Freshly har, 1·s tcd coca lea ves are spread o ut on the dry ing p:itio or ground ª '": then tramp' ·,! by one o r two ba rcfoo t workt: r\ o r l ·at e n with sti cks or spec ial i'•nmde rs for ;; ' 1, .ut half an hour (Fig. 20): thc y are ,hcn dri<.?d no rmally in th c ·"1 11. The pound 1n¡: procedurc causes thc :eaves 10 dcvclo p a dark. brownish color ;111d special fla" ur. which is preferrcd by sorne .'h<.?wcrs (Bücs,

PLOWMAN: COCA 89

F1c. 21. Coca vendors in the central market in Cuzco. Peru. The various bags contam cuca of d1fferent quality and from different arcas of southern Peru and nonhern Bolivia.

1911: \Vcil, 1976). This produces a typc of fcrmcntation in thc !caves, but une that diffcrs from fcrmentation causcd by spoilage. Coca pisada is sold in the markets oí Cuzco as "Cuzco negra" along with "Cuzco verde" and othcr varicucs (Fig. 21 ).

As soon as montaña-grown coca is thoroughly dricd. it is allowcd to "swcat" to bccome pliablc. lt thcn is packcd into largc bales weighing about 60 kg. In Huánuco, the baling material is made from a specially wovcn. eoarse wookn fabric known as "jerga": in Cuzco. a muslin cloth is used. The choice of material is imponant bccause the packed !caves nced to be protected from the elenwnts during transportation, but at the same time must "breathc" to prevcnt fcrmcn­tation. In commercial growing areas such as Cuzco and Huánuco, thc !caves are pressed into bales with large, mechanical, hand-driven presses.

The fastcr thc !caves destined for chewing are transponed to the dry and cok! high-altitude Sierra, the better their quality and commercial value are preserved. The serious problem of detcrioration of coca during transport from the f1eld to markets long has been recognized and was one of the chief obstacles to the 1n­troduction of coca to Europc in the l 9th century (Lyons. 1885: Squibb. 1885: Rus by, 1888: Morris, 1889; Mortimer, 1901 ). The fantastic claims by South American explorers for the virtucs of coca lea ves could not be matched by the stale and moldy leaves that reached Europe after a months-long sea voyagc. Traditionally, coca was tr:rnsported from the montaña to thc highlands by llama caravans or by human bearers; this largely has bcen rcplaced today by trucks ami in sorne cases mule trains.

Throughout the montaña, a growing pcrcentage of coca production is di verted

90 ETHNOBOTANY IN THE NEOTROPICS

for making crude cocaine paste or base ( .. pasta"), which is f( ':ldily prepared from dried leaves under primitive conditions in the areas of cult1vation. Clandestine factories ("cocinas" or "pozos") are numerous in the expanding coca districts oí Tingo María in Peru and C hapare and Santa Cruz in Bolivia. Only a few common chemical reagents are necessary for extracting cocaine paste. including sodium carbonate, kerosene, and sulfuric acid. Dried coca leaves are reduced in bulk by 200 to 400 times in making the paste, which is in tum easily transported to more sophisticated laboratories in urban arcas. where the paste is further purified into cocaine hydrochloride. No one knows the extent oí illicit coca production in thc montaña. Estimates vary wildly from one source to another, and no recent esti­mates appear to be reliable because of a tendency of government agencies to underestimate or overestimate production, depending on their vested interests. For example, in Peru alone estima tes of coca production vary between 20 and 50 million kg of lea ves pcr year. In 1974. Boliv ia produccd 12 mili ion kg which was double the production for 1971(South,1977). For 1978, Bolivia officially reported a production of 19.5 million kg of coca lcaves, but the amount consumcd for chewing was not known (United Nations, 1980).

AMAZONIAN COCA

ln the western Amazon, the leaves of E. coca var. ipadu. Amazoni:rn coca, are dried by toasting o ver a slow fire in special ceramic bowls or pans ( Fig. 22), a method similar to that employed for Colombian coca. Amazonian ,·pea leaves are harvested and prepared daily because of the rapid spoilage of CllCa in the tropical lowlands. The lea ves are toastcd to dryness, thcn reduced to a li m· powdcr by pounding in a special mortar and pestle ("pilón"), followed by carcful sifting (Prance, 1972; Plowman, 1981; Schultes, 1981) (Fig. 23). The reason for prcparing Amazonian coca as a powdcr. in conJrast to thc chcwing of wholc coca !caves elscwhere, probably is a consequcncc oí the largcr, unwicldy leaí sizc and low cocaine content oí Amazonian coca (Plowman. 1981 ; Plowman & Rivier, 1983).

Until recently. there was no commercial production oí Amazonian coca. ::rnd it was virtually unknown except to a handful of botanists and anthropologists working in the Northwest Amazon. However, in the mid- l 970's. Colombian cocaine traffickers discovered coca in use among certain Amazonian tribcs. Al­though the Amazonian variety is much lower in cocaine content than Peruvian and Bolivian montaña coca, the Colombians found that it was easier to extract cocainc from thc Amazonian vanl'ly than írom !he traditional coca grown in thc mountains of Colombia (i.e., E. novogranatense var. novogranatense). Cocaine entrepreneurs moved into those areas of Amazonian Colombia where coca was used traditiona lly on a small scale by a few lndian tribes. Encouraged by strong economic incentives, these tribes began growing more coca and selling it to the Colombian nationals, who began niaking not only cocaine paste but also pure cocaine hydrochloride in Amazonian laboratories. Traditional areas of coca use in the territories of Amazonas and Vaupés werc exploited first. Subsequcntly. Amazonian coca was taken to the "llanos" of eastcrn Colombia where plantations \Vcrc started in remote arcas of the Departments of Meta and G uaviarc. !he effcct on the traditional cul tures of the area, as well as on the trad itional a nd healthful use of coca, has been devastating. Visitors to the area report that social and cultural disintcgrati on has proceedcd atan alarming pace, as thc Colombian "mafia" has taken complete control of sorne indigenous areas (B. Moser. C. & S. Hugh-Jones & A. Weil , pcrs. comm.).

P U)\\ ' \1 .-\ :": t ' t l< .·\ ')\

F11 ;_ 22. Bo ra tribcsrnan toasting lea ves of Ar11~11on1an coca l Fryrhro_\T /11111 ,·n, ·u , ·;u 11 ,¡u/u) 111 .1

spcc1a l ccramic bo wL Brillo Nuevo. R ío Yagu:isyacu . Dcpt. Lorc to. Peru . Not'' :.1s d is1 cn,kd dll't'~ co n1a111 ing a quid of powdncd coca. P hotograph niunes ~ · of La urcnl Ri"icr .

The chemistry of coca

.\ 1t hough at lcast l 5 di ffc rcnt alkaloids ha ve bce n repo n ed from th c k a\ t's ,, t thc cultivated cocas (Will a man & Schubert, 196 1; Turner et al.. 198 1 a) :rnd t'rcqucntly are citnl in thc litcr;1ture, thcir cxi stL' IlL'C in tlll' li\lllg plant It'\'t' illh has bccn quest1 o ncd (Rivier , 1981; Plowman & Ri v ic r, 1983). In a ckta1kd s tud ~ o f ali four varieti cs of c ultivatcd coca. only coca in c a nd cinnamoykocai m· \\ L·r,· nwasurcd by CIC -M S (P lo wman & Rivier. 198 3). T he natural ocn1rrcn cc or ¡Ji,· ot hcr repo ned a lka lo ids in coca rcrnain s to be d c m o nstra tcd \\ ith carc fu ll y nal­ua tcd mct hod s using m od ern ana lytica l tcc hni ques on fresh a nd ·o r \\ cll prcst'nt·d p lant m at er i als~ thcsc Olhcr al ka loid s may in l'ac t prove to be :irt ifaL't S (lf thc stn ra gc and cxt ract ion proccdu rcs.

In th c mos t co m plete a lka lo id an a lys is of coca to date (Plo\\111;1n L\: Ri\icr. I 9S.\). lile d rin l k ;l\TS or t l1L' li.iur c ult i\alcd Yari,·til'S \\l'Je L' .\a111 ined for ¡¡J\.; ;ilu id s us i ng sta ble i su tope in terna! standa rd p rtK cd u res for q uan l i li c11 ion . Thc ka' ,-s of Ernh rox.1·/11111 coca Yar. coca showcd a mean of 0.63% nxainc (3 0 sampks) . \\·h1ch compares fa" o rably with ca r licr rqiorts of thc alkalu1J l°lrn tcnt ll f tlii s

92 ETHNOBOTANY IN THE NEOTRUPICS

f·tt>. ~J. llur" tribc·sman siftrnga mixture oípulveri1ed coc·a le;l\CS (Fn·rhro\T/11111 ,·,1ca s·;11 1¡1u,/11)

and leaf ashes of Cecro¡na sciadoph\·/la Mart. through a cloth bag. Brillo Nues·o. Río Yaguassacu. Dept. Loreto. Peru. Note both his chccks are íull of powdercd coca. Photograph ,·ourtcsy of Laurent Rivier.

sariety (C1uffardi, 1949: Machado, 1972: Holmstedt et al.. l 977. Turner et ;li. 1981 b). Thc· sample of this varietv with the highest amount of cocaine (0.9\l'\o) came from Chinchao (Huánuco, Peru). an area where coca 1s grnwn near the uppcr altitudinal li11 ·s ofcultivation (1600-1800 rn). This lcnds crcdcnce to thc bcl1cf tha t. alt hough t.' Ka grows slowly at su ch altitudes. i t produces a more potcnt ka L

PLOWMAN: C"UCA 9]

Leaves of E . coca var. ipad11 . Amazonian coca. contained the lowest amount s of cocaine with a mean ofonly 0.25% (6 samples). The cocaine content o fthis lowland variety is consistently low. even when grown under controlled labo ratory con­ditions. and appcars to be gcneticall y controllcd (Plowman . 1981 : Plowman & Rivier. 1983).

Lea ves of both varieties of E. norngranatcnse produced higher conccntrations of cocaine than the "classical"' variety. E. coca var. coca . Colombian coca (!:' 11 0 1·ogranate11se var. norogranatensc) yielded a mean ofO. 7 7% cocaine (3 sa 111 ples) . and Trujillo coca (E. no1·ogranatcnse var. truxillensc) showed a mean of O. 7 2% cocaine (14 samples) . The highest cocaine concentration ( 1.02%) of ali the cul­ti vated cocas was found in a sample of Trujillo coca (P/owman 56 00) collccted at Simba! near Trujillo, Peru . This finding contradicts an earlier belicfthat Trujillo coca is lower in cocaine content than other varieties (Mortimer, 1901; Machado. 1980).

Both cis- and trans-cinnamoylcocaine are found in all four varicties ofcultivated coca . Cinnamoylcocaine always is found together with cocaine and never alonc. Both varieties of E. 11 01·ogranatense contained much higher concentrations of cinnamoylcocainc than cither varicty of E. coca. In both varictics of /:·. 11 o r 11 -

granatense, the amount of cinnamoylcocaines may exceed that o f cocaine . al­though the ratios between the alkaloids varied widely from sample to sample.

Severa] earlier workers recognized the high percentage of what was thcn callcd "uncrystallizable cocaine," especially in Java coca (E. 11orogra11atc11sc var. 11 o ro­granatc11se) (Morris , 1889; Hesse, 1891 : Mortimer, 1901 : Reens, 19 l 9a). Thc uncrystalli zable fraction of these varieties now is thought to contain the cinna­moylcocaines . Using methods employed at the turn ofthc century, chcmists found difficulty in extracting and purifying pharmaceutical cocaine fro m lcavcs o f L novogranatense. Cocaine was produced from Java coca by first hydrolyzing thc relatively high amounts of total alkaloid to ccgonine and then scmi-synthcsizing cocaine from this base.

In addition to alkaloids, coca leavescontain a wide variety ofothcr constitucnts. man y of which are incompletely known (Hegnauer, 1981 ). Both varieties of E. no l'Ogranatense contain high concentrations of methyl salicylatc (wintergreen oil) (Romburgh , 1894, 1895; Reens, l 919a) and probably other aromatic oils th at gi ve a distinctive fla vor to the dricd leaves and provide the basis for thc use of Trujillo coca as a ílavo ring in beverages. Only minute amounts ofmcthyl sali cy latc ha ve been reported from E. coca (Romburgh, 1894, 1895). An arra y of f1avonoids dcrived from quercetin and kaempfcrol also have bcen identif1cd in thc cultiva tcd cocas and are useful taxonomic markers . The flavonoids of both varieties of E. coca are identical, but those ofthe two varieties of E. nOl'ogranatense differ bo th from one another and from E. coca. Both varieties of E. 110 \'0granatcnsc contain the rarc flavonoid ombuin-::.-0-rutinoside. which is absent from E. coca (Bohm et al.. 1981 ). Nonc of the flavonoids of coca is known to be pharmacologically active.

During the 1940's, a small group of public health officials in Peru campaigncd vehemently against the native use of coca . which they perceivcd to be detrimental to the heallh ofthc Indians. One oftheir arguments was that coca chewing rcsultcd in malnutrition because they believed that coqueros chcwed coca in lieu of food (cf. Saenz, 1941 ; Gutiérrez-Noriega & Zapata Ortíz, 1948 ; Kuczinski-Godard & Paz Soldán. 1948; Zapata Ortíz, 1970). Thcse arguments havc becn rcfuted re­peatedly as unscientific (Burchard; 1975: Grinspoon & Bakalar, 1976; Caner et al., l 980a). During the 1970's. a numbcr ofstudies demonstratcd that coca leavcs in fact contain impressivc amounts of vitamins and minerals (Machado, 1972:

94 ETHNOBOTANY IN THE NEOTROPICS

Duke et al.. 1975: Carter et al.. 1980a). In one study (Duke et al.. 1975). thc amounts of 15 nutrients in coca !caves were compared to averages of thesc nu­trients present in 50 Latin American foods. Coca was found to be higher in calorics (305 per 100 g vs. 279), protein (18.9 g vs. 11.4 g). carbohydratc (46.2 g vs. 37.1 g). fibcr (14.4 g vs. 3.2 g). calcium (1540 mg vs. 99 mg), phosphorus (911 mg vs. 279 mg). iron (45.8 mg vs. 3.6 mg), vitamin A (11.000 IU vs. 135 IU). ami rihoílavin (1.91 mg vs. 0.18 mg). Bascd on thcsc data, 100 g of Bolivian mea lea ves would more than satisfy the Recommended Dietary Allowance for refercncc man and woman in calcium, iron, phosphorus, vitamin A. and ribofiavin. Picón­Reátegui (1976) pointed out that vitamin A intake in Andean populations is vcry low. so the extremely high vitamin A content in coca leaves would supplcmcnt this deficiency significantly. However, sincc thc time whcn thc nutritional valuc of coca was proved, no researchers have conducted studies on the actual or poten tia! contribution of coca in nativc dicts. A quid of fincly powdcrcd Ama­zonian coca gradually dissolves with saliva and may be completely ingested. and the intake of nutrients in this case would be higher than in chewing wholc !caves.

Coca chewing

THE MECHANICS OF COCA CHEWING

Coca !caves are chewed in a relatively uniform manner throughout thcir arca of use, although there exist numerous minor variations. The greatest divergcncc from the normal pattern is found in the Amazon, where coca is used in powdcrcd form. In the Andes, the act of chewing coca is accompanied by a complcx series ofrituals that are deeply embedded in traditional Quechua life. These are discusscd in detail later.

Coca always is dried before use; this facilita tes the rapid relea se of thc chemical constituents from the !caves during chewing. The dried leaves are placed in thc mouth one or a few at a time and slowly moistened with saliva. Almost im1rn:­diately, a rich green juice issues from the lea ves and they become soft and pliablc. They are then moved about the mouth with the tongue and rolled into a ball or quid and pushcd into onc check. Coca is ncvcr actually chcwed, but rathcr thc moistened quid ofleaves is sucked u pon to extract the juices, which slowly trickle in to the stomach. In South America, a number of words are used specifically to denote coca chewing: "mambear" (Colombia); "chacchar," "acullicar," "pijch­ear" (Peru, Bolivia); "coquear" and "mascar" (general).

The juice that emanates from thc quid is distinctive in ílavor and dcpcnds somcwhat on the variety of coca. Generally, coca has a grassy or hay-like laste. with a hint of wintergreen in Trujillo coca. During the carlicst stages of chewing. all coca varieties are distinctly bitter because of the prcsence of alkaloids. This bittcrncss is countcractcd by thc addition oían alkali substancc. such as powdcrcd lime or ashes-or even baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) among non-native chewers. The alkali not only "sweetens" the chew but also noticcably potentiates its effects, both in numbing the cheeks and tonguc (through thc anesthetic effect of cocaine) and by increasing the stimulating effect. Additional doses of alkali pcriodically are added to the quid to maintain its effect on the chew; more !caves also may be added until the quid reaches an optima! size for the chewer.

The amount of time the coca quid is kcpt in the mouth varíes, depending on the individual user, from about 30 to 90 minutes, after which the quid is spat out. Amount and duration of chewing depends in part upon the cost and avail­ability of lcavcs in a particular rcgion. The amount of coca chcwed also varíes according to individual taste. ranging generally from 25 to 75 g ofleaves pcr day.

96 ETHNOBOTANY IN TI!! NFOTROl'ICS

F1G. 24. Archeological lime gourds (Lagcnaria siceraria) from coastal Pcru. Left: Lime gourd with pyroengraved anthropomorphic and geometric decoration. from Hacienda Hurnaya. Huacho. Huaura Valley, Peru, ca. 1000-1475 A.D. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Fthnology. accession no. 46-77-30/6189. Right: Small undecoratcd lime gourd with carved figure on dipstick. Cajamarquilla. Rimac Val ley. Dqll. Lima. Peru. dale unn:rtain. possibly Middlc llorirnn. ca. 600-1000 A.D. l'cahod) Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, accession no. 46- 77-30.16088.

transfcr the lime from the gourd to the quid in the check (Fig. 26). In southcrn Colombia, the Paez Indians mercly pour the powdercd lime from their gourd onto the palm or back of the hand and toss it onto the quid in the mouth. But rn southern Cauca, the lime normally is not pulvcrizcd, but is uscd in the form of a hard lump. Small pieces are bitten offand inserted into the quid (AntoniL 1978).

In the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta on the Caribbean coast of Colombia. India ns ofthe Kogi and !ka tribcs continuC' to use coca in ccnturics-old, traditinnal patterns (Reichel-Dolmatoff, 1953; Ochiai, 1978). Only thC' mcn of thcse tribcs

PLOWMAN : COC.-\ 97

E u

(Y) ••• A B

'fi~·~ ~ t¡1ll )_

F1 <; . 25 . .-\lkaline admixtures employcd with coca kavcs. A . Small balls of ash madc from quinua stem s (Chenopodlum qulnoa Willd.). C uzco. Pcru (l' /owman 7 940) B. Spirals of a sh madc fr o m q u inu:1 stcms . (;uaq ui. Dcpt. La Par , Boli ,·ia ( /'/01rn w 11 ' 94 /). C. C rud c lime kn o wn a~ 111 a1nhc .

prepa red by baking natural limcstonc . San Agustín . Dcpl. Huila. C olo 111bia (l' /owm an 7(,1 4 3) D "Fingcrs" ofash madc from quinua stcms and ílavorcd w ith anise and raw 'ug.ar. La Parada markct. Lima . Pcru (P/o\\'man 760 2) . All four samplcs rnrrcspo nd to thc scak in " A ."

chcw coca. which they carry in elaboratc wovcn bags slung a round tlll' should ns. Thc gourds uscd in this arca are panicularly large and phallic in shapc. a rélkction of the sexual symbolism that coca ch ewing reflects among these groups. Wh1k chewing coca, the coca-laden saliva mixed with lime habituall y : ; rubbed \\ith thc limcstick a round the cnd of thc gourd . The lime precipita ; ·s as ca k1un1 carbonate and gradually builds up to form a thick rim in thc forn of a cylindcr or disc (Mariani , 1890; Reichel-Dolmatoff, 1950; Moscr & Taylor . 1965: l3illip . 1979). The rim is carefully trimm ed and molded and is a sv mbol of pridc and status. sincc it dcmonstrates a man's dcdication to coca chewi1~ g . A paintcd f\1uch­ica vcsscl dated about 500 A.O. from the nonh coast of Pcru sh ows thrcc enea chewcrs using nearly identical lime gourds with large, disc-like rim s (Kutschn. 1q5 5: 8-9) . AL"Cord i ng lo Joncs ( 197 4 ). lhcsc coque ros wcrc 1hough 1 In be .. fllr­cigncrs" beca use of their triangular cheek markings and dangling ear ornamcn1s: whcthcr or not they might ha ve come from what is 1oday Colombia is not known . Howcver, it does suggest that the curious rnstom of fashioning elabora te rim s on lime gourds was more widespread in the pa st and that there may havc been cultural contacts bctwccn Peru and Colombia atan earl y date .

In the Andean highlands and montaña o r southern Peru and l3olivi·a and in tlw Amazon basin. the preferred alkaline substance for coca chcwing is madc frorn ashes from a variety of plants and plant parts. This admixture usually l3kcs thc form o f a moist black paste or. whcn dried , a grey rock-likc substancc. lt 1s kn own as "llipta" or "tocra" in Peru and "lejía" or "Jluq:1" ("llucta ' ') in l3oli,·ia. The

98 ETHNOBOT . .\NY li" THE ~EUTRll!'ICS

F1t> . 26. Pcru\'i:rn mcsti¿o adding powdncd lime to hi s coca ,1uiJ w1th a s1na ll stid;. Thc lime " carried in thc srn:ill gou rd in his hand. B:i lsas. Rill Marai1 ó n. Dcpt. Arna;onas. Pau .

d1,·icling !me in thc Andes between the n o rthern líme-gourJ-using cuca d 1''"l'r' ami the suuthcrn llipta uscrs lies appruximately at thc hnrder uf tlw Pnu' i:111 dcpanmcnts of Huánuco ancl Paseo. Along thc Pacif1c ,·oast. thc use of lim e and lime gourds ~tppc:Hs to be unÍ\"Crsal.

PLOWMAN: COCA 99

Llipta is prcparcd from a largc numbcr of plant spccies (Fig. 25). In a gi\cn arca and habitat. one ora few llipta sources will be preferred. In the high Andes. the prefrrred plant ash comes from two species of cul11vatcd chenopods. which are Chcnopodium quinoa Willd .. "quinua ," and C. pallidicaulc Aellcn. "cai1ihu:i." Also in thc highlands, llipta may be made from the roots of faba beans ( 1 ·1c1a faba L.) and from the stcms and fruits of severa! species of columnar cacti in thc genera Cercus. Trichocercus. and Clcistocactus. In the tropical montaña of thc eastern Andes . maize cobs, ,Husa roots. and cacao pods comrnonly are burned to make llipta. In both arcas numerous wild plants also are exploited and prcfcrred locally by coca chewers. To prepare llipta, the plant is burned thoroughly to a fine ash and then mixed with water. Starchy potato water may be uscd to hold the ash together. The resulting pasty mass then is molded into cakes in a varicty ofshapes and sizes dcpending on local custom. Llipta may be ftavorcd with variou s spices such as anise or chili peppers (Mortimer. 190 l; Antonil. 19 78). In ordcr to use llipta, a small piece of the hardened cake is broken off and insertcd with the fingers into the quid. One must be careful not to Jet the llipta touch the inncr surfaces ofthe check since it may cause painful burns. The quality ofllipta varics apprcciably and may be extremcly alkaline and caustic , or mild . vcry hard and rock-like. or soft and crumbly. Hard llipta dissolves slowly. and onc piecc may serve to supply an entire chew with alkali , without the frequent reapplications that are necessary when chewing coca with powdered lime.

In the Amazon basin and Andean foothills. ashes of Cecropia or Po 11ro11111a trees are used as the alkaline source for coca chewing. The Mashco ofthe southcrn Peruvian montaña burn the trunks of a Cecropia species to as hes: thcsc are frncly pulvcrized and stored in a bamboo tube. The ash then is added to thl' quid of whole coca lea ves with a small stick , not unlike the use of a lime gourd and lime stick in coastal Pcru (Califano & Femández Diste!, 1978). In the Bcni arca of northern Bolivia. ashes are prepared from thc spathe of the "motacú" palm (Schcelea prínceps [Mart.] Karst.) and are stored in a cow's horn. A small-lea\'ed form of E. coca var. coca is chewed in this area as a quid ofwholc !caves to which the motacú ash is addcd (Le Cointe, 1934; Davis, 1983). A numbcr of tribes in the southern montaña, including Campa, Machiguenga. Mashco , and Chimane. chew whole coca lea ves with ashes. Further north in the "selva" arcas of lowland Amazonia. coca always is chewed as powder. pre-mixed with finely sifted Crcropia or Po11ro 11111a leaf ashcs (Plowman. 1981: Schultcs. 1981) or with banana lcaf ashes (Prance , 1972). Only Amazonian coca , E . coca var. ipadu. is prepared in powdered form.

Rivier ( 1981) measured the pH and buffer capacity of 17 different samplcs of coca alkali admixtures, including lime, llipta, and Cecropia leaf ashes, among othcrs. The pH of thcse substances rangcd from 10.1 in llipta made from quinua stcms to 12.8 in lime made from marine shells. Llipta contains high amounts of calcium. magnesium , and potassium salts , the proportions varying according to the source (Gosse, 1861; Cruz Sánchez & Guillén. 1948: Bakcr & Mazcss. 1963). Bakcr and Ma1css ( 1963) bclicvc that thc calcium containcd in llipta ingestecl during coca chewing is an importan\ source of this element in the diet of coca chewers.

Besides the addition of alkaline substanccs, a numbcr of othcr plants may be uscd along with coca. Thc most importan! ofthese is tobacco, a drug that is found almost universally among tribes that use coca. Contemporary Andean coca chcw­ers frequently smoke cigarettes while chewing coca or even smoke as a substitutc for coca whcn chewing is not possiblc (Fine, 1960). A soft tobacco paste is madc in a numbcr of arcas and addcd to the coca quid by mcans of a small necdlc.

100 ETHNOBOT ANY IN THf NEOTR OP!CS

This custom is especially conspicuous in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Mana ancl in the northwest Amazon, where the tobacco paste is called "ambira" and "ampiri." respectivel y (Uscátegui, 1954). Tobacco paste is prepared by slowly cooking tender tobacco !caves with water; a "bush salt" made from the ashes ofone ofa number ofplants then is added to the resulting syrupy paste. In the Amazon. th e addition oftobacco paste at the beginning ofa chew ofpowdered coca stimulatessaliYation and greatly facilitates the formation of a quid from the powder (Plown .in. 1981 ). Tobacco in snuff form is used with coca by the Mashco in the Peruvia i montaña (Califano & Femández Diste!, 1978) and by severa! tri bes in Colombia ( dscátegui. 1961 ).

A littlc known but interesting coca admixture comes from a bignnniaceous vrne . Mussatia hyacinthina (Stand!.) Sandw., known as "chamairo" (Plowman, 1980: Davis, 1983). The bark of the stem of this liana is added to the quid of wholc coca !caves among the Campa and Machiguenga of eastern Peru and al so among the Ch imane and other groups of northern lowland Bolivia . Chamairo is u sed as a flavoring and swcctcncr for thc coca quid and al so ma y be chewed alone (with ashes but without coca) as a stimulant and medicine. In northern Peru, Trujill o coca quids may be ílavored with the dried lcaílets of Abrus prccatorius L.. known locally as "mishquina" or ''miski miski." The foliage of Tagctcs pusilta HUK. is used with quids of E. coca var. coca in southern Peru , a nd the aromatic rcsin of Protiu111 heptaphy//11111 (Aubl.) March is employcd in thc Colombian Amazon to f'la vor Amazonian coca powder (Schultcs. 19 5 7).

THE EFFECTS OF COCA CHEWING

The primaf)' effect of chewing coca is a mild stimulation of the central nervous sys tem resulting from the assimilation of cocai ne from thc lea ves (Holmstcdt et al., 1979). Sorne workers (Montesinos. 1965: Burchard, 197 5) ha vc suggestcd th a t the ecgonine derivatives of cocaine may play a role in the combined c!Tects o f coca chewing. but their interesting th cories ha ve not been confJrmed by controllcd experiments. In addition , the minor alkaloids presumed to be presen t in tht: coca lea fh ave been implicated in the effects of coca chewing (Mortimer, 190 l; Martin. 1970) , but little is known of the biological activity of thesc compounds. Rivier ( 1981) has shown that thc only othcr alkaloid prescnt in coca lea ves at significan! leve Is (greater than 1 % of amount of cocaine) is cinnamoylcocaine. and th1 s compound is not known to be pharmacologically acti ve. If othcr alkaloids are indeed présent , they exist only as trace constituents.

During coca chewing, free cocaine base is absorbed rapidly through thc bucea! mucosa in th c mouth and to sorne extent in the gastrointestinal trae!. Cocainc is measurable in blood plasma five minutes after coca chewing bcgins. which gi vc s a measure ofthc rapidit y ofcocaine assimilation. Peak lc vel s in plasma are rcached one to two hours after chewing begins (Holmstedt et al., 1979), although thc major subjective etfects are felt within the first half hour of chewing. Peak blood levels of cocaine ingested during coca chewing are highly variable and depend upon severa! factors, including dose and concentration of cocaine in thc leaf material, absence or presence of alkali admixtures, and indi vid ual cxperiencc of the chewer, among others. Blood levels of cocaine during chewing may a pprox­imate , but generally are lower than , those found after intranasal administrati on of cocaine (cf. Javaid et al., 1978; Holm sted t et al. , 19 79; Paly et al., 1980). Surprisingly, no modern detailed pharmacological studies of coca chewi ng in native coca chewers yet have been conducted, although numerous such studics have been conducted on cocaine users.

PLO\'.'MAN: COCA 101

The stimulation experienced during coca chewing givcs a sensc of increased energy and strength, a suppression of the sensation of fatigue, an elcvation of mood or mild euphoria , and a sense of well being and contentmcnt. Coca al so produces a temporary loss of appetite. Owing to the release of cocáine in thc mouth during chewing, there is a pronounced numbing scnsation of the cheeks and tongue, which results from the anesthctic action of cocainc. 1 ·ine is no e"idence that coca chewing rcsults in tolcrancc or physiological depe1 ; lcnn:, nor does it show any acute or chronic deleterious effects (WeiL 197 5; Gnnspoon & Bakalar, 1976; Carter et al., l 980a).

Even though cocaine is thc principal and most powcrful conslitucnt of coca lea ves, the complex effects of chewing coca leaves, especially those that are ex­ploited in medicine. cannot be equatcd with thc comparatively straightlorward eflects of using cocaine. As mentioncd carlier, coca is a complex mixture o f chemicals, including alkaloids, essential oils, flavonoids, vitamins and minerals. and other natural leafconstituents, many ofwhich still never ha ve been cxamined in coca. For example , coca has a soothing effect on disordcrs of the stomach and intestinal tract and is used in folk medicine for a wide spcctrum of complaints. Montesinos ( 1965) suggested that ecgonine, a breakdown product of cocaine. may relax dirc.·ctly intestinal smooth musclc, and thc beneficia! effccts on digestion or the volatik oils. such as methyl salicylate, are well known. Furthe rmore . coca stimulates oral secretions and may change sccretion in other parts ofthe gastroin­testinal tract (Weil, 1981 ). In spite of these possibilities, coca's mechani sm of action on the gastrointestinal trae! remains unknown.

Burchard (1975) and Bolton (1976) have suggested that coca chewing atrects carbohydrate metabolism among Andean coca chewers. who typically live on high starch diets. Burchard believes that coca may protect against thc devclopment of hyperglycemia and ofreactive hypoglycemia following oral glucose loads ingested by Andean chewers and suggests that this effect may in vol ve ecgonine. one of the products of cocaine hydrolysis . Although experimental evidcnce for thcse meta­bolic effects is lacking, Weil ( 1981) suggcsts thal coca be tested as a possiblc treatment for diabetes.

As many workers have pointcd out , it is completely erroneous to equatc tlw pharmacological effect ofcoca chewing with that ofthe use ofhighly conccntrated cocaine (Mortimer, 1901 ; Martin, 1970; Grinspoon & Bakalar. 1976; Wei l. 1981 ). Howevcr, until the complex chemistry of coca lea ves and the pharmaco logy of their constituents are studied in detail, the highly benclicial. yet subtlc, medicinal and restorative effects ofcoca remain unsubstantiated by modern medica! studics.

Uses of coca as a stimulant and medicine

Whether in the high Andean altiplano or in the Amazonian lowlands , coca 1s employed principall y for work (Burchard, 1975 ; C'arter et al .. I 980a; Plowman . 1981 ). Workers will take severa! breaks during the daily work schedule to rest and chew coca, not unlike the "coffee break" in Western society . Coca chewers maintain that coca gives them more vigor and strength and assuages feclings of hungcr, thirst. <:old (in the highlands), and fatigue . Coca is chewed by rural peoplc in ali kinds ofprofessions that require physical work, especially farmers , herders. and miners in the highlands and by farmers , fi sherman , and hunters in the low­Jands. Coca is especially highly regarded when making longjoumeys on fooL both through the rugged mountains of the high Andes and through the Amazonian forests. lt rarely is possible to carry adequate suppli r s of food on such treks. and coca is considered the best form of sustenance: th i~ fact was recognized by the

102 ETHNOllO TANY IN TllE NLOTKOPI CS

earliest European observers in South America (cf. Mortimer. 1901: Martin . 1970). In such situations. coca temporarily postponcs the necessity for food . but it nevcr takcs thc place orfood. [ven today . coca is prcfcrred by long-distancc truck drivers in the Andes to keep them alert on dangerous mountain roads and to sustain them for long periods.

Miners in Peru and Bolivia always have depended on coca to protect them during their unhealthy and exhausting work. After an initial period of condcm­nation and prohibition of coca . the early Spanish administrators rcalized that only with coca could the lndians be forced to work in the silver mines . Miners believe that coca helps them in a numbcr of ways: as an cncrgizer. as a filtcr against the penetrating dust and toxic gases, as a stimulant to combat drowsiness. and as an almost magical substance that reduces hunger (Carter et al. . l 980a. 1981 ). Undcr thc harsh environmental conditions in the high Andes and lowland Amazon. coca chewers believe that only coca gives them the strength 1 ) do thcir work, to maintain good health. and to protect them from disease.

The second most importan! use of coca is as a medicine, and th1s u e is inex­tricable from the Indians' belief that coca is a protector and prcserver of health. lt is significant that many South Americans. Indians and non-lndians. who do not regularly chew coca leaves as a stimulant , will cultivate the plant and use thc leaves medicinally. As an interna! medicine, coca is both taken as an infusion and chewed as a quid. Probably the most importan! medicinal use o f coca is for problems of the gastrointestinal tract. lt is the remedy of choice for dysentery. stomachache, stomach ulcers , indigestion. cramps, diarrhea. and other painful conditions (Martin, 1970; Fabrega & Manning. 1972; Hulshof, 1978: Carter et al. , l 980a, 1981; Weil, 1981 ; Grinspoon & Bakalar, 1981 ). Coca also is used commonly, by lndians, mestizos and foreigners alike, for the treatment of the symptoms of altitude sickness, or "soroche," which include nausea. dizziness. cramps, and severe headaches. A related use of coca is to counteract motion sickness. a use that has received little attention in the literature (Weil. 1981) Owing to the anesthetic effects of cocaine, coca !caves are an excellent home remedy for toothache (Hulshof. 1978). Coca also serves as a dentifrice. and it is commonly believed that coca helps to protect teeth and gums from decay and disease and to keep the teeth white (Martin , 1970; Weil , 1981 ). Coca frequentl y is used to ease rheumatic pains, taken both in an infusion and simultaneously as a poultice over the affected part (Martin, 1970; Hulshof, 1978: Carter et al.. 1981 ). Coca poulticcs also are applicd extcrnally for headaches . sore throats. wounds. broken bones, and irritations to the eyes. Coca also is widely empl oycd for nu­merous minor and miscellaneous ailments. such as hangovers. hcmorrhagc. arncn­orrhea, asthma, constipation, and general debilitation (Gagliano. 1979: Grinspoon & Bakalar. 1981; Weil, 1981 ). Of special importance to the lndian. coca is an extremely valuable remedy for a number of Andean "folk" or "traditional" ill­nesscs, which lie outside the realm of Western medicine yet play a major role in the Andean medica! beliefsystem (Fabrega & Manning. 1972: Carter et al.. l 980a. 1981 ). In Peru . these illnesses include "soka," a condition of weakness . fatigue. and malaise; ··fiero ." a chronic wasting disease : ''locura ." severe mental distur­bances; and others . Similar illnesses, often attributed to supernatural or magical causes , are recognized in Bolivia. Coca , often used in conjunction with other medicinal herbs, is a primaf)' remedy in treating such disorders (Carter et al.. l 980a, 1981 ). The importance of coca in relation to these diseases is closcly associatcd with its reputcd magical propcnics and role in religious lifc.

Since the turn ofthe centUf)', the importance ofcoca as a medicinal plant largcly has been ignorcd by Western scientists. who identitied the coca leaf' with cocainc

PLOWMAN : COCA 103

and prcferred to experiment with thc pure, isolated compound. As a result. coca leaves completely disappeared as a pharmaceutical product and no longer wcrc available for investigation in the United States or in Europc. lronically, cven today physicians' narcotics licenses in the United States clearly state that thcy have permission to dispense coca leaves. In the mid- l 970's, intcrest in the thcr­apeutic valuc of coca was rekindled among scientists as part of a general reawak­ening ofinterest in coca. Toda y coca again is being studied for possible applications in modem medicine. Weil ( 1981) has recommended that coca be studicd for severa! therapeutic applications, including: l , for painful and spasmodic condi­tions of the en tire gastrointestinal tract; 2, as a substitute stimulant for coffee in persons who suffer gastrointestinal problems from its use or who are ovcrly de­pendent on caffeine; 3, as a fast-acting antidepressant and mood clevator without toxic side effects; 4. as a treatment for acute motion sickness: 5, asan adjunctive therapy in programs ofweight reduction and physical fitness; 6, as a symptomatic treatment of toothache and sores in the mouth; 7, as a substitute stimulant to wean users of amphetamines and cocaine from those drugs, which are more dangcrous and have highcr abuse potential; and 8, as a tonic and normalizer of body functions .

The role of coca in religious and social life

Coca plays a central role in the daily lives of many different groups of South American Indians, not only as a stimulant and medicine, but also as a unifying cultural and religious symbol. The very act of chewing coca in Andean com­munitics is an ancient and basic cultural tradition by which the lndian identifies and reaffirms his or her place in the world. It should be noted that in many arcas. such as the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in Colombia and in the Amazon basin. women are forbidden by custom to chew coca, but in othcr areas. especially in the high Andes of Peru and Bolivia, women use coca with as much relish as men.

In Peru and Bolivia, the traditional act of chewing coca involves a complex series of personal rituals and etiquette. The first step is to select two or thret> lea ves from the coca bag. These are known as "k 'in tu." They are carefully placed one on top ofthe other between the thumb and index finger. The k'intu is brought in front of the mouth and blown lightly upon , and simultaneously the coquero invokes the local gods and spirits of the hills and sacred places around him. This act is known as "pukuy." The leaves then may be used to forma quid for chewing or may be crushed and blown away with additional prayers and incantations (Gifford & Hoggarth, 1976; Wagner, 1978). Wagner (1978) has described how these seemingly simple ritual acts ofusing coca serve to orient the Quechua Indian in a broader cultural Cl'ntext of time and space and in his rcligious studics and social affairs.

In traditional Andean communities, coca is prcsent at ncarly every public and prívate event or actiYi\\. It is a requisite symhol of friendship and good faith at ali popular and rclig iom festivals, engagements ind weddings, baptisms , funerals . inaugurations of public officials, and formal ª .1d informal meetings at which contracts are formali zed and business arrangem, · '· made (Quijada Jara , 1950; Frisancho Pineda, 197 3: Gifford & Hoggarth, l 97 t ( :1 rter et al., l 980a). Offerings ofcoca are necessary to propitiate the gods on many. · asions, such as the planting of crops, insuring a pnx luctivc ha rvest, or laying thc ·merstone for a new housc (Martín, 1970). Therc is l'Ssentially no domestic or soc . !Ct that is not solcmnized by making offerings of, or by chcw111g, coca (Quijada 1. ~ a. 1950). Coca is con­sidered a spiritual protector for tra\ cling in unfamilia1 ;, rritory whcre strange and malcvolcnt spirits abound (Qui1ada Jara , 1950; Wagncr. 1978).

104 ETHNOBOTANY IN TllE NEOTKOPICS

Coca always has been a major means of exchange in trade networks throughout the Andes, particularly betwecn the tropical montaña and the high sierra and altiplano regions. Such trade networks apparently are descended from Inca times or earlier (Burchard, 1974). Long-distance trade in coca became evcn more ex­tensive during the Colonial period after the Spanish took control of coca pro­duction to supply the silver mines at Potosí in Bolivia (Gagliano, 1960).

Coca is a medium of exchange not only of products but also as a symbol of friendship. Wherever coca is chewed, exchanges of coca lea ves or coca powder are considered the most gracious form of greeting when people meet while trav­eling. Such exchanges form an immediate bond of friendship and trust and are accompanied always by the usual formalities of coca etiquette. Gifts of coca are often olfered by a young man to a girl's parents to obtain their consent for marriage (Martin, 1970), and bundles of coca will be included in the dowry (Gilford & Hoggarth , 1976).

The religious and shamanistic use ofcoca probabl y is very ancient and originatcd from thc psychoactivity produccd by chcwing the !caves (Martin, J 970). Ritual coca chewing enablcd shamans and priests to medita te, to enter trance-like states. orto communicate with the supematural world, evcn though coca produces slight mental distortion comparcd to hallucinogcnic plants such as Datura and Banis­f('Tfopsis or even tobacco.

Many sacrcd practices associated with coca chewing have disappcarcd among tri bes whose numbers were dccimated or who lost their cultural identit y after the Spanish Conquest. However, such ceremonies involving coca still exist among the Kogi and related tribcs of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in northcrn Colombia. These rituals have been carefully documented by the Colombian an­thropologist Reichel-Dolmatolf ( 1950). Only the men among the Kogi a re pcr­mitted to cultivate and chew coca although women are responsible for harvesting the !caves. Kogi m en describe the most important elfect ofcoca chewing as mental lucidity, which they value for ceremonial meetings, personal rituals , and rcligious activitics in general. They assert that coca makes their bodies tingle and rcfrcshcs their memory so that they can speak, chant, and recite for hours on end . They consider the suppression ofhunger caused by coca chewing a great advant ge but not hccausc they lack food. T o thc Kogi, fasting is a prcrcquisite for ali f \ 1gious ceremonies, and by consuming only coca, they are better able "to speak of the Ancients." According to Reichel-Dolmatolf, "the ideal of thc Kogi male would be to eat nothing but coca , to abstain totally from scx , never to slcep an,d to speak ali his life of the 'Ancients', that is , to chant, to dance and to recite ."

In both Andean and Amazonian cultures, reverencc for coca is rcftected in its widespread use in divination , both for shamanistic healing practiccs and for pre­dicting the future . These two general applications of divination are incxtricably linked together in daily life. Divination is a very ancient custom among South American lndians and , in spite of relentless persecution by the Spanish clergy following the Conquest. it remains widely practiced today. The Andcan lndian relies on divination for many purposes but primarily for diagnosing discasc and finding a cure, for predicting the outcome ofeconomic situations and futurc evcnts in general , and for assuaging his constant fears ofthe spirit world which surrounds him (Contreras Hemández, 1972; Carter et al., J 980a). Although there are nu­merous means of divination employed in the Andes, divination with coca lea ves is the most common and most respected (Carter et al. , l 980a) .

Diviners fall into many dilferent categories according to their specialties and abilities and are known by an assortment of native namcs . "Yatiri," mcaning

l'LOW~IAN: CUCA 105

"one who knows." is probably the most widespread term in both Quechua and Aymara. Many diviners have congenital deformitics or have bcen (or claim to have bcen) struck by lightning (Carter et al., l 980a).

The act of divining or "reading" coca leavcs takes many forms. It may be a formal ceremony performed by a specialist or an informal or personal act pcr­fonncd by an individual coquero. lndians who chew coca are intenscly awarc of the signs laten! in the leavcs thcy chcw: in thcir form and color. in the laste and form of thc chewed quid, or in the saliva which issues from it.

Formal divination involves the consultation of a knowledgeable yatiri at a specific time and place. A spccial woven cloth, the "cocatari" (Aymara) or "'un­cuña" (Quechua), is placed on the ground. A small handful of selectcd leaves is allowed to drop upon the cloth . The reading of the leaves depends upon many features ofthe leaves, including their color, shape, sizc, deformities. spots. boles . and creases as wcll as their spatial rclationship to onc another. Dcpcnding on ali thesc factors, thc leaves will symbolize death, bad or good luck. money. evil spclls. a safe joumey. or other things or will suggest the diagnosis or cure of an illncss (Contreras Hernández. 1972; Frisancho Pineda. 1973: Caner et al.. l 980a).

According to Manin ( 1970). divincrs among the Incas would chew coca \caves and spit the juice into their palms with the two longest fingers extended. Jf the juice ran down both fingers equally, it was a good sign; if it ran down unequally . it was abad one. Other diviners would bum coca lea ves with llama fat and observe the way they bumed.

Among the Campa of eastern Peru , coca is used by the shaman to determine the pcrpetrator ofwitchcraft. Thc shaman spits coca into his hand. shakes it. and ascenains the guilty party through its configuration (Ordinaire. 1892). The neigh­boring Machiguenga ofthe Peruvian montaña carve small idols out of coca wood. They believe that coca comes from benevolent spirit s called "'saanka'riite" and that it has the ability to revea! the future. For examplc, if a man chews coca and does not taste its sweetness, it is a sign of impending m isfortunc (Baer. 1970). Coca is al so u sed in divination among tri bes of the North" cst Amazon who use coca in powdered form. Future events may be foreseen by bl owing a spoonful or coca powder into the air and obscrYing thc way it falls to tht · ground.

ln Colombia , the Paez lndians of Cauca Department also t"n ploy coca in di'>'­ination (Uscátegui, 1954), as did Chibcha priests in the cent: .il highlands at the time of the Spanish Conquest (Martin, 1970).

To summarize the importance of coca in lndian life , 1 would like to quote the eloquent rcmarks ofWagner ( 1978: 878): ..... 'to chcw coca' is part ofthe process through wh ich the Quechuas absorb the dcpth of their culture and leam to un­derstand wh ;! t it means to be a Runa, a par: icipant in traditional Quc\' hua culture'" (translation from Spanish mine) and of }. L1rtin ( 1970: 424): '"Onl: ;1pprcciatrng the use of co 'ª from the point of view ·f' thc lndian's cultural b,·, 1gc. their beliefs and th• nccessities oftheir daily !1 s can give a propcr pcrspc< ! e- on thc­meaning of cü a to these people ."

Aeknowl

Early phascs (ll the research reporte Museum of Han ard University unde1 Agriculture (no. 12-14-1001-230, R . E. support was also p rovided by a grant J

(no. 5 RO DA02 J 1 0-02). 1 am grate!

gments

here were conc\l: . ;ed at the Botanical contract with th t U.S. Department of

hultes, principal i: · cstigator). Financia! m the Na tional 1 n ,. tu te of Drug A bus e to the Field Muse ' ' 111 Library staff for

106 ETHNOl30TANY IN TH E N EOT ROPICS

locating obscurc rcfcrcnccs and to Ron Testa and Flcur Hales for prcparing most of the photographic prints. I would like to acknowledge the Lowie Museum of Anthropology, Univcrsity of California, Berkeley for supplying photographs of archeological coca from thcir collections and the Harvard Botanical Muscum ir allowing me to photograph coca-rclated anifacts from their cxhibits. Gcoffre y ":'. Conrad of thc Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology supplied nccd<·d information about archeological materials al that institution. 1 am also gratcful to the following pcrsons who lent photographs: Roben Fcldman. Laurent Rivicr . Richard Evans Schultes and Osear Tovar. Christine Niezgoda. Penny Matekaitis. and Roberta Beckcr helped immeasurably with the prcparation ofthc manuscript. Phillip Rury and Laurcnt Rivier offcrcd constructivc criticism and suggestions for improving thc text. for which 1 am most grateful.

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