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"The Fall of Satan: The Historical Development of the Satanic Image within the Judeo-Christian Tradition."

A Paper Presented in Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the CourseSystematic Theology 525

Dr. Russell Hobbs

By Jeffery S. CullyLiberty Baptist Theological Seminary & Graduate SchoolLiberty UniversityStudent ID # L23736349

December, 2011

Table of Contents Introduction2The Satan of Hebrew Scripture :Tanakh3The Satan of the Jewish Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha and Inter-Testamental Period 7The Satan of the New Testament10Satan in Classical and Contemporary Art/Literature13Conclusion15Bibliograpy16

Introduction

The contemporary image of Satan seen so often today in media, literature and even among the lay theology of the average churchgoer is the result more of the convergence of multiple non-canonical writings and artistic impression than that of an adversarial fallen angel, the evil tempter of man, revealed through the Protestant scriptures.For the Protestant Christian who professes a belief in the inerrancy of the Holy Bible, there exist today any myriad of interpretations as to what truly personifies the character of Satan. Even found nestled among the faithful church attendee is often the image of a watered down version of a once powerful angel who while certainly mischievous and at times even dubious in nature is none the less relegated to being irrelevant to our Christian faith; nothing more than an allegorical boogey-man meant to sway us from sinful thought and deed. Modern culture has helped to add an aura of romanticism to what was once seen by all as the absolute incarnate of all that is evil. From cinematic offerings to contemporary literature Satan has been portrayed as everything from an object of lustful desire to a comical anti-hero to be pitied as simply misguided and the victim of circumstance.From Baudelaires poetic penning to the imagery of Boschs Garden of Earthly Delights, mankinds fascination with Satan and the very question of his nature has permeated almost every cultural venue of the western world. The Christian concept of Satan has found itself morphed into so many varied interpretations, some whimsical, others grim and horrifying, as to confuse the average layperson to the true character of who for some will oversee their final respite. Were this to be simply restricted to the secular world it may go without much fanfare. Unfortunately, it is this same Christian complacency to the true nature of Satan that gives empowerment to his ability to be the great deceiver. This has unknowingly in the minds of many Christians led to an almost dualistic approach in understanding the relationship between the triune God and Satan. Because of this potentially dangerous picture of a harmless or even impotent Satan, it is the intent of this author to set forth a biblically sound portrait of the true character, attributes and motivation of the Satan/Lucifer being.In order to best arrive at this sought after caricature one must explore beyond the pages of canonical Hebrew scripture and the New Testament, and delve into other forms of apocryphal and pseudepigraphal writings as well, to delineate between fact and fancy.The Satan of Hebrew Scripture: TanakhIn discovering who or what the manifestation of Satan consists of it seems wise to acknowledge that throughout history the entity known as Satan has been known by many names as well as attributes.[footnoteRef:1] Azazel, Beelzebub, Belial and Abaddon, even Lucifer; have at one time or another been biblical personifications that have eventually become synonymous with the name Satan.[footnoteRef:2] However the usage of Satan as a proper noun does not seem to appear in Hebrew usage until the Book of Chronicles ca. 450-430 B.C. and does not identifiably evolve into a named individual until the New Testament.[footnoteRef:3] [1: Wray 2005] [2: ibid] [3: De La Torre 2011, 45]

Meaning accuser or more commonly adversary the term satan appears 26 times in the Hebrew Bible of which the NKJV translates Satan 18 times as a proper name.[footnoteRef:4] While the person known as Satan will through character development and deed as well eventually reveal themselves to be the nemesis of Christ there is first the progression from the less nefarious and obedient like Satan that must take place as evidenced in such books as Job and Zechariah. [4: LaHaye 2004, 344]

The Satan story that most, of course, are first introduced too unfolds beside Gods greatest creation as seen through the fall of man. Here within the Garden of Eden transpires the temptation of Eve who succumbs to the wiles of the serpent and in turn causes Adam to sin against God, effectively ushering in death to a now broken world. The serpent however is not readily identified as Satan, and although his display of craftiness and beguile do little to conceal his contempt for God, it is not until the New Testament we are given the affirmation of his true identity. To be certain, the modern Christian no doubt interprets the serpent to be none other than Satan in guise. However, to the early Jew accustomed to a multitude of demons lacking a discernable hierarchy or leader, this same comparison and eventual identification required centuries to develop. William Caldwell is succinct in his assessment of the pre-exilic serpent identification, which traditional theology later sees as Satan, when he writes:We do not have here a personal Satan, but we have a subtle animal performing functions later assigned to the devil, as tempter, calumniator, and hinderer. For the serpent is represented as tempting man, calumniating God, and hindering the progress of innocence by introducing sin into the new creation. He mars mans relation with his fellow-man: the guilty pair must hide from each other by means of fig leaves. He mars mans relation to God: the transgressors seek to hide from God among the trees.[footnoteRef:5] [5: Caldwell 1913, 30]

These are but a few of the characteristics that come to mind when mention is made of Satan; but what of the Satan more servant than usurper? What of the one who appears to fulfill the duties which God has set forth before him; even appearing arguably to be a member of the heavenly council.In the Joban account the rendering of Ha-Satan stands as the most developed and sustained appearance of the Adversary yet to be seen. This patriarchal ancestor to the demonic Satan known to todays audience served the role of inquisitor testing the integrity and righteousness of man.[footnoteRef:6] It is here that the first usage of the title Satan is seen as a picture of Satan standing in the throne room of God among the other angels as relayed through scripture.[footnoteRef:7] Within this first chapter of the Book of Job, we are able to discern much as to the early personification of the nature of Satan as observed in the following passage: [6: Wray 2005] [7: LaHaye 2004, 345]

Now there was a day when the sons of God came to present themselves before the Lord and Satan also came among them. The Lord said to Satan, From where do you come? Then Satan answered the Lord and said, From roaming about the earth and walking around on it. The Lord said to Satan, Have you considered My servant Job? For there is no one like him on the earth, a blameless and upright man, fearing God and turning away from evil. Then Satan answered the Lord, Does Job fear God for nothing? Have you not made a hedge about him and his house and all that he has, on every side? You have blessed the work of his hands, and his possessions have increased in the land. But put forth Your hand now and touch all that he has; he will surly curse You to Your face. Then the Lord said to Satan, Behold, all that he has is in your power, only do not put forth your hand on him. So Satan departed from the presence of the Lord. Job 1:6-12 NASB

What is important to arrive at from this account is the understanding that the Satan presented within this passage is not one who is an oppressor to or of God, but in fact is subservient to the will of God. At this point there does not appear any condemnation or official rebuke of Satan as can be seen in the New Testament but instead Satan is seen serving Gods greater purpose, at least in an indirect manner, by being the celestial prosecutor placing Job to the test. Ultimately what is seen is a Satan whose authority, power and abilities are defined and limited by the sovereign dictates of God. While Satan obviously is empowered to function within the celestial and earthly plains even this is not without limits. Dr. Elmer Towns expounds that Satan regardless of his ability is confined within the parameters set by God. Satan has great power, but he is not omnipotent. Satan has great wisdom, but he is not omniscient. Satan has his emissaries seemingly at every place, and his world system is ubiquitous, but he is not omnipresent.[footnoteRef:8] [8: Towns 2008, 359]

In examining the Book of Zechariah, chapter 3 we again see Satan in his role as the accuser; the prosecuting attorney who although this time, seems to relish what lies ahead. Joshua the high priest clothed in filthy garments representative of the sin of Israel stands in judgment giving an account for Gods people while present also before the Lord is Satan. Here however Satan no longer holds a position of mere facilitator and incurs the Creators wrath as evidenced by Satans rebuke. The Lord said to Satan, The Lord rebuke you, Satan! Indeed, the Lord who has chosen Jerusalem rebuke you! Zechariah 3:2 NASB.Satan no longer simply acts out the part of a functionary but begins the development of his personality; one that shows contempt for human virtue and the capacity for repentance.[footnoteRef:9] Caldwell says it as such that, Satan shows an assiduity slightly too keen in the exercise of his somewhat invidious functions.[footnoteRef:10] [9: Caldwell 1913, 33] [10: Ibid]

The last reference we see specifically naming Satan within the Hebrew Scriptures comes from the Book of I Chronicles chapter 21, verse 1: Then Satan stood up against Israel and moved David to number Israel. Like the serpent before him Satan has used his deceit and trickery to cause division between the fellowship of God and man, instigating rebellion against the Almighty. For the first time we see Satan as one who no longer serves as a functionary of God but one that has set forth his own agenda albeit an insidious one.[footnoteRef:11] [11: De La Torre 2011, 50]

One final point of interest is the obscure mention of the name Azazel found in Leviticus Chapter 16. At the time of the exodus Israelites believed in the existence of evil spirits that dwelled in the deserts uninhabited by man. In this passage we are told of the high priest Aaron offering the sacrificial goat, one to the Lord and the other to Azazel as a sin-offering in recognition of the Day of Atonement. No explanation is given and admittedly there are those scholars who do not see Azazel as a name but representative of the removal of sin. However there are strong opponents who see this word as a name for a desert dwelling spirit.[footnoteRef:12] Origen without reservation identifies Azazel with Satan, but regardless of the uncertainty found in the Hebrew scripture the name Azazel will be seen again in the Pseudepigraphal writings of the Inter-Testamental period. [12: Caldwell 1913, 30]

The Satan of the Jewish Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha and Inter-Testamental Period

Between the completions of the Book of Daniel in the early second century B.C.E., and the Book of Revelation at the end of the first century C.E., there began a period of amazing religious fecundity throughout large parts of Asia and the Mediterranean region.[footnoteRef:13] It was especially during the era preceding the Gospels that Satan began to acquire his own defining and take on the mantle of evil to which he is associated with today. This intertestamental period will set the stage for the development of a Satan removed from any divine court, who has now risen to the heights of hierarchal royalty among his many legions of demonic followers.[footnoteRef:14] [13: Wray 2005] [14: ibid]

The apocalyptic Book of Enoch, while non-canonical by Roman Catholic and Protestant standards, none the less contains a rich cornucopia of material and imagery that no doubt greatly influenced early Jewish eschatological themes as well as satanic personification.[footnoteRef:15] Accepted by the Ethiopian Church as canonical the Book of Enoch in addition addresses the age old question of evils cause. Enochs answer? Evil is the result of an evil being, i.e. Satan.[footnoteRef:16] [15: Charles 2007, xxi] [16: Wray 2005]

Early on in the Book of Enoch we see the fall of angels and ultimate demoralization of mankind. Echoing the story of the Nephilim found in Genesis chapter 6, The Book of Enoch Chapters 6 and 7 gives more graphic detail of the debauchery of the fallen ones before finally arriving at chapter 8 and ascribing mankinds ultimate failure to one whose name we have heard before.And Azazel taught men to make swords, and knives, and shields, and breastplates, and made known to them the metals (of the earth) and the art of working them, and bracelets, and ornaments, and the use of anatomy, and the beautifying of the eyelids, and all kinds of costly stones, and all colouring tinctures. And there arose much godlessness, and they committed fornication, and they were led astray, and became corrupt in all their ways. Enoch. 8:1-2[footnoteRef:17] [17: Charles 2007, 35]

One individual has been given responsibility for being the author of sin and it is not God. Chapter 9 verse 6 again affirms Azazels guilt as being the one who hath taught all unrighteousness on earth and revealed the eternal secrets which were preserved in heaven, effectively sealing his later identification as the author of evil, none other than Satan. Finally chapter 10 is strikingly reminiscent of language familiar to the New Testament Christian where the Lord has Azazel bound hand and foot and cast down to the darkness where he is to wait his final judgment; being cast into the fire.[footnoteRef:18] It is here the reader is plainly taught to him ascribe all sin. [18: ibid]

The fall of this angel Azazel can be seen in Chapter LXXXVI which paints an eerily close parallel to the King of Babylon/Lucifer tract found within Isaiah 14:12-13 or that of Ezekiel 28:12-17. While obviously the name Lucifer is the result of a fourth century translation of the neutral term Morning Star, the similarity in language between Isaiah and Ezekiel with that of the Book of Enoch can understandably lead one to conclude Azazel, Lucifer and Satan as ultimately being the same being. Enoch LXXXVII-LXXXVIII reads in part as follows:And again I saw with mine eyes as I slept, and I saw the heaven above and behold a star fell from heavenAnd again I saw in the vision, and looked towards the heaven, and behold I saw many stars descend and cast themselves down from heaven to that first star, and they became bulls amongst those cattle and pastured with them.[footnoteRef:19] [19: Charles 2007, 117]

And I saw one of those four who had come forth first, and he seized that first star which had fallen from the heaven, and bound it hand and foot and cast it into an abyss: now that abyss was narrow and deep, and horrible and dark.[footnoteRef:20] [20: ibid]

Another of the Jewish Pseudepigraphal writings that help to build upon the characterization of Satan is the Life of Adam and Eve. It tells the story of Adam from a first person perspective after his and Eves being expelled from the Garden of Eden. From the outset the Devil is identified as Adams chief protagonist who torments him out of jealousy and disdain for the status God has given unto Adam. Adam and Eve are in a perpetual state of penitence, and where Adam tries to till the field Satan hinders his path: Then the devil approached and stood before the oxen, and hindered Adam in tilling the field, saying unto him; Mine are the things of the earth, the things of Heaven are Gods (Slavonic Vita Adae Et Evae xxxiii: 1-2).[footnoteRef:21] [21: R. H. Charles 1913, 120]

The Vita Adae Et Evae xii-xvii vividly tells the story of Satans fall identifying him as the Devil and characterizing him through his contempt for Adam as seen in the following: And with a heavy sigh, the devil spake: O Adam! all my hostility, envy, and sorrow is for thee since it is for thee that I have been expelled from my glory, which I possessed in the heavens in the midst of the angles and for thee was I cast out in the earth.[footnoteRef:22] [22: Ibid, 122]

Finally in the Apocolypsis of Moses we are given Eves account of the fall where Satan uses his trickery to deceive the serpent and Satan in fact uses the serpent as a vessel through which he can speak to Eve, convincing her to partake of the forbidden tree.[footnoteRef:23] [23: R. H. Charles 1913, 130]

While the Pseudepigraphal books are almost endless in relevant content pertaining to themes involving demonology and the causes of evil, it is the Christological focus of the Gospels and New Testament that give the greatest credence to the labeling of Satan as the epitome of all that is evil.[footnoteRef:24] [24: Aufarth 2004]

The Satan of the New TestamentThroughout Jewish history and most especially the intertestamental age there developed a period where the Jew sat in expectation of a literal kingdom of God ushered in at the end of ages by a messianic deliverer, who would vanquish political and military foes alike as well as the oppression from Satanic power.[footnoteRef:25] Judaism is full of Midrashic writing preparing for the coming of such a savior to the people. These same writings set the stage for the ultimate conflict between Satan and what would ultimately become his greatest nemesis. In Tree of Souls, Schwartz draws from this Jewish literature when he writes: [25: Scott Jr. 1995, 302]

The Messiah existed in Gods thought even before the world was created. After the creation, God hid the Messiah under His Throne of Glory until the time was right for him to appear. Satan asked God, Master of the Universe, for whom is the light hidden under Your Throne of Glory intended? God replied, For him who will turn you back and put you to shame. Satan said, Master of the Universe, let me see him. God said, Come and see him. And when he saw him, Satan was shaken and fell upon his face and said, Surely this is the Messiah who will cause me to be swallowed up in Gehenna.[footnoteRef:26] [26: Schwartz 2004, 521]

For the Christian the New Testament fulfills the promise of this Messiah through the virgin birth of a carpenters son, who will grow to vanquish Satan by first offering himself as the propitiation for Gods wrath and finally casting Satan into a lake of fire. It is from their interaction found in the New Testament that we see the development of Satan become even more focused on the execution of evil.It is in the New Testament that we see Satan more completely than ever before. His rule over all that is evil extends from the fall of man until his ultimate defeat at the hands of Jesus Christ.[footnoteRef:27] It is during the time of Christs incarnation that this antagonism reaches great heights as recorded in New Testament Scripture where demonic activity manifests itself throughout Israel.[footnoteRef:28] [27: LaHaye 2004, 345] [28: ibid]

The Synoptic Gospels are the first books of the New Testament to give attention to Satan as is witnessed through the temptation of Christ in the wilderness. While the Gospel of Mark makes mention of this Satanic meeting, it is Matthew and Luke that are the most descriptive as seen here:Then Jesus was led up by the Spirit into the wilderness to be tempted by the devil. And after He had fasted forty days and forty nights, He then became hungry. And the tempter came and said to Him, If you are the Son of God, command that these stones become bread. But He answered and said, It is written, MAN SHALL NOT LIVE ON BREAD ALONE, BUT ON EVERY WORD THAT PROCEEDS OUT OF THE MOUTH OF GOD. Matthew 4:1-4 NASB.

Twice more Satan attempts to deceive Christ into worshiping him but to no avail; the tempter is left to wait for other opportunities.In Luke chapter 11 we see Christ confronted by the Pharisee who has attributed His miracles to the power of Satan. While their application may be misguided they do however show an understanding of Satans ability and the authority granted to him. In verse 15 the name Beelzebul, already synonymous with Satan by this point, is identified as the ruler of demons. The persuasiveness of Satan can be seen as even Christ disciples are not immune to the devils influence. When Jesus rebukes Peter with Satan get behind thee, he has recognized that it not truly Peter that is trying to prevent Christ sacrifice on the cross, but Satans attempt at disobedience and opposition to the plan set forth by God.[footnoteRef:29] It is as the many name attributed to Satan indicate that his primary mission is to engage in opposing God and the work of Christ.[footnoteRef:30] [29: Grudem 2008, 415] [30: Erickson 1998, 472]

Even after Satans judgment at the cross, referred to in Colossians 2:15, he continues to carry on tempting mankind, through trials and accusations until his demise at the hands of Christ in the Book of Revelation.[footnoteRef:31] [31: Elwell 2001, 1054]

The Pauline Epistles of 1 and 2 Corinthians are descriptive of Satan as well describing him as one who is blinds the mind of the lost as to their need for salvation, so as to lead them into sin and rebellion against God.[footnoteRef:32] It is ultimately his goal to see Christians suffer so that they do not grow in Christ. [32: LaHaye 2004, 346]

The fullest account however of Satan as the author of all that is evil comes from the Book of Revelation. Revelation 12 gives the reader a history of Satans animosity toward God and his creation, most especially Israel. Images of the dragon seeking to devour the Christ child speak all too well as to the true nature and depravity of Satan. Coming at first in peace Satan the great deceiver is revealed for whom he truly is bringing about famine, pestilence and war the likes mankind has never seen. Billy Graham is quoted as saying, Satan and his demons are known by the discord they promote, the wars they start, the hatred they engender, the murders they initiate, their opposition to God and His commandments. They are dedicated to the spirit of destruction.[footnoteRef:33] [33: Hindson 2002, 107]

Satan in Classical and Contemporary Art/LiteratureIn the nineteen hundred years since the scribing of the Book of Revelation the image and characterization of Satan has evolved into a collection of assorted literary, artistic and cinematic endeavors of unfathomable proportions. One literary work giving us a fourteenth-century window into Satan, which even today is considered among the classics of literature, is Dante Alighieris The Inferno. A largely allegorical tale Dante examines the role of Satan, demons and the problem of evil in medieval religious thought.[footnoteRef:34] Much of his epic poem deals as well with the torments and punishments of hell which by extension describe Satan as well. Filled with historical and biblical persons Dantes vision is not merely fanciful imagination, but is grounded in the theology of the day as relating to evil, sin, and Satan.[footnoteRef:35] In Dantes view those who are unrepentant of their wanton acts of debauchery, forsaking Christs grace suffer the ultimate anguish of the lowest level of hell being devoured by the mouth of Satan.[footnoteRef:36] [34: De La Torre 2011, 142] [35: ibid] [36: ibid]

John Miltons Paradise Lost is a 17th century offering of another epic poem examining among other things the Satan/Lucifer being. Miltons story primarily covers the fall of man as well as the casting out of Lucifer. Milton portrays Satan/Lucifer as the most beautiful of the fallen angels, hypnotic with his charismatic ability to tempt, yet tragic in his arrogance and lust for power. Cunning and deceptive Satan alas is no match for a supreme God as he tries to wrestle away control of heaven. Satans self-delusion is best understood by the famous quote Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven.[footnoteRef:37] [37: Milton 1917]

One of the greatest Protestant voices to speak on the subject of who Satan is comes from the great Christian reformer Martin Luther. Luther considered Satans lordship over the earth and his being the prince of this world an article of faith.[footnoteRef:38] He saw Satan as more than simply an adversary but one who by his very nature was driven to cause suffering and misfortune to mankind.[footnoteRef:39] Luthers A Mighty Fortress sums his position well when he writes: [38: Sundberg 2008, 29] [39: ibid]

Satan teaches us to acquiesce to his terrible divinity by attacking our health and well being; disturbing marriage, upsetting the rhythms of daily life, including religious practice, inciting murder, mixing politics and religion, and confusing the interpretation of Scripture. This Anfechtung or personal affliction: spiritual and physical assault on the Christian that is meant to destroy faith.[footnoteRef:40] [40: ibid]

With the age of enlightenment came thinkers the likes of Kant, Voltaire and Hume eachwith their own reason and logic defining Satan more through mans inner failures as opposed to his direct involvement.[footnoteRef:41] Nietzsche would simply declare Satan as well as God dead. With the publication of the nineteenth century masterpiece Faust, society would see the revival of the medieval blood pact between Satan and man in his ongoing effort to win the souls of men. [41: ibid]

By far the greatest advent for the communication of ideas is arguably the cinema. The impact it has had upon the image and character of Satan, albeit theologically questionable is no doubt substantial. It is from movies such as the Exorcist to Rosemarys Baby, many laypeople will draw their opinions on Satan regardless of the theological inconsistencies that may develop such as the limitations of possession or Satans ability to incarnate.[footnoteRef:42] Movies such as Bedazzled, while certainly comical and possibly even correct in the portrayal of Satans deceptive qualities, do little in conveying him as malevolent and chaotically evil. The dualism of such movies as Oh God, You Devil is evident from the title alone. [42: Malone 2009, 19]

ConclusionIt may be impossible to come to an all inclusive and agreed upon description of the person Satan. The influence of generation upon generation, as well as the influx of new ideas from any number of cultures foreign to the original Hebrews, has left an indelible mark upon the formation and origins of the Satan character. To some he is the accuser, to others the symbol of pure unadulterated evil. Yet to others he simply exists as a reminder of mans own potential for depravity. For the Christian this description is less troublesome to come by as he is ultimately the arch nemesis of God.What finally may come to be the most terrifying aspect of Satan is not the dark gothic imagery of winged demons and ritualistic pagan sacrifice, but of the unseen Satan; The Satan who is not boisterous and draws little attention to himself. It is an image of a Satan who does not appear at all horrifying and preaches the unity of mankind. For the truly terrifying Satan is the one who we willing invite in, as he falsely edifies us with worthless praises as to our accomplishments and abilities, inflating our pride. It is the quiet Satan that whispers in our ear that we can be self-reliant, without the superstitious need for a savior. It is a Satan that does not defile the cross through vile or petulance but through indifference.Perhaps Dantes depiction of Satan speaks for itself:Through me you go to the grief wracked city; through me you go to everlasting pain; through me you go a pass among lost souls. Justice inspired my exalted Creator: I am a creature of Holiest Power, of Wisdom in the Highest and of Primal Love. Nothing till I was made, only eternal beings. And I endure eternally. Abandon all hope- Ye Who Enter Here.[footnoteRef:43] [43: Alighieri 2004]

BibliographyAufarth, Christoph. & Stuckenbruck, Loren T. The Fall of the Angels. Boston: Brill Leiden, 2004.

Caldwell, William. "The Doctrine of Satan: I. In the Old Testament." The Biblical World, Vol. 41, No. 1, 1913: 29-33.

Charles, R. H., D.Litt., D.D. The Apocrypha and Pseudepigraph of the Old Testament. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1913.

Charles, R.H. The Book of Enoch. Mineola: Dover Publications, 2007.De La Torre, Miguel & Hernandez, Albert. The Quest for the Historical Satan. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2011.

Elwell, Walter A. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Grand Rapids: Baker House , 2001.

Erickson, Millard J. Christian Theology. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1998.

Grudem, Wayne. Systematic Theology. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2008.

Hindson, Ed. The Book of Revelation: Unlocking the Future. Chatanooga: AMG Publishers, 2002.

LaHaye, Tim & Hindson, Ed. The Popular Encyclopedia of Bible Prophecy. Eugene: Harvest House Publishers, 2004.

Malone, Peter. "The Devil." Compass Review Vol. 43 No. 1, 2009: 14-29.

Milton, John. Paradise Lost: A Poem in Twelve Books. Cambridge: Harvard College, 1917.

Schwartz, Howard. Tree of Souls. Oxford: Oxford Universtiy Press, 2004.

Scott Jr., J. Julius. Jewish Backgrounds for the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1995.

Sundberg, Walter. "Satan the Enemy." Word & World Volume 28, Number 1, 2008: 29-37.

Towns, Elmer L. Theology for Today. Madison: Cengage Learning, 2008.

Wray, T.J. & Mobley, Gregory. The Birth of Satan:Tracing the Devil's Biblical Roots. New York: Palgrave MacMillian, 2005.