Appendix A

1951-1965

THE FIRST FIFTEEN YEARS OF FIELD-ION MICROSCOPY-A BIBLIOGRAPHY

Contents A.l General Reviews A.2 Ion Mechanics: Field Ionization and Field Evaporation A.3 Image Interpretation A.4 Techniques A.5 Lattice Imperfections A.6 Grain Boundaries A.7 Alloys A.8 Radiation Darnage A.9 Other Applications A.lO Author Index

A.1 General Reviews

Papers 1- 14

15- 29 30- 38 39- 52 53- 68 69- 73 74- 77 78- 83 84-104

I. E. W. Müller, "Das Auflosungsvermogen des Feldionenmikroskopes" ("The Resolution of Field-lon Microscopes"), Z. N aturjorsch. 11a: 88 ( 1956).

2. E. W. Müller, "Study of Atomic Structure of Meta! Surfaces in the Field Ion Microscope," J. Appl. Phys. 28: I (1957).

3. E. W. Müller," Experimenteren mit Atomaren Kristallbausteinen in Feldionenmikroskop," Z. Electrochem. 61 : 43 (1957).

4. M. Drechsler, "Kristall Stufen von I bis 1000 A," Z. Electrochem. 61: 48 (1957). 5. J. A. Becker, "Study of Surfaces by Using New Tools," Solid Stare Phys. 7: 416 (1958). 6. E. W. Müller, W. T. Pimbley, and J. F. Mulson, "The Study of Meta! Surfaces by the

Field-Ion Microscope," in: Interna/ Stress and Fatigue in Metals, G. M. Rassweiler and W. L. Grube, eds., Elsevier (Amsterdam), 1959, p. 189.

7. E. W. Müller, "Field Ionization and Field Ion Microscopy," Advan. in Electron. and Electron Phys. 13: 83 (1960).

8. R. Gomer, Field Emission and Field Ionization, Harvard University Press (Cambridge, Mass. ), 1961.

9. E. Sugata and S. Nakamura, "Study of Field-Emission Cathode by Field-Ion Microscopy," Appl. Phys. Japan (Oyo Butsuri) 1: 50 (1962).

10. D. G. Brandon, "The Resolution of Atomic Structure: Recent Advances in Theory and Development of the Field lon-Microscope," Brit. J. Appl. Phys. 14: 474 (1963).

213

214 Appendix A

II. B. Ralph and D. G. Branson, "The Field Ion Microscope: I. Design and Development, 2. Applications," J. Roy. Microscop. Soc. 82: 179 and 188 (1964).

12. E. W. Müller, Progress and Problems in Field Ion Microscopy, Xerox-Cornell Material Science Center, Leelure Series, Rept. No. 276.

13. E. W. Müller, "Field Ion Microscopy," Science 149: 591 (1965). 14. S. S. Brenner, "Field Ion Microscope Studies of Surfaces," in: Surfaces: Srructure, Ener­

getics, and Kinetics, Oct. 27, 1965.

A.2 Ion Mechanics: Field lonization and Field Evaporation 15. E. W. Müller and K. Bahadur, "Velocity Distribution in Field Ion Emission," Phys. Rev.

99: 1651 (1955). 16. E. W. Müller, ''Resolution of the Atomic Structure of a Meta! Surface by the Field-lon

Microscope," J. Appl. Phys. 27: 474 (1956). 17. E. W. Müller and K. Bahadur, "Field Ionization of Gases at a Meta! Surface and the

Resolution of the Field-Jon Microscope," Phys. Rev. 102: 624 (1956). 18. E. W. Müller, "Field Desorption," Phys. Rev. 102: 618 (1956). 19. E. W. Müller and J. F. Mulson, "Surface Structure of Field-Evaporated Meta! Crystals,"

Bull. Am. Phys. Soc., Ser. 11, 3: 69 (1958). 20. E. W. Müller, "Perfection of Meta! Crystal Surfaces by Field Evaporation," Bull. Am.

Phys. Soc., Ser. 11,4: 322 (1959). 21. E. W. Müller and R. D. Young, "Determination of Field Strength for Field Evaporation

and Ionization in the Field-lon Microscope," J. App/. Phys. 32: 2425 (1961). 22. T. C. Clements and E. W. Müller, "Occurrence ofH; in the Field Ionization ofHydrogen,"

J. Chem. Phys. 37: 2684 (1962). 23. M. J. Southon and D. G. Brandon, ''Current Voltage Characteristics ofthe Helium Fielcl­

Ion Microscope," Phi/. Mag. 8:579 (1963). 24. G. Erhlich and F. G. Hudda, "Promoted Field Desorption and the Visibility of Adsorbed

Atoms in the Ion Microscope," Phi/. Mag. 8: 1587 (1963). 25. R. Gomer and L. W. Swanson, "Theory of Field Desorption," J. Chem. Phys. 38: 1613

(1963). 26. E. W. Müller, "The Effect ofPolarization, Field Stress and Gas Impact on the Topography

of Field Evaporated Surfaces," Surface Science 2: 484 (1964). 27. E. W. Müller, S. Nakamura, and 0. Nishikawa, "Field-Evaporation End Form of Pure

Metals," Bul/. Am. Phys. Soc., Ser. 11 9: 150 (1964). 28. T. T. Tsong and E. W. Müller, "Measurement of Energy Distribution in Field Ionization,"

J. Chem. Phys. 41: 3279 (1964). 29. D. G. Brandon, "The Structure of Field Evaporated Surfaces," Surface Science 3: I (1965).

A.3 Image Interpretation 30. E. W. Müller, "Extreme Stress Conditions at the Tip Crystal ofthe Field-lon Microscope,"

Bull. Am. Phys. Soc., Ser. 11, 3: 265 (1958). 31. M. Drechsler and P. Wolf, "Zur Analyse von Feldionenmikroskop-Aufnahmen mit

Atomaren Auflosung," in: Intern. Conf Electron Microscopy, 4th Berlin, Germany, 1958. 32. A. J. W. Moore, "The Structure of Atomically Smooth Spherical Surfaces," Phys. Chem.

Solids 23: 907 (1962). 33. D. G. Brandon, "Image Formation in the Field-Ion Microscope," Phi/. Mag. 7: 1003 (1962). 34. D. G. Brandon, "The Aceurate Determination of Crystal Grientation from Field-Ion

Micrographs," J. Sei. lnst. 41: 373 (1964). 35. S. Ranganathan, "Contras! from Imperfections in Field-Ion Microscopy," in: Electron

Microscopy, 1964, Proc. European Conf, 3rd, Prague, Czechoslovakia, Publishing House of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, 1964, p. 265.

36. B. Ralph, "The Interpretation of Field-Ion Microscope Images of Alloys," in: Electron Microscopy, 1964, Proc. European Conf, 3rd, Prague, Czechoslovakia, Publishing House of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, 1964, p. 265.

Appendix A 215

37. D. G. Brandon, "The Analysis of Field Evaporation Data from Field-Ion Microscope Experiments," Brit. J. Appl. Phys. 16: 683 (1965).

38. S. Ranganathan, K. M. Bowkett, J. Hren, and B. Ralph, "The Interpretation of Field-Ion Micrographs: Streak Contras!," Phi/. Mag. 12: 841 (1965).

A.4 Techniques 39. E. W. Müller, "Das Feldionenmikroskop," Z. Physik. 131: 136 (1951). 40. E. W. Müller, "Betriebsbedingungen des Tieftemperatur-Feldionenmikroskop," Ann.

Physik. 20: 315 (1957). 41. E. C. Cooper and E. W. Müller, "Field Desorption by Alternating Fields," Rev. Sei. Instr.

29:309 (1958). 42. B. J. Waclawski and E. W. Müller, "Operation ofthe Field-Ion Microscope with a Dynamic

Gas Supply," J. Appl. Phys. 32: 1472 (1961). 43. D. G. Brandon, S. Ranganathan and D. S. Whitmell, "Image Intensification in the Field­

Ion Microscope," Brit. J. Appl. Phys. 15, 55 (1964). 44. 0. Nishikawa and E. W. Müller, "Operation of the Field-Ion Microscope with Neon,"

J. Appl. Phys. 35, 2806 (1964). 45. C. Baker and B. Ralph, "A Combined Electron and Field-Ion Microscopic Study of

Graphite Whiskers," in: Electron Microscopy, 1964, Proc. European Conf, 3rd, Prague, Czechoslovakia, Publishing House ofthe Czechoslovak Academy ofSciences, 1964, p. 325.

46. S. B. McLane, E. W. Müller, and 0. Nishikawa, "Field-Ion Microscopy with an External Image Intensifier," Rev. Sei. Instr. 35: 1297 (1964).

47. W. T. Pimbley and R. M. Ball, "Use of a Refrigerator with the Field-Ion Microscope," Rev. Sei. I nstr. 36: 225 (1965).

48. B. Ralph and M. 1. Southon, "Field-Ion Microscope," J. Sci.lnstr. 42:543 (1965). 49. E. W. Müller and 0. Nishikawa, "Increased Image Brightness in a Field-Ion Microscope,"

Rev. Sei. Instr. 36: 556 (1965). 50. H. F. Ryan and 1. Suiter, "An All Meta! Field-Ion Microscope," J. Sci.lnstr. 42: 645 (1965). 51. V. G. Weizer, "Variable Image Intensification in the Field-Ion Microscope," J. Appl.

Phys. 36: 2090 (1965). 52. E. W. Müller, S. Nakamura, 0. Nishikawa, and S. B. McLane, "Gas Surface Interaction

and Field-Ion Microscopy of Non-refractory Metals," J. Appl. Phys. 36: 2496 (1965).

A.5 Lattice lmperfections 53. M. Drechsler, G. Pankow, R. Vanselow, "Uber den Nachweis von Versetzungen beim

Abbau von Wolfram-, Tantal- und Nickel-Einkristallen" ("Concerning the Appearance of Dislocations after Field Evaporation with W, Ta, and Ni"), Z. Physik. Chem. (Frankfurt) 4:17(1955).

54. E. W. Müller, "Pseudospirals, Imperfect Structures and Crystal Habit Produced by Field Evaporation of Meta! Crystals," Acta Met. 6: 620 (1958).

55. E. W. Müller, "Beobachtungen der Atomartig Struktur von Metalloberflachen im Feldionenmikroskop," Proc. Intern. Conf Electron Microscopy, 4th, Berlin, Germany, 1958, Vol. I; Springer Verlag (Berlin), 1960, p. 820.

56. E. W. Müller, "Beobachtung von nahezu fehlerfreien Metallkristallen und von Punkt­defekten im Feldionenmikroskop" ("Observation of Nearly Perfeet Meta! Crystals and of Point Defects in the Field-Ion Microscope"), Z. Physik 156: 399 (1959).

57. E. W. Müller, "Field-Ion Microscope Studies of Surface Corrosion, of Interstitials, Vacancies, and IX-irradiation Darnage by Controlled Field Evaporation of Atomic Layers," in: Structure and Properries ofThin Films, C. A. Neugebauer, J. D. Newkirk, and D. A. Vermileya, eds. Wiley (New York), 1959, p. 476.

58. D. G. Brandon and M. Wald, "The Direct Observation of Lattice Defects by Field-Ion Microscopy," Phi/. Mag. 6, 1035 (1961).

59. E. W. Müller, "Direct Observation ofCrystal Imperfection by Field-Ion Microscopy," in: Imperfection in Crystals, 1. B. Newkirk and J. H. Wernick, eds., Wiley (Interscience) (New York), 1961.

216 Appendix A

60. D. G. Brandon, M. Wald, B. Ralph, and M. J. Southon, "The Application of Field-Ion Microscopy to Some Metallurgical Problems," in: Proc. Intern. Congr. Electron Micros­copy, 5th, 1962, pp. J-17.

61. E. W. Müller, "Field Ion Microscopy of the Defect Structure of Meta! Crystals," J. Phys. Soc. Japan 18 Sup. II: (1963).

62. E. W. Müller, "Field Emission Microscopy of Clean Surface with Electrons and Positive Ions," Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sei. 101: 585 (1963).

63. D. G. Brandon, M. Wald, M. J. Southon, and B. Ralph, "The Application of Field-lon Microscopy to the Study of Lattice Defects," J. Phys. Soc. Japan 18, Sup. II: 324 (1963).

64. E. W. Müller, "Field-Stress-Induced Surface Defects," Bull. Am. Phys. Soc., Ser. II, 9: 104 (1964).

65. E. W. Müller, "Field-Ion Microscopy of Rhenium," in: Electron Microscopy, 1964, Proc. European Conf, 3rd, Prague, Czechos/ovakia, Publishing House of the Czechoslovak Academ y of Sciences, 1964, p. 161.

66. H. F. Ryan and J. Suiter, "Field-Ion Microscope Observations of Stacking Faults in Tungsten," J. Less-Common Metals 9: 258 (1965).

67. H. F. Ryan and J. Suiter, "Cavities in Tungsten," J. Less-Common Metals 9: 307 (1965). 68. S. Nakamura and E. W. Müller, "Field Evaporation and Form of Tantal um," J. Appl.

Phys. 36: 2535 (1965).

A.6 Grain Boundaries 69. T. H. George, "An Unusual Example ofa Grain Boundary," Z. Physik 176: 556 (1963). 70. D. G. Brandon, B. Ralph, S. Ranganathan, and M. Wald, "A Field-lon Microscope Study

of Atomic Configuration at Grain Boundaries," Acta Met.l2: 813 (1964). 71. H. F. Ryan and J. Suiter, "Grain Boundary Topography in Tungsten," Phi/. Mag. 10:

727 (1964). 72. S. Ranganathan and A. H. Cottrell, "A Field-Ion Microscopic Study of Grain Boundaries

in Iridium," in: Electron Microscopy, 1964, Proc. European Con(, 3rd, Prague, Czecho­slovakia, Publishing House of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, 1964, p. 163.

73. J. Hren, "An Analysis of the Atomic Configuration of an Incoherent Twin Boundary with the F.I.M.," Acta Met. 13:479 (1965).

A.7 Alloys 74. B. Ralph and D. G. Brandon, "A Field-lon Microscope Study ofSome Tungsten Rhenium

Alloys," Phi/. Mag. 8:919 (1963). 75. B. Ralph and D. G. Brandon, "A Field-Ion Microscope Study of the Order-Disorder

Reaction in Equiatomic Cobalt-Piatinum," Journees Internationales des App/ications du Cobalt 9: I (1964).

76. B. Ralph and D. G. Brandon, "A Field-Ion Microscopic Study of the Equiatomic Cobalt­Platinum Alloy in the Permanent Magnetic State," in: Electron Microscopy, 1964, Proc. European Con(, 3rd, Prague, Czechoslovakia, Publishing House of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, 1964, p. 303.

77. E. K. Caspary and E. Krautz, "Feldionenmikroskopische Untersuchungen im Misch­kristallsystem Wolfram Molybdan," Z. Naturforsch. 19a: 591 (1964).

A.8 Radiation Darnage 78. E. W. Müller, "Observation of Radiation Darnage with the Field Ion Microscope," in:

Reactivity of Solids, Proc. Intern. Symp. Reactivity of Solids, 4th, 1. H. de Boer et al., eds., Elsevier (Amsterdam), 1960. p. 691.

79. D. G. Brandon, M. J. Southon, and M. Wald, "The Application of Field-Ion Microscopy to Radiation Damage," in: Proc. Intern. Conf Berkeley Cast/e, Gloucestershire, England, Butterworth (London), 1961, p. 113.

80. M. K. Sinha and E. W. Müller, "Bombardment ofTungsten with 20 keV Helium Atoms in a Field-lon Microscope," J. App/. Phys. 35: 1256 (1964).

Appendix A 217

81. K. M. Bowkett, J. Hren, and B. Ralph, "A Study of Neutron Darnage with the Field-Ion Microscope," in: Electron Microscopy, 1964, Proc. European Conl, 3rd, Prague, Czecho­slovakia, Publishing House of the Czechoslovak <\cademy of Sciences, 1964, p. 191.

82. M. J. Attardo and J. M. Galligan, "Radiation Darnage in Platinum," Phys. Rev. Letters 14:641 (1965).

83. K. M. Bowkett, L. T. Chadderton, H. Norden, and B. Ralph, "A Study of Fission Fragment Darnage in Tungsten with the Field-Ion Microscope," Phi/. Mag. 11: 651 (1965).

A.9 Other Applications Adsorption, Corrosion, Surface Diffusion, Whiskers

84. E. W. Müller, "Observation of Paired Screw Dislocations in Iron Whiskers," J. Appl. Phys. 30: 1843 (1959).

85. G. Ehrlich and F. G. Hudda, "Observation of Adsorption on an Atomic Scale," J. Chem. Phys. 33: 1253 (1960).

86. M. Drechsler, "Uber Versetzeugen in Eisen-Whiskern nach Feldionenmikroskop­Aufnahmen," Phys. Verhandlungen 3: 115 (1962).

87. G. Ehrlich and F. G. Hudda, "Direct Observation of Individual Adatoms: Nitrogen on Tungsten," J. Chem. Phys. 36: 3233 (1962).

88. H. D. Beckey, "Field Ionization Mass Spectroscopy," in: Advan. Mass Spectrometry 2: Pergarnon Press (New York), 1962.

89. H. D. Beckey, "Feldionisations-Massenspektren orgamscher Molekule. I. n-Paraffine von C 1 bis C9 " ("Field Ion Mass Spectroscopy of Organic Molecules I. n-Paraffins from C 1

to C9"), Z. Naturforsch. 179: I 103 (1962). 90. H. D. Beckey and G. Wagner, "Analytische Anwendungsmoglichkeiten des Feldionen­

Massenspektrometers" ("Possibilities for Analytical Applications of the Field Ion Mass Spectrometer"), Z. Anal. Chem. 197: 58 (1963).

91. D. W. Bassett, Thermal Rearrangementofa Perfectly Ordered Tungsten Surface," Nature 198: 468 (1963).

92. A. J. Melmed, "Field Electron a11d Field-Ion Emission from Single Vapour-Grown Whiskers," J. Chem. Phys. 38, 607 (1963).

93. A. J. Melmed, "Field-Emission Microscopy ofTwins in Vapour-Grown F.C.C. Whiskers," 94. J. F. Mulson and E. W. Müller, "Corrosion ofTungsten and lridium.by Field Desorption

ofNitrogen and Carbon Monoxide," J. Chem. Phys. 38:2615 (1963). 95. H. D. Beckey, "Production of the lonized State of Molecules by High Electric Fields,"

Bull. Soc. Chim. Belges. 73: 326 (1964). 96. G. Ehrlich, "An Atomic View of Adsorption," Brit. J. Appl. Phys. 15:349 (1964). 97. D. W. Bassett, "The Thermal Stability and Rearrangement of Field Evaporated Tungsten

Surfaces," Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) A256: 191 (1965). 98. H. D. Beckey and G. Wagner, "Feldionen-Massenspektren organischer Molekule. li.

Amine" ("Field Ion Mass Spectroscopy of Organic Molecules. li. Amines"), Z. Natur­forsch. 20a: 169 ( 1965).

99. H. D. Beckey, "Analyse fester organischer Naturstoffe mit dem Feldionen-Massen­spektrometer" ("Analysis of Solid Organic Substances with the Field Ion Mass Spec­trometer"), Z. Anal. Chem. 207: 99 (1965).

100. H. D. Beckey, "Fieldionen-Massenspektren organischer Molekule. 111. n-Paraffine bis zum C 16 und verzweigte Paraffine," Z. Naturforsch 20: 1329 (1965).

101. H. D. Beckey and P. Schulze, "Feldionen-Massenspektren organischer Molekule. IV. Olefin," Z. Natur.forsch. 20a: 1335 (1965).

102. S. Nakomura and E. W. Müller, "Initial Oxidation of Tantal um Observation in a Field­Ion Microscope," J. Appl. Phys. 36: 3634 (1965).

103. T. Gurney, F. Hutchinson, and R. D. Young, "Condensation ofTungsten on Tungsten in Atomic Detail: Observation with the Field-Ion Microscope," J. Chem. Phys. 42: 3939 (1965).

104. R. D. Young and D. C. Schuber!, "Condensation of Tungsten on Tungsten in Atomic Detail: Monte Carlo and Statistical Calculation vs Experiment, J. Chem. Phys. 42: 3943 (1965).

218 Appendix A

A.1 0 Author Index

Attardo, M. J., 82. Bahadur, K., 15, 17. Baker, C., 45. Ball, R., 47. Bassett, D. W., 91, 97. Beckey, H. D., 88, 89, 90, 95, 98, 99, 100, 101. Becker, J. A., 5. Bowkett, K. M., 38, 81, 83. Brandon, D. G., 10, II, 23, 29, 33, 34, 37, 43,

58,60,63, 70, 74, 75, 76, 79. Brenner, S. S., 14. Casparky, E. K., 77. Chadderton, L. T., 83. Clements, T. C., 22. Cooper, E. C., 41. Cottrell, A. H., 72. Drechsler, M., 4, 31, 86. Ehrlich, G., 24, 85, 87, 96. Galligan, J. M., 82. George, T. H., 69. Gomer, R., 8, 25. Gurney, T., 103. Hren, J., 38, 73, 81. Hudda, F. G., 24, 85, 87. Hutchinson, F., 103. Krantz, E., 77. McLane, S. B., 46, 52. Melmed, A. J., 92, 93. Moore, A. J. W., 32.

Müller, E. W., I, 2, 3, 6, 7, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 26, 27, 28, 30, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 46, 49, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 61, 62, 64, 65,68, 78,80,84,94, 102.

Mulson, J. F., 6, 19, 94. Nakamura, S., 9, 27, 52, 68, 102. Nishikawa, 0., 27, 44, 46, 59, 52. Norden, H., 83. Pankow, G., 53. Pimbley, W. T., 6, 47. Ralph, B., II, 36, 38, 45, 48, 60, 63, 70, 74, 75,

76,81,83. Ranganathan, S., 35, 38, 43, 70, 72. Ryan, H. F., 50, 66, 67, 71. Schubert, D. C., 104. Schulze, P., 101. Sinha, M. K., 80. Southon, M. J., 23, 48, 60, 63, 79. Sugata, E., 9. Suiter, J., 50, 66, 67, 71. Swanson, L. W., 25. Tsong, T. T., 28. Vanselow, R., 53. Waclawski, B. J., 42. Wagner, G., 90, 98. Wald, M., 58, 60, 63, 70, 79. Weizer, V. G., 51. Whitmell, D. S., 43. Wolf, P., 31. Young, R. D., 21, 103, 104.

Appendix B

LATTICE GEOMETRY

8.1 Plane Spacings

The value of d, the distance between adjacent planes in the set (hkl), may be found from the following equations: Cubic:

Hexagonal:

8.2 Cell Volumes

The following equations give the volume v of the unit cell: Cubic:

Hexagonal:

8.3 lnterplanar Angles

The angle <P between the plane (h 1k1 / 1) and the plane (h 2k212) may be found from the following equations: Cubic:

<P hlh2 + klk2 + /1/2 cos = j(hi + ki + li)(h~ + k~ + ID

Hexagonal:

h1h2 + k1k 2 + ±{h1k2 + h2kd + (3a 2/4c2)1 112 cos</J =-r====~========~~~==~==~==========7==7~

j[hi + ki + h1k 1 + (3a2/4c2 )l~][h~ + q + h2k 2 + (3a2/4c2 )l~] 219

Appendix C

Angles between Crystallographic Planes in Crystals of the Cubic System

{HKL} {hkl) Values of angles between H KL and hkl planes (or directions)

100 100 oo 900 110 45° 90° 111 54° 44' 210 26° 34' 63° 26' 90°

211 35° 16' 65° 54' 221 48° 11' 70° 32' 310 18° 26' 71° 34' 90° 311 25° 14' 72° 27' 320 33° 41' 56° 19' 90° 321 36° 43' 57° 42' 74° 30'

110 110 oo 60° 90° 111 35° 16' 90° 210 18° 26' 50° 46' 71° 34'

211 30° 54° 44' 73° 13' 90°

221 19° 28' 45° 76° 22' 90°

310 26° 34' 47° 52' 63° 26' 77° 5'

311 31° 29' 64° 46' 90°

320 II o 19' 53° 58' 66° 54' 78° 41'

321 19° 6' 40° 54' 55° 28' 67° 48' 79° 6'

III 111 oo 70° 32' 210 39° 14' 75° 2' 211 19° 28' 61° 52' 90°

221 15° 48' 54° 44' 78° 54'

310 43° 5' 68° 35' 311 29° 30' 58° 31' 79° 58'

320 61° 17' 71° 19'

321 22° 12' 51° 53' 72° I' 90°

210 210 oo 36° 52' 53° 8' 66° 25' 78° 28' 90°

211 24° 6' 43° 5' 56° 47' 79° 29' 90°

221 26° 34' 41° 49' 53° 24' 63° 26' 72° 39' 90°

310 8o 8' 58° 3' 45° 64° 54' 73° 34'

311 19° 17' 47° 36' 66° 8' 82° 15'

320 70 7' 29° 45' 41° 55' 60° 15' 68° 9' 75° 38' 82° 53'

321 17° 1' 33° 13' 53° 18' 6! 0 26' 70° 13' 83° 8' 90°

220

Appendix C 221

Angles between Crystallographic Planes in Crystals of the Cubic System (Continued)

{HKL} {hkl} Values of angles between H KL and hkl planes (or directions)

211 211 oo 33° 33' 48° II' 60° 70° 32' 80° 24' 221 17° 43' 35° 16' 47° 7' 65° 54' 74° 12' 82" 12' 310 2SO 21' 49° 48' 58° 55' 75° 2' 82° 35' 311 19" 8' 42° 24' 60° 30' 75° 45' 90° 320 25° 9' 37° 37' 55° 33' 63° 5' 83° 30' 321 10° 54' 29° 12' 40° 12' 49° 6' 56° 56'

70° 54' 77° 24' 83° 44' 90°

221 221 oo 27° 16' 38° 57' 63° 37' 83° 37' 90° 310 32° 31' 42° 27' 58° 12' 65° 4' 83° 57' 311 25° 14' 45° 17' 59° 50' 72° 27' 84° 14' 320 22° 24' 42° 18' 49° 40' 68° 18' 79° 21' 84° 42' 321 11° 29' 270 I' 36° 42' 57° 41' 63° 33' 74° 30'

79° 44' 84° 53'

310 310 oo 25° 51' 36° 52' 53° 8' no 33' 84° 16' 311 17° 33' 40° I 7' 55° 6' 67° 35' 79° I' 90° 320 15° 15' 37° 52' 52° 8' 74° 45' 84° 58' 321 21° 37' 32° 19' 40° 29' 47° 28' 53° 44' 59° 32'

65° 75° 19' 85° 9' 90°

311 311 oo 35° 6' 50° 29' 62° 58' 84° 47' 320 23° 6' 41° II' 54° 10' 65° 17' 75° 28' 85° 12' 321 14° 46' 36° 19' 49° 52' 61° 5' 71° 12' 80° 44'

320 320 oo 22° 37' 46° II' 62° 31' 67° 23' 72° 5' 90° 321 !5° 30' 27° II' 3SO 23' 48° 9' 53° 37' 58° 45' 63° 36'

72° 45' 77° 9' 85° 45' 90°

321 321 oo 21° 47' 31° 38° 13' 44° 25' 50° 60° 64° 37' 69° 4' 73° 24' 81° 47' 85° 54'

Appendix D

STANDARD STEREOGRAPHie PROJECTIONS

The field-ion image approximates a Stereographie projection. Since the wires that are used for the preparation of field-ion specimens usually exhibit strong textures, the standard projections that prove particularly useful are (100), (111), (110) for cubic crystals and (1120) for hexagonal crystals. Since hexagonal crystals specially grown to have (0001) as the wire axis are avail­able, this projection is also included. It may be noted that the planes that are prominent in field ion images from f.c.c. crystals are marked in the (100) and (111) projection, while the (110) projection has planesthat areprominent in images from b.c.c. crystals.

222

Appendix D 223

/Ii~_ +110 +11o

~ jj3 '" 101 '" '" '" / ~+~+-~ +-+_-+--+-+--+ III

I'\. 212 213-- 1203 -213 /\ '\. -- + 315 + + h.

}_22+ __ ""{~~12 + t!o2'"315,(:+1 1 ~35 )~2 _1)3+ ~~3+ .:'" 113 +103 :'" 113 +123t~33 155+ 135+ 115'+.,._ I :t-"115 +13 5 +155 0 II I - - -, H1 ,__GO]., T Tl7 013 012 023 I

olo+-- -- --+~3;9~2+'l-3+-+-+-+-T-+Ql!_ -- ----+olo I 135 - 11V I' 111 135 1 155 / - + _115:+< "'+115 + t

1~3t 123-t:_ 113/ +103 '+113 + 123 tl33 122+\ _112/- 315 + 102 '+..112 +122

3735 T 213 + 1 2003 315 +~35/ + t +213 '

/

111 +-r +-t-+=~~+-+-+m- ~ 11 313 "' "' 313 ~

ITo+~+L/+110

100

Fig. D.l. Standard (001) projection for cubic crystals.

224 Appendix D

~+~

~ -------+ -+'oll

Fig. 0.2. Standard ( 111) projection for cubic crystals.

Appendix D 225

+ rlr + Trr -__ 213+ +112 123 Oll ~

\ -----~+~3231233~+\::.:.;.--- j

201 312 +......_ _.,.+ 132 + +2rvi"!.' + +o2r

301/ + +332'-+ 121 I 031

sort 4~/321+ 1 +23~ 141 tosr + / 431 + + 341 + +

_____ _:I.:..OO::....lG!.Q+-l.!.~- l!.!_+l~~~~l...:O~I.:..O _____ +TIO

I"- 41- 43T,34i _ /I - + "-+ I + + 231 /_ + -

501 ~ - ~21+ _ ,!" /_+ 141 1 05~ _1301 +211 +332 +121 fD31

201 \ 312+ .:"-1~ _+ 13'2 tozT i\ 323 +..,..., ~+ 233 /n

IOi +~ rr2 "'::- Oll --~ 213+ + +123 ~ --

111 + +111

Fig. 0.3. Standard (11 0) projection for cubic crystals.

22& Appendix D

Fig. 0.4. Standard (0001) projection for hexagonal crystals. (The ratio c/a is the ideal one for hexagonal close packing.)

Appendix D 227

Appendix E

THE INDEXING OF FIELD-ION MICROGRAPHS The poles that appear in a field-ion micrograph can be indexed by the use of symmetry considerations, morphological aspects and projection relation­ships. The { 100}, { 111}, and { 110} pol es in cubic crystals can be indexed by inspection as they possess fourfold, threefold, and twofold symmetry. Similarly the {0001} pole in the h.c.p. crystal can be indexed, as it possesses sixfold symmetry. In such identification the bright zone-decoration atoms are very helpful.

It has long been known to crystallographers that the structure of the crystal plays an important part in the morphology of the crystal. Bravais was the first to recognize that the interplanar distance determines whether a particular face appears in the resultant crystal or not. Donnay and Harker 1

gave a precise formulation to this idea: "The morphological importance of a crystal face is inversely proportional to its reticular area S if the lattice has no centering and the space group is devoid of screw axes and glide planes. The effect of lattice centering, screw axes, and glide planes is corrected for if the face indices are replaced in the S formula, by the 'multiple indices' of the lowest order of x-ray refiection compatible with the space-group sym­metry." Drechsler and Wolf2 were the first to point out the usefulness of x-ray extinction rules in indexing field-ion micrographs.

It then becomes possible to order the planes for a given structure in terms of increasing reticular area S (or decreasing interplanar distance). Such a Iist is also an indication of the morphological importance of various planes. The lists for b.c.c. and f.c.c. crystals are given below.

Body-Centered Cubic

110 200 211 310 222 321 411 420 332 431 2 4 6 10 12 14 18 20 22 26

Face-Centered Cubic

111 200 220 311 331 420 422 511 531 442 3 4 8 11 19 20 24 27 35 36

228

Appendix E 229

Thus it is possible to distinguish between b.c.c. and f.c.c. field-ion micrographs by merely noting whether a twofold or a threefold axis is important. An indication of the importance of a particular plane in the micro­graph is given by the number of rings having the same pole.

The morphological aspect can thus be used for indexing a micrograph. However the projection relationships are also useful in such an indexing process. This is briefly considered below.

The field-emission microscope presents a less complicated geometry than the field-ion microscope. The screen is in the shape of a hemisphere, and the photographed image is an orthographic projection of the crystal being imaged. The field-ion microscope uses a flat screen, as the low image intensity necessitates the use of f: 1 Jenses with a shallow depth of focus. Müller 3 made the assumption that the field-ion micrograph is also a case of Orthographie projection. Brenner4 has shown that the projection is nearer the stereographic projection by the simple expedient of superposing a Stereographie net of the appropriate size on the field-ion image. Recently

Fig. E.l. Helium field ion micrograph of tungsten with prominent planes indexed.

230 Appendix E

Brandon5 has shown that the distances of poles from the centrat pole are best explained by assuming that the projection center is two radii away from the center. (For the three classical projections-the gnomonic, the Stereo­graphie, and the Orthographie projection-the projection center is zero, unit radius, and infinite distance from the tip center). The result was entirely empirical. Unless great accuracy is demanded, the field-ion micrograph can be treated as a case of Stereographie projection. Figure E.l shows a tungsten field-ion micrograph indexed on the above principles.

References

I. J. D. H. Donnay and D. Harker, Am. Mineralogist 22:446 (1937). 2. M. Drechsler and P. Wolf, Proc. Intern. Conf. Electron Microscopy, 4th, Berlin, Springer

Verlag (Berlin), 1958, p. 835. 3. E. W. Müller, Advan. Electron. Electron Phys. 13: 83 (1960). 4. S. Brenner, Meta/ Surfaces, ASM publication, 1962. 5. D. G. Brandon, J. Sei. Instr. 41: 373 (1964).

Appendix F

Material

Tungsten Tungsten W-Re alloys Tantal um and its alloys

Niobium Niobium and its alloys Rhenium Iridium Molybdenum Platinum Platinum Pt-Co alloys Zirconium Beryllium Rhodium Silicon

Gold Gold Iron Cobalt Titanium Palladium Nickel Copper Zinc Tin

Polishing Solutions and Conditions

Electrolyte

5% NaOH 20% KCN 20% KCN 90% HN03

10% HF or 17.5% HF 17.5% H2S04

65% H2 0 Molten NaN02

As for tantalum and its alloys Conc. HN03

20% KCN 20% KCN Molten NaCl 20% KCN 20% KCN 10% HF Conc. H 3 PÜ4

Aqu. so!. KCN 45 pts 40% HF 60 pts Conc. HN03

20 pts acetic acid 3 pts bromine

50% HCl, 50% HN03

20% KCN 10%HC1 10% HC1 40% HF 30% HCl, 70% HN03

10% HCl Conc. H 3 PÜ4

Conc. KOH 40%HF

231

Remarks

5-15 V d.c. 1-5 V a.c.; startat higher voltage As for tungsten 0--3 V d.c.; very 1ow current densi­

ties chilled e1ectrolyte in a stain­less steel beaker

6 V a.c.

10 V d.c. 3-15 V a.c.; start at higher voltage 1-5 V a.c.; start at higher voltage 5.5-6 V d.c. 3-15 V a.c. ; start at higher voltage 3-15 V a.c.; startat higher voltage Dip into solution 30--50 V d.c. I V a.c. Dip into fresh so!.

10 V a.c. 3-10 V a.c.; start at high er voltage 1-3 V a.c.; start at higher voltage 4--6 V d.c. 4--12 V d.c. 3 V a.c. 1-3 V a.c.; startat higher voltage 1-5 V a.c. 10--15 V d.c. 1-6 V a.c.

Appendix G

MICROSCOPE DESIGNS

There are at least as many field-ion microscope designs as there are researchers. References 39 through 52 of AppendixAare an excellent source for particular design features. Commercial microscopes are also available from the following:

CENCO Instruments, 1700 Irving Park Road, Chicago, Illinois, 60613 (U.S.A.)

HRB-Singer, Box 60, State College, Pennsylvania 16801 (U.S.A.) Jackson and Church Electronics, 1127 South Patrick Drive, Satellite

Beach, Florida 32935 (U.S.A.) Materials Research Corporation, Route 303, Orangeburg, New York

10962 (U.S.A.) Optometrie Instruments, 8255 Beverly Boulevard, Los Angeles, Cali­

fornia 90048 (U.S.A.) Twentieth Century Electronics Ltd., King Henry's Drive, New Adding­

ton, Croydon, Surrey (U.K.)

The following figures are intended to illustrate the range of designs of varying complexity that are appropriate for particular applications.

232

Appendix G 233

Fig. G.l. A bakeable glass field-ion microscope with Iiquid-nitrogen cooling. (Courtesy of A. J. W. Moore.)

Carbon res1slar5

Rrtaml f!!J p/ale

(a)

He/1um tn

Transfer Tube

Stamle$$ Steet Splfal

Slainlu5 Sl•el CJ/mder

Capp•r blaclt.

Specimen

Het1um Dewar Hicroscope

(b)

Safely Va/re

Rolary Pump

Fig. G.2. Schematic for a liquid-helium-cooled field-ion microscope of glass. (Courtesy of D. G. Brandon.)

234

~---+--STAINLESS STEa

LIQUID H2

OPPER

Appendix G

(a)

Appendix G

Fig. G.3. Liquid-hydrogen-cooled stainless steel field-ion micro­scope: (a) schematic of microscope body, and (b) photograph of the system. (Courtesy of S. S. Brenner.)

235

(b)

236 Appendix G

Fig. G.4. Functional diagram of combined field-ion and field-electron microscope with UHV system, valtage pulser, and specimen heater. (Courtesy of Jackson and Church Electronics.)

INDEX

A Abbott, R. C.

204, 207 Accommodation Coefficient

22, 23 Adsorption

General, 1, 2, 92 On electron emitters, 11, 12, 203-209 In field ionization, 13 In field evaporation, 2 8 During field etching, 60-64 During hydrogen promotion, 98-100 At grain boundaries, 154 At mass spectrometric source, 198-200 For biological molecule imaging, 200, 201,

204-208 Alloys

Field evaporation of, 32-37, 50, 51 Computer Simulation of images from,

81-86 Streaks in Images of, 124-126 With atomic order, 135, 162-166 Two-phase, 154, 155 Tbeory of Images from, 81-86, 158-162 Segregation in, 166

Alpha-Particle Bombardment 93, 154, 180

Amelinckx, S. 140, 153

Anantharaman, T. R. 135

Anisotropy Of mea.sured work function, 10 Of end form, 88 Of elastic con.stants, 66

Artifacts Dead spot in phosphor, 93 Zone decoration, 45, 90, 91 Jnduced defects, 93- 9 8 Metastahle sites, 46, 47, 90-92 Streaks, 124 Specimen Asymmetry, 4, 88-91, 127-130

237

A tornie Order (see Alloys)

Attardo, M. J. 175

Aust, K. T. 148

B Bahadur, K. H.

3, 15, 16, 17, 54, 66,197 Ball Models

(see Hard Sphere Models) Barnes, R. S.

154 Becker, J. A.

12, 201, 202 Beckey, H. D.

197. 199, 200 Berghezan, A.

142 Best Imaging Voltage

3, 18-20, 24-26, 99 Bond Model of Surface

74-76, 90-91 Boudreaux, D. s.

18 Bowkett, K. M.

110, 121, 124, 129, 149, 154, 175, 177. 178, 180, 181

Brandes, R. G. 201, 202

Brandon, D. G. 2, 4, 19, 20, 23, 29, 32, 34, 35, 38, 42, 49,

50, 51, 55, 57, 61, 80, 82, 83, 86, 88, 93, 121, 122, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 135, 138, 145, 148, 153, 154, 156, 157, 160, 161, 162, 168, 175,177,179, 180

Brenner, S. S. 28, 154

Brock, E. G. 138

238

Bullough, R. 107' 108

Buswell, J. T. 179

c Carrington, W.

134 Caspery, E. K.

80, 82, 85, 157 Chadderton, L. T.

171, 180, 181 Christian, J. W.

135 Cohen, J. B.

123, 132 Coincidence Lattice

Theory of, 145-148 Observations, 148-153

Computer Simulation of Images Ofpure metals, 42-44,77-80 Of alloys, 81- 86 Of defects, 117-119

Cooper, E. C. 179,205

Conrad, H. 65

Cottrell, A. H. 115, 120, 148, 154

Critical Distance Theory of, 14-16 Measurement of, 16, 17 A s a function of imaging gas, 17

Cryogenics In FIM, 2, 3, 19, 233-236

Current- Voltage Characteristics Electron emission, 6- 8, 12 Field-ion, 18-20 In field-ion source for mass spectrometry,

197 Cutler, P. H.

18

D Deformation of Specimen

During imaging, 64-67,95-98,105,106, 130, 142

During specimen preparation, 107, 138 Dekeyser, W.

140, 153 Diffraction Effects

25, 26 Dislocations

Contrast from, 2, 48-50, 114-119, 123, 124,131,132,175-177

Influence of field stresses on, 65, 105 Surface image forces on, 106-108 Core structure of, 103, 104

Dislocations (continued) Impurity segregation to, 132

Index

In grain boundaries, 133-134, 149-153 Created while imaging, 95-98, 130 Density, 106, 107 Interna! stresses arising from, 112-113

Dittmar, W. 184

Dolan, W. W. 8, 12, 15, 38

Domain Boundaries 135, 167

Double Layer 9-11, 32, 39-42

Drechsler, M. 38, 81, 91, 105, 115

DuBroff, W. 93, 160

Dyke, W. P. 8, 12, 15, 38

E Ehrlich, G.

12, 34, 154 Elastic Constants

65, 66, 96, 97' 108 Electron Energy Levels

In field emitter, 6- 8 In field-ion specimen, 13, 14, 25 In imaging gas, 13, 14 Near solute, 158-160 Near grain boundaries, 149 In double layer, 10, 11, 32, 39-42 Ionization potential, 35-37, 62-64

End Form 4, 42-51,66, 88-90, 105-107, 127-130,

191 Energy Distribution of Ions

Field dependence, 3, 17, 18, 25 Temperature dependence, 18-20 Imaging gas mixtures, 13 (see also Current- Voltage Characteris­

tic s and Field Ionization) Essmann, U.

113 Evans, E. Li.

34, 35

F Faulkner, R. G.

168 Field Desorption

2, 12-13, 28-29, 200, 202-204 ( see also Field Evaporation)

Field-Emission Current Derivation of, (see Fowler- Nordheim

Equation)

Index

Field-Emission Current (continued) Measurement of work function from,

9-12 Field-Emission Microscope

Contrastin image, 9-12 Design of, 9, 193

Field Etching Theories of, 57-64 Effect on specimen, 93

Field Evaporation Theories of, 4, 2 9- 32 Experimental data on, 19, 38 Variation with material, 32-37 Temperature dependence of, 20 (see also Field Etching)

Field Distribution On emitter surface, 43, 106

Field Ionization Theories of, 13-17 Energy distribution of ions, 17-19 (see also Current- Voltage Characteris­

tics) Field-Penetration Polarization

45-47. 90-92, 114 Flashing

64-68, 95-98, 105, 140 Fortes, Mo Ao

161, 166, 168, 169, 175, 176 Fowler-Nordheim Equation

1, 7-9,12,39 Fowler, Ro Ho

1, 7, 12, 39 Frank, Fo Co

123 Friede!, Jo

40, 120, 159, 160

G Galligan, J o Mo

175 Gamow, Go

1 Gas- Surface Collisions

22-25, 57-59, 93, 99, 179 Gas- Surface Reactions

35, 37, 60-63, 93-95 ( see also Adsorption and Molecular

Complex at Surface) Gilbey, Oo Mo

57 Glasstone, So

29 Gomer, Ro

2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 15, 17, 23, 24, 25, 29, 31, 32, 38, 39, 53, 54, 66, 88, 184, 194, 197. 198, 200

Good, Ro Ho 8, 11, 12, 20, 26

Goodman, Fo Oo 57

Grain Boundaries Coincident lattice theory of, 145-148 Orientation determination, 138-140 Dislocation content of, 140-143, 154 Occurrence of, 137 Contrast effects, 126, 127, 148-153

Gurney, To 195, 207

H Haefer, Ro

201 Haie, Ko Fo

134 Hall, Eo Oo

142 Hard Sphere Models

FCC, 70-71 BCC, 73-74

239

Construction of arbitrary (hk!) in cubic lattice, 71-73

Of defects, 103-105, 121, 125 Of flat surfaces, 69-74 Of spherical surface, 76-77 Of grain boundaries, 147

Heats of Adsorption ( see Adsorption)

Herring, Co 10

Hinton, Ro 123, 132

Hirsch, P 0 Bo 123

Hirschhorn, J o So 122

Holland, Bo W 0

127 Hopping

(see Imaging Gas) Hörl, Eo

201 Hren, Jo Jo

102, 109, 121, 124, 128, 129, 138, 139, 142, 149, 153, 154, 165, 166, 167. 175

Hudda, Fo Go 154

Hudson, J 0 Ao 179

Hutchinson, F o 195, 207

Hydrogen Promotion 5, 98-100, 190

Ideal Surfaces Flat surfaces, 69-74

240

Ideal Surfaces (continued) Spherical surfaces, 76, 77 Computer Simulation of, 77-81 Kink sites, 70, 71, 76, 79 Ball models of, (see Hard Sphere Models)

Image Contrast of FEEM General, 1, 8-12 Ofadsorbed atoms, 192-195,200-205

Image Contrast in Field-Ion Microscope General, 2, 3, 12, 13, 24-26, 78, 79,

92-94,177,178 From vacancies on interstitials, 47, 113,

114 From dislocations, 48, 49,114-119, 174,

175, 188-190 From grain boundaries, 49, 140-153 From ordered alloys, 135, 162-167 From solute atoms, 50, 85, 86, 160-162 From clusters, 174, 175, 180, 181 From stacking faults, 49, 121-125, 131-

135 From slip bands, 130 Of adsorbed atoms, 195, 196 Of biological molecules, 205-207 Of artifacts, 44-47, 88-101 (see also Resolution and Streaks)

Image Force Model 4, 29-32 ( see also Field Evaporation)

Imaging Gas Gas mixtures, 93, 95, 98-100 Active gases, 2, 13, 60-64, 187-189,

206, 208 Characteristics of, 3, 5, 15-18 Arrival rate at emitter, 21-24, 53-56 Hopping of on surface, 2, 24 Energy transfer to specimen, 56, 57, 92

93 (see also Hydrogen Promotion, Field

Etching, and Gas-Surface Collisions) Image Potential

6, 7, 15, 30, 32 Impurity Segregation

At the surface, 34 At grain boundaries, 154, 166 Clustering, 160 At dislocations, 166

Imura, T. 123

Indexing Patterns 228-230 (see also Projection Geometry)

Inghram, M. G. 3, 13, 17, 197, 198

Inner Potential Definition of, 30, 31 Importance of in field evaporation, 30-32 (see also Work Function)

Intersection Model 29-32 (see also Field Evaporation)

Ion Current Theory of, 23 Measurement of, 17-20

Ionization Lifetime 15-17

Ionization Potentials In field evaporation, 30-32, 35

Ionization Probability 16 (see also Field Ionizatio~)

Ionization Zone Critical distance, 14-17 Energy distribution of ions, 17-19

J Jackson, P. J.

183 Jones, F. 0.

134 Juretschke, J. H.

10

K Kink Sites

( see Ideal Surfaces) Komar, A. A.

201 Komar, A. P.

201 Koster, G.

159 Krautz, E.

80, 82, 85, 157 Kubascl\ewski, 0.

34, 35

L Laidler, K. J.

29 Lay, K.

123, 132 LeFevre, B. G.

165, 166, 167 Li, J. C. M.

154 Liepack, H.

91, 105 Livingston, W. A.

204

M McKenzie, J. K.

75 McLane, S. B.

5, 63, 90, 155, 190

Index

Index

McLean, Do 134, 137. 146

Machlin, Eo So 93, 157. 160

Martin, Eo Eo 8, 12, 15

Mason, Jo Fo 93

Melmed, Ao Jo 184, 188, 193, 195, 201, 204, 205

Metastahle Surface Sites Occurrence of, 46-47,90-92,114 Zone decoration, 45, 91 (see also Field-Penetration Polarization)

Jl,licroscope Design \ 232-236

(see also Cryogenics) Molecular Complex at Surface

35-37. 61-63 (see also Adsorption and Gas-Surface

Reactions) Molecular Images

Of adsorbed organic molecules, 200-205, 208

Other preparation techniques, 206-211 Montague-Pollack, Ho

195, 207 Moore, Ao Jo Wo

43, 44, 71, 75, 88, 117. 123 Morgan, Ro

168 Müller, Eo Wo

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19,20,24,26,28,29, 31, 37, 39, 41, 45, 46, 47. 50, 56, 57. 59, 60, 63, 64, 65, 66, 76, 81, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 98, 99, 100, 102, 105, 106, 107, 114, 115, 130, 131, 134, 135, 138, 141, 153, 154, 155, 157. 158, 162, 177, 179, 180, 184, 190, 195, 197, 198,200, 201, 202, 205

Multiple Ionization During field evaporation, 30-33

Mott, No Fo 153

Mulson, J o Fo 37, 63

N Nabarro, Fo Ro No

183 Nakamura, So

63, 66, 90, 93, 99, 100, 155, 190 Nakayama, Y 0

123 Negative Ion Bombardment

94, 95, 180 Nelson, Ro So

179

Neutron Irradiation Studies 175-177

Newman, R 0 W 0

165, 166, 167 Neumann, Ko

184 Nicholas, Jo Fo

71,75 Nichols, No Ho

10 Nicholson, Mo Eo

158 Nishikawa, Oo

241

5, 57. 59, 60, 63, 93, 95, 99, 100, 141, 153, 155, 184, 190

Norden, Ho 180, 181

Norheim, Lo 1, 7, 12,39

Nucleation

0

Of thick films, 195 Of whiskers, 183

Oppenheimer, Jo Ro 1

Grientation of Emitter Determination of, (see Indexing FIM

Patterns) Effect on field stresses, 106

Oxidation

p

In field evaporation of impurities, 34 At grain boundaries, 154 (see also Impurity Segregation, and Field

Etching)

Pankow, Go 115

Particle Bombardment 93, 177-181 (see also Alpba-Particle Bombardment)

Pashley, Do Wo 115

Phosphors Dead spot, 93

Photographie Techniques 3, 4, 161, 173, 174

Pinning of Dislocations 112, 113, 134

Polarizibility 40-42, 91, 92

Preferential Field Evaporation Of second component, 34-37, 50, 51, 85,

93, 113, 160-164 At surface defects, 45-50, 124, 125, 174 At grain boundaries, 50, 148, 149 Of organic molecules, 203-204

242

Preferential Field Evaporation (continued) Near large voids, 210-211 (see also Field Evaporation)

Projection geometry

R

Ion trajectories, 3, 24, 25, 138-140 Magnification, 25·, 26 In electron emitter, 9 Of asymmetric tips, 127-131, 140 Of irregular surfaces, 124-127,202-204

Radius of Specimen For field ionization, 13 Local radius, 81, 88-90, 106 Average, 38 Field dependence, 11, 38, 39, 54, 105 In electron emitters, 9 (see also Specimen Shape)

Ralph, B.· 49, 50, 51, 80, 82, 83, 85, 86, 121, 124,

125, 126, 127. 128, 129, 135, 138, 142, 145, 148, 149, 153, 154, 156, 157, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167. 168, 169, 173, 175, 176, 177. 17.9, 180, 181

Ranganathan, S. 49, 102. 115, 119, 121, 124, 127. 131, 13;3,

134, 145, 148, 149, 153, 154, 156 Rates of

Field evaporation, 37, 38, 58-60 Gas arrival at emitter, 53- 56 Whisker growth, 183, 184

Read, W. T. 103, 120

Reid, C. N. 108

Redding, G. B. 154

Rendulic, K. 66

Resolution Of FEEM, 11 Of FIM, 1, 3, 24-26 (see also Uncertainty Principle)

Rhodin, T. 195

Robertson, J. M. 200

Rose, D. J. 202

Rutter, J. W. 148

Ryan, H. F. 49, 121, 131, 133, 142, 153

s Sampling Procedures

For organic molecule imaging, 204-207 In whisker studies, 190-192

Sampling Procedures (continued) In irradiation studies, 173-175 In alloys, 161

Index

For grain boundary studies, 137, 138 In sturlies of dislocations, 106

Sanwald, R. C. 102, 119

Sass, S. 123, 132

Schmidth, L. 12

Schottky Effect 7. 14, 30, 31 ( see also Image Potential)

Schubert, D. C. 195

Sears, G. W. 184

Segall, R. W. 123

Silverston, J. M. 158

Sinha, M. K. 47. 179

Slater, J. 159

Sleeswyk, A. W. 122

Smoluchowski, R. 10, 39

Solid Solutions ( see Alloys)

Southon, M. J. 2, 17, 19,20,21,22, 23, 24, 53,148,157,

175, 179, 195 Southworth, H. N.

135, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167 Specimen Preparation

8, 12, 42, 50, 63, 107,137, 173, 180, 185-187, 193, 195, 199,201,204-207,231

Specimen Shape Anisotropy of, 88, 131 Field variation with, 42, 66 Of alloys after field evaporation, 50 (see also Radius of Specimen)

Stacking Faults 121-123 (see also Image Cantrast in Field-Ion

Microscope) Stangler, F.

201 Strain Energy

To create vacancy, 98, 111 Dilitation of lattice under imaging

stresses, 66, 67, 97, 98 Stored in specimen during imaging, 66,

111 Stranski, I. N.

90

Index

Stratton, Ro 6

Strayer, Ro Wo 29, 179

Stress Electrostatic, 64, 95, 105 Shear, 65, 66, 98, 130 On defects, 106, 107, 111 Anisotropy of, 66, 98, 106 Of field emitters, 11 Imageforce on dislocations, 107-110

Sublimation Energy Of atomic state, 31, 36 Of ionic state, 31, 36 Of solute, 34, 35, 36 Of molecular complex, 62

Suiter, Jo Co 49, 121' 131, 133, 142' 153

Surface Energy 67, 68

Surface-Gas Reactions (see Gas-Surface Reactions)

Surface Migration For specimen preparation, 4

Surface Models (see Ideal Surfaces)

SWanson, Lo W 0

29, 31, 32, 88, 179

T Thomas, Go

120, 124 Temperature Dependence

Of field-emision current, 8 Of current-voltage curves in field

ionization, 20 Of field evaporation, 37, 38, 41, 57-59 Of resolution, 2, 3, 26 Of surface migration, 4 Of field-ion energy distribution, 19 Of enhancement factor, 21, 22 Of ion current, 23 Of gas arrival rate, 53 Of point-defect migration, 110-112,

171, 172 Thomsen, Ro

93 Trolan, J o Ko

8, 12, 15 :rsong, T o T o

17, 18, 19, 162 Tunneling

In field emitters, 1-3, 6-8 In field ionization, 3, 13 -17, 54 Of metal ion in field evaporation, 39 Ortentation dependence, 90

Twlnning During image formation, 5, 97

Twinning (continued) Structure of interface, 141-145 In whiskers, 188

Two-Phase Structures Precipitates, 90, 168 Interphase boundaries, 154, 155

u Uncertainty Principle

7,11,25,26 (see also Resolution)

Utsaugi, Ho 29

V Vacancies

Counting techniques, 174-178 Contrast from, 2, 174 Clustering of, 175-178 Artifacts, 92-95

Vacuum

243

Requirements for field emission, 2, 11 Systems, 233-236 Requirements for FIM, 3, 178

Van Bueren, Ho Go 171

Van Oostrom, Ao Go Jo 12, 39

Vanselow, Ro 115

Vapor Deposition Of epitsxial films on field emitters, 193,

194 Nucleation studies with FIM, 195

Votava, Eo 123, 142

w Waclawski, Bo J 0

95 Wald, Mo

49, 93, 127, 145, 153, 156, 157, 175, 177, 179, 180

Warren, Bo Eo 120

Webb, Wo Wo 84

Weissman, So 123

Whiskers Handling of, 186, 187 Observations of, 187-192 Specimen preparation from, 187, 192

WKB Approximation 14 (see also Tunneling)

Wolf, Po 38, 81, 105, 138, 201

244

Wood, R. W. 8

W ork Function Definition of, 6, 7 Effect on field emission current, 7 Distinction from absolute work function,

9, 10 (see also Inner Potential) E ffect on cantrast in field-emission micro­

scope, 10-12 In field ionization, 14, 15 Anisotropy of measured value, 10

Work Function (continued) (see also Field-Emission Current)

y

Yashiro, Y. 173

Young, R. D. 8, 12, 18, 24, 39, 96, 195, 207

z Zollweg, R. J.

90

Index