the first industrial nation and the first “modern” family humphries.pdfcost action symposium the...

COST Action symposium

The first industrial nation The first industrial nation and the first and the first ““modernmodern””

familyfamily

Jane HumphriesJane HumphriesOxford UniversityOxford University

[email protected]@history.oxford.ac.uk


Current anxietiesCurrent anxieties

1 in 4 children in the UK comes from a fatherless family1 in 4 children in the UK comes from a fatherless family90 per cent of single parents in Britain are female90 per cent of single parents in Britain are female35 35 --50 per cent of fathers lose contact with their children after 50 per cent of fathers lose contact with their children after separation or divorceseparation or divorceConnection between Connection between fatherlessnessfatherlessness and emotional and and emotional and psychological problems, drug use, poor educational outcomes, psychological problems, drug use, poor educational outcomes, teenage motherhood, crime and domestic violence are well teenage motherhood, crime and domestic violence are well knownknown48 per cent of children in lone parent families are poor 48 per cent of children in lone parent families are poor largest largest source of child povertysource of child poverty17000 child carers acting as nurses for physically and mentally 17000 child carers acting as nurses for physically and mentally ill ill parents; parents; ¾¾ of these families dependent on state for economic of these families dependent on state for economic supportsupport


Literatures: Old and NewLiteratures: Old and New

Evolutionary theories of the familyEvolutionary theories of the family

Rise and fall of the male breadwinner familyRise and fall of the male breadwinner family

The The ““industrious revolutionindustrious revolution””



•• PrePre--industrial communities characterised by deep kinship, industrial communities characterised by deep kinship, high frequency of extended and interhigh frequency of extended and inter--generational generational householdshouseholds

•• Advanced economies characterised by small, simple Advanced economies characterised by small, simple ““nuclearnuclear””householdshouseholds

•• Transition explained by the sociological theory of Transition explained by the sociological theory of ““differentiationdifferentiation”” with functions that were previously with functions that were previously undertaken by the family now falling to specialised undertaken by the family now falling to specialised institutions such as schools, social security, the health servicinstitutions such as schools, social security, the health servicee

•• Modern Modern ““thinthin”” families functionally adapted to the demands families functionally adapted to the demands of an advanced economy (social and geographical mobility)of an advanced economy (social and geographical mobility)



Process of differentiation and specialization also took place Process of differentiation and specialization also took place within the familywithin the familyHusband/father became specialized in Husband/father became specialized in ““breadwinningbreadwinning””

his his ““jobjob”” linked the family to the economy and secured its economic linked the family to the economy and secured its economic survivalsurvival

Wife/mother became specialized in Wife/mother became specialized in ““homemakinghomemaking””Her caring work secured the reproduction of the family on a dailHer caring work secured the reproduction of the family on a daily basis y basis and interand inter--generationallygenerationally

Specialization again explained as functional for an advanced Specialization again explained as functional for an advanced economy (division of activities allowed values essential to the economy (division of activities allowed values essential to the modern economy to prevail in the marketplace while others modern economy to prevail in the marketplace while others more relevant to reproduction and caring could survive in the more relevant to reproduction and caring could survive in the home)home)


Rise and fall of the male breadwinner Rise and fall of the male breadwinner familyfamily

PrePre--industrial family democratic economicallyindustrial family democratic economically1919thth century transition to century transition to ““malemale--breadwinnerbreadwinner””family (protective labour legislation, chauvinist family (protective labour legislation, chauvinist trade unions, family wages)trade unions, family wages)2020thth century transition to century transition to ““twotwo--earner earner householdshouseholds”” (smaller families, substitutes for (smaller families, substitutes for domestic production, etc.)domestic production, etc.)


The The ““industrious revolutionindustrious revolution””De De VriesVries (1994, 2002)(1994, 2002)

Early modern reallocation of time from leisure Early modern reallocation of time from leisure and household production to market productionand household production to market production

Emphasis on reallocation by womenEmphasis on reallocation by womenMotivated by Motivated by ““newnew”” consumer goods [ties in with consumer goods [ties in with ““consumer revolutionconsumer revolution””] e.g. tropical groceries and ] e.g. tropical groceries and cotton fabricscotton fabricsPartially at least a response to changing relative Partially at least a response to changing relative prices prices But also a result of a But also a result of a ““preference switchpreference switch””


The The ““industrious revolutionindustrious revolution””Second phaseSecond phase

Circa 1820 process reversed as women Circa 1820 process reversed as women reallocated their time back to work in the home reallocated their time back to work in the home

Motivated again partially by shifting relative prices Motivated again partially by shifting relative prices but alsobut alsoAnother switch in preferences (Another switch in preferences (““qualityquality”” children, children, domesticity, hygiene) domesticity, hygiene)


Connections?Connections?

Clearly many and intricate connections could be Clearly many and intricate connections could be made across these theoriesmade across these theoriesLinks also to other themes: fertility transition; Links also to other themes: fertility transition; appearance of the appearance of the ““pricelesspriceless”” child; etc child; etc Common feature = economic determinismCommon feature = economic determinism


Empirical evidenceEmpirical evidenceThin or contradictory?Thin or contradictory?

Evolutionary theories of the family (Evolutionary theories of the family (LaslettLaslett; Anderson); Anderson)English families always small and simpleEnglish families always small and simpleEarly industrial types of extended familiesEarly industrial types of extended families

Rise and fall of the male breadwinner family Rise and fall of the male breadwinner family (Creighton; (Creighton; HorrellHorrell and Humphries)and Humphries)

““systematic empirical investigation systematic empirical investigation ……has been lackinghas been lacking””Industrious revolutionIndustrious revolution

Empirical work focused mainly on probate inventories, i.e. on Empirical work focused mainly on probate inventories, i.e. on wealth and not consumptionwealth and not consumption


PrePre--modern nuclear familiesmodern nuclear families

Orthodox viewOrthodox viewInitially seemed to pull in opposite direction from Initially seemed to pull in opposite direction from economic developmenteconomic developmentBut industrial revolution now reconceptualised as more But industrial revolution now reconceptualised as more gradualgradualRelated to early development of wage labourRelated to early development of wage labourPlus important links to institutional innovationPlus important links to institutional innovation““Nuclear hardshipNuclear hardship”” hypothesis (hypothesis (LaslettLaslett, 1988; Smith , 1988; Smith 1984)1984)Thin kinship Thin kinship development of poor lawdevelopment of poor law


Common problem?Common problem?

•• Patchy and inconclusive evidence on womenPatchy and inconclusive evidence on women’’s s market workmarket work

•• Sources?Sources?•• Very different conclusions about trends possibleVery different conclusions about trends possible•• Depends on definition of participation and Depends on definition of participation and

treatment of characteristically shadowy informationtreatment of characteristically shadowy information


My sourcesMy sources

617 Working617 Working--class autobiographies from the class autobiographies from the 1717thth, 18, 18thth and 19and 19thth centuriescenturiesUsed to construct a dataUsed to construct a data--base of workingbase of working--class class experience that can then be analysed experience that can then be analysed systematicallysystematicallyChecked to ensure that sample is not biasedChecked to ensure that sample is not biasedQuantitative and qualitative analysisQuantitative and qualitative analysis


Example: Will ThorneExample: Will Thorne

born 1857 in Birminghamborn 1857 in BirminghamMother was fatherMother was father’’s second wifes second wifeMother and father worked in the brick fields like their Mother and father worked in the brick fields like their parents before themparents before themFather was Father was ““a good workera good worker””But at weekends would But at weekends would ““drink and fightdrink and fight”…”… they were they were his his ““only diversions from work and sleeponly diversions from work and sleepWill was the eldest of 4 childrenWill was the eldest of 4 childrenBy this time his mother had ceased to workBy this time his mother had ceased to workShe had married very young She had married very young ““in the hope of escaping in the hope of escaping just such a home life as we hadjust such a home life as we had””


MothersMothers’’ economic activityeconomic activity

Definition 1Definition 1Generous definition of activity = any mention of contributions tGenerous definition of activity = any mention of contributions to family o family resources (wage work, business on own account, home work, using resources (wage work, business on own account, home work, using the the resources of the open countryside, e.g. gleaning)resources of the open countryside, e.g. gleaning)

Definition 2Definition 2Generous definition PLUS counted by dint of husbandsGenerous definition PLUS counted by dint of husbands’’ occupation (as occupation (as in 1851 and 1861 censuses)in 1851 and 1861 censuses)

Sample 1Sample 1All cases where little/no information about mother counted as inAll cases where little/no information about mother counted as inactiveactive

Sample 2Sample 2Cases where little or no information droppedCases where little or no information dropped

Participation rates of women by presence and absence of husbandsParticipation rates of women by presence and absence of husbands(sample sizes in parentheses(sample sizes in parentheses))

n.an.a..53.353.3cc –– 57.157.1cc

(45 (45 –– 42)42)Deserted/Deserted/separated wivesseparated wives

n.an.a..29.229.2bb –– 29.829.8bb

(106 (106 –– 104)104)WidowsWidows

41.4 41.4 –– 47.2 47.2 (466 (466 -- 371)371)

28.528.5aa -- 35.935.9 ee

(466 (466 -- 371)371)All women with All women with husbands presenthusbands present

42.1 42.1 –– 46.446.4(617 (617 ––517)517)

30.5 30.5 –– 36.436.4(617(617–– 517)517)

All womenAll women

Participation Participation including by dint of including by dint of

husbandshusbands’’ occupationoccupation(per cent)(per cent)

ParticipationParticipation(per cent)(per cent)


FindingsFindings

Surprisingly low participation ratesSurprisingly low participation ratesGiven generous definitions of activity mothers Given generous definitions of activity mothers in working class families expected to participate in working class families expected to participate at higher ratesat higher rates““unfettered capitalist economyunfettered capitalist economy-- in the full flood in the full flood of industrialismof industrialism”” used their labour used their labour ““less less modestlymodestly”” (Eric Richards, 1974)(Eric Richards, 1974)


Comparisons with Census Comparisons with Census

1851 13.2 per cent (employment or business on 1851 13.2 per cent (employment or business on own account)own account)-- 24 per cent if includes wives of 24 per cent if includes wives of men in certain occupations (farmers, innmen in certain occupations (farmers, inn--keepers keepers etc)etc)1861 14.9 per cent 1861 14.9 per cent –– 24 per cent24 per cent


Comparisons with other pre census Comparisons with other pre census estimatesestimates

HorrellHorrell and Humphries (1995) 45 and Humphries (1995) 45 –– 65 per cent 65 per cent for WIVESfor WIVES60 per cent (Earle, 1989) for WIVES60 per cent (Earle, 1989) for WIVES82 per cent (Earle, 1989) for WIDOWS and 82 per cent (Earle, 1989) for WIDOWS and DESERTED WIVESDESERTED WIVES

Participation rates of women by husbandParticipation rates of women by husband’’ssoccupation (sample sizes in parentheses)occupation (sample sizes in parentheses)

59.4 59.4 –– 64.264.2(64(64 53)53)

31.3 31.3 –– 37.737.7(64(64 53)53)

ServicesServices

30.030.0-- 32.132.1(30 (30 –– 28)28)

30.0 30.0 –– 32.132.1(30 (30 ––28)28)

SeaSea

41.741.7-- 45.545.5(12 (12 –– 11)11)

41.7 41.7 –– 45.545.5(12 (12 –– 11)11)

SoldieringSoldiering

12.5 12.5 –– 15.415.4(16 (16 –– 13)13)

12.5 12.5 –– 15.415.4(16 (16 –– 13)13)

ClericalClerical

47.5 47.5 ––52.852.8(40 (40 –– 36)36)

47.5 47.5 –– 52.852.8(40 (40 –– 36)36)

CasualCasual

30.0 30.0 –– 37.237.2(97 (97 –– 77)77)

24.7 24.7 –– 31.231.2(97 (97 –– 77)77)

TradesTrades

57.3 57.3 –– 62.162.1(74 (74 ––66)66)

45.3 45.3 ––51.551.5(75 (75 ––66)66)

Domestic ManufacturingDomestic Manufacturing

41.7 41.7 –– 45.545.5(36 (36 –– 33)33)

41.7 41.7 –– 45.545.5(36 (36 –– 33)33)

FactoryFactory

20.8 20.8 –– 24.424.4(53 (53 –– 45)45)

20.8 20.8 –– 24.424.4(53 (53 –– 45)45)

MiningMining

60.660.6–– 60.660.6(137 (137 –– 116)116)

31.4 31.4 –– 37.137.1(137 (137 –– 116)116)

AgricultureAgriculture


FindingsFindings

Married womenMarried women’’s activity rate varies positively with s activity rate varies positively with availability of work for married womenavailability of work for married womenvaries negatively with level of pay for adult menvaries negatively with level of pay for adult menConfirms other studies Confirms other studies

Saito (1996) 1851 census enumeratorsSaito (1996) 1851 census enumerators’’ books 63 per cent at books 63 per cent at Cardington; 3 per cent at Cardington; 3 per cent at CorfeCorfe CastleCastleDupree (1995) 1861 18 per cent in PotteriesDupree (1995) 1861 18 per cent in PotteriesMcKay (1999) 1851 and 1861 20 per cent and 22 per cent in McKay (1999) 1851 and 1861 20 per cent and 22 per cent in LancsLancsSee also Goose (1996) and Wall (1986)See also Goose (1996) and Wall (1986)


From economic activity to From economic activity to contributions to family incomescontributions to family incomes

MothersMothers’’ economic activities spasmodic, parteconomic activities spasmodic, part--time, time, often at the margins of the economyoften at the margins of the economyCrowded out by domestic tasks and childcareCrowded out by domestic tasks and childcareEarnings often lowEarnings often lowExceptions: domestic spinning in 18Exceptions: domestic spinning in 18thth century; and, century; and, textile factory work, textile factory work, ieie. weaving in 19. weaving in 19th th centurycenturySo overall contributions small So overall contributions small Confirms earlier findings from household budgets Confirms earlier findings from household budgets ((HorrellHorrell and Humphries, 1992; 1998)and Humphries, 1992; 1998)


Qualitative evidenceQualitative evidence

Fathers introduced in terms of their Fathers introduced in terms of their occupationsoccupationsFathering identified with providingFathering identified with providingMothering involved many and varied caring and Mothering involved many and varied caring and domestic tasksdomestic tasksMothers predominantly engaged in making the Mothers predominantly engaged in making the most of earnings through domestic frugality and most of earnings through domestic frugality and in softening harsh realities through professions in softening harsh realities through professions of love and demonstrations of careof love and demonstrations of care


FindingsFindings

Relatively low activity rates for all groups of Relatively low activity rates for all groups of womenwomenNo evidence of variation over timeNo evidence of variation over timeEconomic contributions to family incomes Economic contributions to family incomes limitedlimitedPrecocious adoption of male breadwinner family Precocious adoption of male breadwinner family structure alongside precocious adoption of structure alongside precocious adoption of nuclear formnuclear formImplications?Implications?


ImplicationsImplications

Families without fathersFamilies without fathersFamilies with inadequate male Families with inadequate male breadwinnersbreadwinnersBreadwinner hardshipBreadwinner hardship


Families without fathers or Families without fathers or de factode factowithout fatherswithout fathers

MortalityMortalityIllegitimacyIllegitimacyDesertion/abandonmentDesertion/abandonmentAlcoholismAlcoholismArmed forcesArmed forces““IndustriousnessIndustriousness””

HoursHoursWorking away from homeWorking away from homeTrampingTramping

Proportion of egos with parent(s) alive on 14th birthdayfrom simulations and findings on parental survival from autobiographies

.73.61.72-.77.67- .73Mother and Father

.85.72.85-.86.82-.84Father

.87.82.84-.89.81-.86Mother

Post-1799Pre-17991800-1837

1750-1799

Parent

Findings from autobiographies

Parents**

SimulationsBiological and step-parents*

Source: simulation results kindly shared by Jim Oeppen.* The lower-range figure relates only to biological parents while the upper-range figure relates to both biological and step-parents.** Parents and step-parents are not always distinguished but where possible relates to biological parents.


Mortality Mortality

Mortality of Mortality of autobiographersautobiographers’’ mothers mothers consistent with evidence from the populationconsistent with evidence from the populationMortality of Mortality of autobiographersautobiographers’’ fathers seriously fathers seriously overestimated especially in 18overestimated especially in 18thth centurycenturyIncludes many missing fathers deliberately Includes many missing fathers deliberately recorded as dead to avoid shame of recorded as dead to avoid shame of abandonment and illegitimacy (e.g. Henry Snell, abandonment and illegitimacy (e.g. Henry Snell, 1936)1936)Extent of Extent of de factode facto fatherlessnessfatherlessness 88--10 per cent?10 per cent?


Abandonment and desertionAbandonment and desertion

Suspiciously inflated totals of dead fathersSuspiciously inflated totals of dead fathersNonNon--trivial numbers of fathers openly reported as trivial numbers of fathers openly reported as absent though still alive (42 out of 515 cases with absent though still alive (42 out of 515 cases with information on both parents) information on both parents) So according to what proportion of the excess paternal So according to what proportion of the excess paternal mortality is taken as indicating alienation and mortality is taken as indicating alienation and abandonment abandonment 88--18 per cent of children grew up in 18 per cent of children grew up in families separated from yetfamilies separated from yet--living fathersliving fathersConsistent with other historians depiction of the 18Consistent with other historians depiction of the 18thth

century as a period of marital instability (century as a period of marital instability (EmminsonEmminson, , 1933; Stone, 1977; 1933; Stone, 1977; OuthwaiteOuthwaite, 1981; Snell, 1985; Kent, , 1981; Snell, 1985; Kent, 1990; Sharpe, 1991; Humphries, 1998; Bailey, 2003)1990; Sharpe, 1991; Humphries, 1998; Bailey, 2003)


Alcoholism and inadequacyAlcoholism and inadequacy

Drinking common (often forgiven as corollary Drinking common (often forgiven as corollary of breadwinning)of breadwinning)Problem for breadwinning (reduced earnings; Problem for breadwinning (reduced earnings; earnings topearnings top--sliced; prelude to abandonment) sliced; prelude to abandonment)


““IndustriousnessIndustriousness””

Longer hours, more days work (Longer hours, more days work (VothVoth 2002)2002)Working away from homeWorking away from homeService in armed forcesService in armed forcesTramping in search of workTramping in search of work


Other factorsOther factors

Technological/cyclical/individual Technological/cyclical/individual unemploymentunemploymentLow skills and deskillingLow skills and deskillingIllness and incapacityIllness and incapacityLow wage sectors (e.g. southern agriculture)Low wage sectors (e.g. southern agriculture)



Maybe 30 per cent of families had no male head Maybe 30 per cent of families had no male head or had a male head who was incapable of or had a male head who was incapable of supporting a dependent wife and childrensupporting a dependent wife and childrenIronically same economic and social changes Ironically same economic and social changes that promoted familial dependence on men and that promoted familial dependence on men and the earnings alienated and distanced men from the earnings alienated and distanced men from the families that they were supposed to supportthe families that they were supposed to supportVulnerability of individuals in these families Vulnerability of individuals in these families when male breadwinner failedwhen male breadwinner failed



Nuclear hardshipNuclear hardshipNuclear householdsNuclear households mortality and mobility meant that mortality and mobility meant that many elderly people left without support many elderly people left without support if wider kin did if wider kin did not help alternative system of collective security needednot help alternative system of collective security needed

Breadwinner hardshipBreadwinner hardshipHouseholds headed by a male breadwinner Households headed by a male breadwinner individuals individuals vulnerable when male breadwinner failed vulnerable when male breadwinner failed women and women and children left without support children left without support if wider kin did not help if wider kin did not help alternative system of collective security neededalternative system of collective security needed


ConfirmationConfirmation

Lone mother households and fatherless children Lone mother households and fatherless children as high frequency beneficiaries of poor relief as high frequency beneficiaries of poor relief (Snell and Millar, 1987; Humphries, 1998; (Snell and Millar, 1987; Humphries, 1998; Williamson, 2004; King, 2004; Moring, 2004)Williamson, 2004; King, 2004; Moring, 2004)Reinforces nuclear hardship because when Reinforces nuclear hardship because when families failed support had to come not from kin families failed support had to come not from kin generally but from other replacement male generally but from other replacement male breadwinners among kinbreadwinners among kin


Responses of lone mother Responses of lone mother householdshouseholds

Lone mothers did participate in the economy at higher Lone mothers did participate in the economy at higher rates than mothers with husbands presentrates than mothers with husbands presentCompare widows with deserted wivesCompare widows with deserted wivesWider kin did help and not only by extending their Wider kin did help and not only by extending their families to accommodate remnants of failed families families to accommodate remnants of failed families common form of extended familycommon form of extended familyConjuncture of nuclear hardship and breadwinner Conjuncture of nuclear hardship and breadwinner hardship sets the scene for another key characteristic of hardship sets the scene for another key characteristic of the era the era child labourchild labourBoom in child labour in 18Boom in child labour in 18thth century and first 30 years century and first 30 years of the 19thof the 19th


Will ThorneWill Thorne

Tragedy Tragedy Thorne senior diesThorne senior diesFamily left without a male headFamily left without a male head““Our poverty compelled my mother to take any Our poverty compelled my mother to take any work she could getwork she could get”” homework howeverhomework howeverApplication to the Birmingham Board of Application to the Birmingham Board of Guardians Guardians 4 loaves and 4s per week4 loaves and 4s per weekWill (eldest child though still only 6) goes to Will (eldest child though still only 6) goes to work in a rope walk from 6 in the morning till 6 work in a rope walk from 6 in the morning till 6 at night for 2s 6d per weekat night for 2s 6d per week

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