267

1797John Adamsbecomes president

1798Congress passes Alienand Sedition Acts

1800Convention of 1800

1796Federalists nominate Adams for president;Democratic-Republicans nominate Jefferson

Main IdeaBy the election of 1796, two distinctpolitical parties with different viewsabout the role of the national govern-ment had formed.

Key Termspartisan, implied powers, caucus,alien, sedition, nullify, states’ rights

Reading StrategyClassifying Information As you readSection 3, create a diagram like theone below and list the differencesbetween the Federalists and theDemocratic-Republicans.

Read to Learn• how political parties got started and

what positions they supported.• how John Adams and Thomas Jef-

ferson became candidates of oppos-ing parties in the election of 1796.

Section ThemeGovernment and Democracy Differ-ent values fueled the rise of thenation’s first political parties.

The First Political Parties

CHAPTER 8 A New Nation

The Washington presidency was known for its dignity and elegance. The presidentrode in a coach drawn by horses and accompanied by mounted attendants. He and hiswife, Martha, lived in the finest house in Philadelphia, the new nation’s capital. Theyentertained a great deal, holding weekly receptions. Each year a ball was held onWashington’s birthday. The president wore a black velvet suit with gold buckles, yellowgloves, powdered hair, an ostrich plume in his hat, and a sword in a white leathersheath. Despite these extravagances, Washington’s character and military record wereadmired by most Americans.

Opposing ViewsAlthough hailed by Americans as the nation’s greatest leader, George Washing-

ton did not escape criticism during his two terms as president. From time to time,harsh attacks on his policies and on his personality appeared in newspapers. Onepaper even called Washington “the scourge and the misfortune of his country.”

Issue FederalistsDemocratic-Republicans

Role of federal government

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦ 1796 ✦ 1798 ✦ 1800

George Washington

Most attacks on Washington had come fromsupporters of Thomas Jefferson. They were try-ing to discredit the policies of Washington andHamilton by attacking the president. By 1796Americans were beginning to divide into oppos-ing groups and to form political parties.

At that time, many Americans consideredpolitical parties harmful. Parties—or “factions”as they were called—were to be avoided asmuch as strong central government. Thenation’s founders did not even mention politicalparties in the Constitution.

Washington had denounced political partiesand warned that they would divide the nation.To others it seemed natural that people woulddisagree about issues and that those who heldsimilar views would band together.

In Washington’s cabinet Hamilton and Jeffer-son often took opposing sides on issues. Theydisagreed on economic policy and foreign rela-tions, on the power of the federal government,and on interpretations of the Constitution. Even

268 CHAPTER 8 A New Nation

Washington had been partisan—favoring oneside of an issue. Although he believed he stoodabove politics, Washington usually supportedHamilton’s positions.

Political Parties EmergeIn Congress and the nation at large, similar

differences existed. By the mid-1790s, two dis-tinct political parties had taken shape.

The name Federalist had first describedsomeone who supported ratification of theConstitution. By the 1790s the word wasapplied to the group of people who supportedthe policies of the Washington administration.

Generally Federalists stood for a strong fed-eral government. They admired Britain becauseof its stability and distrusted France because ofthe violent changes following the French Revo-lution. Federalist policies tended to favor bank-ing and shipping interests. Federalists receivedthe strongest support in the Northeast, espe-cially in New England, and from wealthy plan-tation owners in the South.

Efforts to turn public opinion against Federal-ist policies began seriously in late 1791 whenPhilip Freneau (Freh•NOH) began publishingthe National Gazette. Jefferson, then secretary ofstate, helped the newspaper get started. Later heand Madison organized people who disagreedwith Hamilton. They called their party theRepublicans, or the Democratic-Republicans.

The Republicans wanted to limit govern-ment’s power. They feared that a strong federalgovernment would endanger people’s liberties.They supported the French and condemnedwhat they regarded as the Washington adminis-tration’s pro-British policies. Republican poli-cies appealed to small farmers and urbanworkers, especially in the Middle Atlantic statesand the South.

CitizenshipViews of the Constitution

One difference between Federalists andRepublicans concerned the basis of governmentpower. In Hamilton’s view the federal govern-ment had implied powers, powers that werenot expressly forbidden in the Constitution.

• Different philosophies of government

• Conflicting interpretations of theConstitution

• Different economic and regionalinterests

• Disagreement over foreign affairs

• Federalists and Democratic-Republi-cans propose different solutions

• The two parties nominate candidates

• Political parties become a way ofAmerican life

Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton emerged asthe leaders of the two opposing parties.

Analyzing Information How did the first two politicalparties emerge?

269CHAPTER 8 A New Nation

Hamilton used the idea of implied powers tojustify a national bank. He argued that the Con-stitution gave Congress the power to issuemoney and regulate trade, and a national bankwould clearly help the government carry outthese responsibilities. Therefore, creating a bankwas within the constitutional power of Congress.

Jefferson and Madison disagreed with Hamil-ton. They believed in a strict interpretation ofthe Constitution. They accepted the idea ofimplied powers, but in a much more limitedsense than Hamilton did: Implied powers arethose powers that are “absolutely necessary” tocarry out the expressed powers.

The People’s RoleThe differences between the parties, however,

went even deeper. Federalists and Republicanshad sharply opposing views on the role ordi-nary people should play in government.

Federalists supported representative govern-ment, in which elected officials ruled in the peo-ple’s name. They did not believe that it was wiseto let the public become too involved in politics.Hamilton said:

“The people are turbulent and changing. . . .They seldom judge or determine right.”

Public office, Federalists thought, should be heldby honest and educated men of property whowould protect everyone’s rights. Ordinary peoplewere too likely to be swayed by agitators.

In contrast, the Republicans feared a strongcentral government controlled by a few people.They believed that liberty would be safe only ifordinary people participated in government. AsJefferson explained:

“I am not among those who fear the people;they, and not the rich, are our dependence [whatwe depend on] for continued freedom.”

Washington’s DilemmaWashington tried to get his two advisers to

work out their differences. Knowing Jeffersonwas discontented, Washington wrote:

“I have a great sincere esteem and regard for you both, and ardently wish that some linecould be marked out by which both [of] youcould walk.”

Nevertheless, by 1793 Jefferson was sounhappy that he resigned as secretary of state.In 1795, Alexander Hamilton resigned, too, assecretary of the treasury. The rival groups andtheir points of view moved further apart.

The Election of 1796In the presidential election of 1796, candi-

dates sought office for the first time as membersof a party. To prepare for the election, the Fed-eralists and the Republicans held meetingscalled caucuses. At the caucuses members of

Leader: Alexander HamiltonFavored:• Rule by the wealthy class• Strong federal government• Emphasis on manufacturing• Loose interpretation of the

Constitution• British alliance• National bank• Protective tariffs

Leader: Thomas JeffersonFavored:• Rule by the people• Strong state governments• Emphasis on agriculture• Strict interpretation

of the Constitution• French alliance• State banks• Free trade

Federalists Democratic-RepublicansDifferences Between the First Political Parties

Analyzing Information Whichleader would American businessowners favor, and why?

Congress and other lead-ers chose their party’scandidates for office.

The Federalists nomi-nated Vice PresidentJohn Adams as theircandidate for presidentand Charles Pinckneyfor vice president.

The Republicans put forth former secretary ofstate Jefferson for president and Aaron Burr forvice president. Adams and Jefferson, who hadbeen good friends, became rivals. The Federal-ists expected to carry New England. The Repub-licans’ strength lay in the South, which wouldgive most of its votes to Jefferson.

In the end Adams received 71 electoral votes,winning the election. Jefferson finished secondwith 68 votes. Under the provisions of the Constitution at that time, the person with the sec-ond-highest number of electoral votes becamevice president. Jefferson therefore became thenew vice president. The administration that tookoffice on March 4, 1797, had a Federalist presi-dent and a Republican vice president.

Explaining Which political partywould a Boston factory owner most likely support?

President John AdamsJohn Adams had spent most of his life in public

service. One of Massachusetts’s most active patri-ots, he later became ambassador to France and toGreat Britain. He helped to negotiate the Treaty ofParis that ended the Revolution. Under Washing-ton, he served two terms as vice president.

The XYZ AffairWhen Adams took office, he inherited the dis-

pute with France. The French regarded Jay’sTreaty, signed in 1794, as an American attemptto help the British in their war with France. Topunish the United States, the French seizedAmerican ships that carried cargo to Britain.

Adams wanted to avoid war with France. Inthe fall of 1797, he sent a delegation to Paris totry to resolve the dispute. French foreign minis-ter Charles de Talleyrand, however, refused tomeet with the Americans. Instead, Talleyrandsent three agents who demanded a bribe and aloan for France from the Americans. “Not a six-pence,” the Americans replied and sent a reportof the incident to the United States. Adams wasfurious. Referring to the three French agents asX, Y, and Z, the president urged Congress toprepare for war. The incident became known asthe XYZ affair.

Undeclared War With FranceCongress responded with a program to

strengthen the armed forces. It established theNavy Department in April 1798 and set asidemoney for building warships. Congress alsoincreased the size of the army. George Washing-ton was appointed commanding general.

Between 1798 and 1800, United States andFrench naval vessels clashed on a number ofoccasions, although war was not formallydeclared. Adams’s representatives negotiated anagreement with France in September 1800 thatensured peace.

In the view of most Americans, France hadbecome an enemy. The Republican Party, friendlytoward France in the past, hesitated to turnaround and condemn France. As a result, in the1798 elections, Americans voted some Republi-cans out of office.

270 CHAPTER 8 A New Nation

Did Johnny Appleseed scatter apple seeds in thewilderness? There was a real Johnny Appleseed. Johnny,whose real name was John Chapman, was born in Massa-chusetts in 1774. When the rich lands west of the OhioRiver were opened for settlement in the early 1800s, hewas the among the first to explore the new territory.Johnny Appleseed did not scatter seeds as he wandered,as many people believe. As he traveled, he would spotgood sites for planting. There he would clear the landand plant the seeds. His orchards varied in size. Somecovered about an acre. Others covered many acres.When settlers arrived, they found Johnny Appleseed’syoung apple trees ready for sale.

American Heroes

HISTORY

Student Web ActivityVisit taj.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 8—Student Web Activitiesfor an activity on the firstpolitical parties.

http://taj.glencoe.com

271CHAPTER 8 A New Nation

Alien and Sedition ActsThe threat of war with France made Ameri-

cans more suspicious of aliens, immigrants liv-ing in the country who were not citizens. ManyEuropeans who came to the United States in the1790s supported the ideals of the French Revo-lution. Some Americans questioned whetherthese aliens would remain loyal if the UnitedStates went to war with France.

Federalists in Congress responded with strictlaws to protect the nation’s security. In 1798 theypassed a group of measures known as the Alienand Sedition Acts. Sedition refers to activitiesaimed at weakening established government.

CitizenshipDomestic and Foreign Affairs

For some Americans, fears of a strong centralgovernment abusing its power seemed to becoming true. The Republicans looked to thestates to preserve the people’s liberties and stand

up to what they regarded as Federalist tyranny.Madison and Jefferson drafted documents ofprotest that were passed by the Virginia andKentucky legislatures.

The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions of1798 and 1799 claimed that the Alien and Sedi-tion Acts could not be put into action becausethey violated the Constitution. The KentuckyResolutions further suggested that states mightnullify—legally overturn—federal laws consid-ered unconstitutional.

The resolutions affirmed the principle ofstates’ rights—limiting the federal governmentto those powers clearly assigned to it by theConstitution and reserving to the states all otherpowers not expressly forbidden to them. Theissue of states’ rights would arise again andagain in the nation’s early history.

As the election of 1800 approached, the Fed-eralists found themselves under attack. Theyurged Adams to step up the war with France.They hoped to benefit politically from the

The Alien and Sedition Acts

Naturalization ActRequired that aliens be residents for

14 years instead of 5 years before they became eligible for U.S. citizenship.

Alien ActsAllowed the president to imprison aliens, or

send those he considered dangerous out of the country.

Sedition ActMade it a crime to speak, write, or

publish “false, scandalous, and malicious” criticisms of the government.

Results• Discouraged immigration

and led some foreignersalready in the country toleave.

• Convicted 10 Republicannewspaper editors whohad criticized the Federal-ists in government.

Reaction• Opposition to Federalist

party grows.• Led to movement to

allow states to overturnfederal laws.

Why they were passedThe Federalist-controlled Congress

wanted to:• strengthen the federal government.• silence Republican opposition.

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Write a short newspaper

article about the election of 1796 inwhich you use the following terms:partisan, implied powers, caucus.

2. Reviewing Facts Who was electedpresident in 1796, and who becamevice president?

Reviewing Themes3. Government and Democracy

How were the Federalists differentfrom the Republicans in how they felt about a powerful central government?

Critical Thinking4. Drawing Conclusions Do you think

the development of political partieswas necessary? Why or why not?

5. Classifying Information Re-createthe diagram below. Provide informa-tion about the election of 1796 in thespaces provided.

Analyzing Visuals6. Graphic Organizer Skills Study the

diagram on page 271. Who arealiens? Why were the Alien and Sedi-tion Acts passed? How did their pas-sage affect the Federalist Party?

patriotic feelings that war would unleash.Adams refused to rush to war, especially for hisown political gain. Instead he appointed a newcommission to seek peace with France.

In 1800 the French agreed to a treaty andstopped attacks on American ships. Althoughthe agreement with France was in the bestinterest of the United States, it hurt Adams’schance for re-election. Rather than applauding

the agreement, Hamilton and his supportersnow opposed their own president. With theFederalists split, the Republican prospects for capturing the presidency improved. Theway was prepared for Thomas Jefferson in theelection of 1800.

Summarizing How did the peaceagreement with France affect the Federalists?

272 CHAPTER 8 A New Nation

Art Choose the presidential candi-date for whom you would havevoted in 1796. Design a campaignposter or button using words andillustrations to help promote yourcandidate.

Presidential Election of 1796

Candidate

Party

Electoral votes

Winner (check column)

Vice President (check column)

Fighting in Congress The Sedition Act led to hard feelings,even violence. This cartoon provides a humorous look at afight in Congress. Federalist Roger Griswold attacks Republi-can Matthew Lyon with a cane. Lyon seizes a pair of firetongs and fights back. On the wall is a painting named“Royal Sport” showing animals fighting. How are theother members of Congress reacting to the fight?

Analyzing Political Cartoons

2 Roger Griswold1 Matthew Lyon 3 painting1 2

3