9 The Flowering of Regional Cultures

represents Sanskrit. Modern Malayalam literature

had its beginning around the sixteenth century. India's diverse regional languages and various

festivals, forms of dance and music, dresses and

food items evolved during the medieval period. In

this chapter we will study some of the historical

processes which shaped the regional cultures of

certain parts of India.

Tribal Influence on Religious Worship in Odisha

Malayalam Literature of Kerala Lord Shiva was widely worshipped in Odisha till

the rise of the Ganga dynasty. Anantavarman

Chodagangadeva, a Ganga ruler, rose to prominence

in the eleventh century. He built a large number of The ancient Chera dynasty of Kerala had links with

the Pandya and Chola dynasties of ancient Tamil

Nadu. Till about the eighth century, Malayalam, the

local language of Kerala, was influenced by Tamil, the

language of Tamil Nadu. After this, Brahmans, mainly Karnataka, migrated to

numbers. They built temples which became centres of

Sanskrit culture. Around the ninth century. Kerala

came under a new line of Chera rulers called the

Perumals, who

Vishnu temples. In the twelfth century. Anantavarman began building the famous Jagannath

Temple at Puri. (Jagannath, meaning lord of the

world, is a form of Vishnu.) The temple was possibly

completed by his grandson Anangabhima II. The

Jagannath Temple was highly respected by the people

of Odisha. So, all who conquered Odisha afterwards,

from Kerala in large

like the Afghan Nawabs of Bengal, the Mughals, the

Marathas and the British, protected its interests. set up their capital at

MnOdayapuram. The Perumals promoted Sanskrit

Lure, and the influence of Sanskrit on Malayalam increased. Jagannath is believed to have been a tribal deity

who came to be identified with Lord Krishna. Along

with Jagannath, his brother Balabhadra and sister

Subhadra are also worshipped in the Jagannath

Temple. The idols are actually roughly carved logs of

wood on which large eyes are painted, and stumps are

attached to represent arms. New idols are made every

twelve years and the old ones are buried. The famous

Rathayatra festival is celebrated annually in June or

July, when three enormous wooden rathas (chariots)

Malayalam script in the ninth century was based

amil scripts. An example of this script was found

inscription of the time from Vazhappally in

rala. Lilatilakam, a fourteenth-century work on

layalam grammar, as written in the Manipravala Which st

shows the growing influence of Sanskrit

Malayalam. Manipravala literally Combination of ge

means a

gem with coral. Gem refers to a

lan language, in this case Malayalam, and coral

75

76 Our World: Then and Now 2

Fig. 9.1 The Jagannath Temple at Puri Fig. 9.2 Kathak

bearing the idols are drawn in a procession through Rajput dynasties established medieval period.

kingdoms in different parts of northern and central

India throughout the medieval period. The Rajputs. however, failed to unite and wasted their energies in

continuous warfare among themselves.

the streets of Puri.

The Kathak Dance Form of North India

Kathak is one of the classical dance forms of northern

India. The beginning of kathak can be traced to the

ancient Kathakas (a community of hereditary storytellers). The Kathakas danced, mimed and sang

to tell stories drawm mostly from the Ramayana, the

Mahabharata and the Puranas. During the Bhakti

Movement, kathak became increasingly based on

The Rajputs preserved stories of their heroism.

loyalty, chivalry, friendship and love in popular ballads and songs. Young Rajputs were trained in the art of warfare and were expected to follow the examples set by these stories. They preferred death to

fleeing from the battlefield. They also fiercely guarded the honour of their womenfolk. The women, too, Often preferred death to dishonour. The women of defeated royal households sometimes committed jaurar (mass suicide by jumping into flames).

stories from the life of Lord Krishna.

During the later medieval period, kathak

gradually shifted from Hindu temples to royal

courts. Here, more emphasis was laid on rhythm and movement than on religious stories. The

kathak dance thus got many of its present features

such as delicate gestures and facial expressions and fast footwork.

Painting8 ln the medieval period, many rulers and wealtny people promoted the painting of miniature (small-size paintings). These paintings wer on various materials such as paper, cloth, woo ivory and leather. The paints used were natura dyes made from vegetables, and minerals incluals gold and silver.

ade Under the patronage of rulers like Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of Awadh (in Uttar Pradesh), several regional gharanas, or schools, of kathak developed. Among

these were the Jaipur gharana of Rajasthan, and the

Banaras and Lucknow gharanas of Uttar Pradesh.

In the early medieval period, miniatures aep religious themes. The Palas of Bengal patronised use of miniatures to illustrate Buddhist texUS in western India miniatures were used to aco orate

icted

The Rajput Tradition of Heroism the

while

The Rajputs belonged to the Kshatriya caste. They rose to prominence in north-western India in the early Jain manuscripts.

The Flowering of Regional Cultures

Akbar established the Tasvir Khana. a paintin studio where painters from different regions worked

together. These painters blended Indian and Persian

techniques. They painted secular themes such as

hunting scenes. battle scenes. court scenes and portraits. Bright colours such as peacock blue and red were popular. Basawan and Daswant were two

great painters of Akbar's time. Jahangir encouraged the painting of scenes from nature.

Aurangzeb disapproved of painting. Hence. many artists of the Mughal court migrated to different

regions where the local governors appointed them.

Different styles of miniature painting developed in different regions. In Rajasthan. for example. different

styles emerged at Bundi, Mewar. Kota. Kishangarh. Marwar. Jaipur and Bikaner. The Pahari style of painting developed in the hills extending from

Jammu to Garhwal. The two most well-known

schools of the Pahari style are the Basohli and Kangra schools. The Sultans of the Deccan patronised the

Deccani style of miniature painting Fig. 9.3 A Mughal painting from Akbar's time

Developments in Medieval Bengal The Muslim rulers of medieval India patronised

Persian-style miniatures. During the Sultanate

period, miniatures were used in book illumination

(decoration of the pages of books).

Political and Religious Developments In Vedic literature. the tribal people of eastern India.

including those of Bengal. were called the Prachyas

Fig. 9.4 A painting in the Pahari style

78 Our World: Then and Now - 2

deities and were also influenced bu Islam and Sufism. The aishnavism common people

ok advic their own spiritua leacdlers on settling problems fromn

whom they called pirs. Peop built simples shrines lo ers, their gods and pirs.

Language and Literature

Krishna becar In Bengal the worship of Lord

ame very popular during the Bhak Movement. This Was reflected in the literature of the period. T Bengal

composed in the Bengali language. preached through verses

teachers of

The bhakti saint Chaitanyadeva of Bengal spread his influence over the whole of eastern India. Ser Several literary works were composed on his life and teachings. One example 1s Chaitanyacharitamrie written by Krishnadas Kaviraj in a mixture of Sanskrit and Bengali.

Under the patronage of the Muslim rulers of Bengal, several authors translated the Ramayana and the Mahabharata into Bengali from Sanskrit. For example, Krittivas Ojha translated the Ramayana and Shrikara Nandi translated parts of the Mahabharata into Bengali.

The Nathpanthi cult was popular in medieval Bengal. Most of the Nathpanthi leaders belonged to the lowest castes. The Nathpanthis composed two types of literature which were passed on orally. One was in the form of instructive verses, partly in code language, meant only for cult members. The other was in the form of stories. Some of the stories, such

Fig. 9.5 A medieval painting from the Deccan

(Easterners). The Prachyas came under the influence of Sanskrit culture only after their homeland was conquered by the Mauryas. During the Mauryan rule, Buddhism also took deep roots in Bengal. Bengal remained under Magadhan rulers till the Gupta period. Shashanka became the first independent ruler of seventh-century Bengal. Bengal rose to political prominence under the Palas, who ruled fron the eighth to the twelfth century. The Palas patronised Buddhism. The Senas, who ruled Bengal from the twelfth to the thirteenth century, promoted Hinduism and the Bengali language.

as Gorakshavijay, Maynamatir Gan (Maynamati's song) and Gopichandrer Gan (Gopichandra's song), glorify various Nathpanthi siddhas. Some

others are epic poems called mangalkavyas. so

called because even listening to the stories is believed to bring overall well-being. They include stories of heroism of low-caste men and women One of the most famous mangalkavyas is the

Mukundaram

were

version of Chandimangal by Chakravarti of the sixteenth century. Songs also composed in praise of Dharma Thakur, a trio

deity symbolising the sun and fertility.

Bengal came under Muslim rule after the invasion of Qutb-ud-din Aibak's Afghan general Bakhtiyar Khalji in the thirteenth century. The influence of Islam and Sufism gradually increased.

brought large parts of south-eastern Bengal under their rule,

administrative headquarters. As local chiefs, tribal communities and landed people came under Mughal control, the earlier political system of Bengal broke down. However, the Mughal administrative control over the region was not very strong. This gave rise to political disturbance and a lack of social order. At this time, the people of Bengal worshipped various tribal1

The Mughals Bengali Architecture The medieval temples of Bengal show

architectural style. This style bea the influence

a distincti

ce of and Dhaka became the region's

tribal traditions. Tribal deities were often wo to hippea

When Hindus bega in chala (thatched) shrines. images

temples resembling the chala shrines. Such a temple ind o worship these deities, they placed the

had a sloping roof which looked like so of two chala-either a dochala, with a rool **

ade

howg of Roglmal iltu

pleces

of thalch, or a uchala, with a rool made of

four pleces

ol hatch, or an aatchala, with Iwo

hauchalas placed one over another

ame of the best examples of Bangla-style tenmples Som

iound in Vishnupur in the Bankura distriet of are

West (est Bengal. Among these are the Radha Binod and

eshta Raya 'emples. They were bult by the Hindu Alla rulers. who were of tribal orlgin but promoted

Malla

hoth tribal and Saskril cullures, The red soil of

Vishnupur is excellenl lor making terracotla brlcks temples of Vishnupur lave nd sculptures. The

beautiful terracotla panels on thelr walls.

Fish in Bengali Culture

Much of Bengal is a della reglon and the many waler hodies of this region abound in flsh. Henee, ish is an important item in the daily diet of the people ol Bengal. People from all sections of the Bengali soctely eat fish. Even Brahmans, unlike Brahmans in most

parts of India, are allowed to cal white lish

ig. 9.6 Kesta Ry lemm, Vilpu, in abur t illedd Jlon

B.ungla leple

such as narages. Some trllbes of engal use cerlan

ypes of flslh as thetr totem (religtous symbol). Fisl are depteted in seulptures, palntngs and alxua folk art form in whlch designs are drawn on the Iloor

with a paste of rlce llour).

with scales.

Besides serving as food. fish are regarded as

auspicious and are used in rituals and ceremonies

Things to Remember

The Malayalam language of Kerala, whtch untul about the elghth eentury wias inluenced by Tamil, eame under the influence of Sanskrit. This can be seen n Llattlakam, a lourteenth-century work on Malayalam grumnar wrlten

in the Manipravala style. Anantavarman Chodagangadeva. of the Ganga dynasty of Odisha, promoted Vishnu worshtp. He started bulldng

the famous Jagannath Temple al Pur. where Jagannath. hls brotler Balabladra and sister Subludra are worshipped. Puri is famous for its annual Rathayatra festivial eentred roumd these delties.

The classical dance form kathak developed Irom the perfornmances of the anetent storylellers called Kathakas. Kathak, earlier based on the Ramayana, Malhalbharata and Puraas, becane 1based on the lile ol Lord Krisha during the Bhakti Movement. Later medieval rulers patronised kathak lor its rhy1lun, nd several reglonal

gharanas developed. The Rajputs, who were Kshatriyas, admired the qualitles of herolsnn, loyally and chivalry. Young Rajputs were

trained in warfare and expected to develop these qqualitles. The woen of delealel royal households sometines

committed jauhar to avoid dishonour he art of painting miniatures lourished in medieval India. In the early nedieval pertod, mintatures were used to

ustrate Buddhist and Jain manuseripts. During the Sultanate jperiod, PeTslim-style ninlatures were used in book illumination.

har established a painting studio where palnters from dillerent reglons worked together. These panters blended1 lan and Persian techniques, and palnled secular themes. Basawan and Daswnt were wo great patnters ol Akbar's time. erent reglonal styles of mintature painling developed. Among these were the Rajusthant, Palhart and Deccani styles. ne early medieval period, Bengal was influenced by Sanskrit cultue and 1ucddhisn,. ln the laler medieval

Od it was influenced mainly by Vaishnavlsn. Islam and Sulsm

eval Bengali literature reflecied the popularity of Krishna worshlp n the regtonu. Tlhe Valsluuava leaclers of al preached through verses composed in the Bengalt language. Several literary works were coniposecd on the