The French Revolution•Importance

–Brought the People to the forefront of politics–Set the model for later revolutions –Changed the political map of Europe forever.

•Chronology - Sketch of Events •1788-89 French State undergoes a massive revolution in politics but also in society and the way people think.

–Calling of the Estates General in 1789 was the catalyst for the Revolution.

•1789-1792 - Liberal Revolution •1792-1794 - Radicalization •795-1799 - Ineffective Reaction •1799-1815 - Napoleon

Louis XV 1715-74

Succeeded at age 5. Poorly educated and spent a life devoted to his mistresses.

Nobles began to regain some of the power they had lost to Louis XIV under the regency of the Duc D'Orleans,

Nobles proved incapable of governing. In the Parlements nobles continued to struggle with the monarchy until the Revolution, a struggle that seriously weakened it.

Madame de Pompadour 1721-64 - for 20 years exercised her political intelligence for Louis XV. Madame du Barry - just as ambitious, less clever

Louis XVI 1774-1792

Virtuous - but uninterested in government. [In his Diary July 14, 1789, he wrote: "Nothing", he meant he caught nothing hunting that day.]

Initially restored the parlements to gain popularity

Married to Marie Antoinette who was extremely unpopular

Lived at Versailles, isolating the royal family from the population of Paris

The Crisis of the French MonarchyFrom close of 7 Yrs War(1763) until French Rev., European monarchies didn’t have enough revenue

Became agents of institutional and political change Provoked aristocratic, sometimes popular, resentment/resistance, led to chaos

George III of Britain fought w/Parliament, lost North American coloniesFrederick II of Prussia needed aristocratic influence on army/bureaucracyJoseph II of Austria didn’t consult w/nobility, left them in turmoil

French monarchy emerged from 7 Yrs War defeated/in debtSupported American revolt against Great BritainInterest was ½ of royal budget Had debt, but was unable to tap wealth of French nation through taxes

Intellectual CausesThe Enlightenment: scientific and philosophical thought had spread around Europe in the 18th Century - much larger intellectual class with the political ideas.

Liberalism was popular. Liberty - Human Rights/Natural Rights.

Sovereignty of the people. Equality - meant equal rights for all under the Law. Liberals also wanted freedom from a state-controlled economy.

Property was seen as sacred. These were middle class property owners by and large.

Social CausesProblem of the Estates System

First Estate: The Clergy 1% of pop, with 10% of land. Had wealth, land, privileges and they levied a tax on the peasantry, the tithe, which generally went to some remote bishop or monastery rather than the local parish priest.First Estate -100,000 strong

many poor clergymen

Second Estate: The Nobility2-5% of pop, with 20% of the land. Great wealth and taxed the peasantry: "feudal" resurgence in 18th century. 400,000 people.Great division among the Nobility was between the Noblesse d'epee and the Noblesse de Robe: later nobles whose titles came from their possession of public offices.

Third Estate- Everyone Else95-97% of the pop.Class Divisions

Bourgeoisie8% of the pop, about 2.3 Million people, with 20% of Land. Often bought land and exploited the peasants on it. Most important group politically was the Bourgeoisie, and by 1788 it was very important .Had been growing throughout the century, to some extent encouraged by the monarchy. Well read, educated and rich. Had no say in running the country.

The Urban Poor of ParisArtisans - factory workers, journeymen.

very poor were probably less involved in politics. Different interests than the bourgeoisie.

– Most politicized group of poor people, possibly due to high literacy.

The Peasants

40% of the land, formed the vast majority of population, perhaps 3,000,000 people added over the century. Paid the most tax: aristocrats did not pay. Paid the tithe to the clergy. Gave labor service to the State and gave services to their Landlords: this is sometimes called `feudal' service.Paid dues to their feudal (seigniorial) lord when they sold land that was in all other ways their own. Poverty was intense, but varied by region.Farmed the land, and regard it as their own,

Not legally theirs.Wanted to own their own property.

Political Causes - The Run-Up to 1789Successors to Louis XIV and The Weakening of Absolutism

Under Louis XIV flaws in theory of absolutism had been apparent: Misuse of power, kings who couldn't rule.

Conflict with Parlements and Ruling Classes Parlements were courts, not an assembly.

Power to register laws from King 13 Parlements in all throughout France, but the Parlement of Paris was the most important. They began to claim, a right of veto.

A King could always override Parlements with a lit de justice. The Duc D'Orleans had actually given the Parlements a veto during his regency. Parlements had been abolished by Rene Maupeau (1714-1792) in the 1770s under Louis XV. Louis XVI revived them 1774, in an attempt to be popular Fatal mistake, - Parlements became centers of resistance to the King.

Louis XVI's Government Not an old fashioned ancient regime. Some reforms, that lead people who dislike the French Revolution to think that things may have turned out very differently.

Monarchy seeks New Taxes Economic Weakness

Revocation of Edict of Nantes1685 had struck a blow at French commerce.

The Economy tottered for the next hundred years. Financially the origins of the Revolution go back to Louis XIV {but not because of the cost of Versailles].

Taxation ProblemsRichest were not taxed: i.e. the Nobles and Clergy. Taxes were indirect on poorest part of population.

the taille on peasant producethe Gabelle - on saltvarious trade tariffs

Not enough income for the government to do its job.These taxes increased. a 28% increase in some parts of country in Louis XVI's reign alone- affected the poor the worst.

Dependence on loansBanking system was not able to cope with the fiscal problems. Need for King to raise taxes that led to the calling of the Estates General.

New taxes cont. . . Cost of Mid Century Wars

The Seven Years War 1756-63 cost a lot. The American Revolution: France had more or less paid for the American War.

The Cost of Versailles and the Royal household etc.Was NOT a big factor by the end of century - it used about 5% of revenue.

Bankruptcy of the State.By 1780s the government was nearly bankrupt.Half of government income was going on paying debts (annual deficit 126 Million Livres.)(debt was almost 4 Billion Livres).

The problem was the government could not service the debt. Several ministers did try to put it back on a sound basis. France was not after all a poor country.

Necker’s Report

Jacques Necker 1732-1802 Louis XVI financial directorHid the real problems, made the economy sound better than realityLarge portion of $ went to aristocratsmade it difficult for later ministers to explain why higher taxes were needed.

Events Leading to Calling of Estates General

Began as an aristocratic attempt to get more power from the king.

1783: Charles Alexander de Calonne 1732-1802, Raised loans to pay debts. By 1786 he did not think Parlements would approve another loan.

Louis XVI and Calonne had an economic reform plan to tax landed property.

Based on provincial assemblies and allowed no evasion by nobles.

Opposition Opposed by the noblesse de Robe in the Parlements - they just did not want to be taxed.

Assembly of Notables 1787 An "Assembly of Notables" was called to outflank the parlements.

Not the same as Estates General. Notables criticized Calonne's plans and demanded a greater role for the aristocracy in government.

Said the government had no right to demand new taxes, and that an Estates General (last called 1614) must be called again.

King was forced to dismiss Calonne Parlements had felt threatened by the calling of the Assembly of Notables

A way to get round the objections and blocks that the Parlements had been raising. Parlements had also demanded an Estates General.

New minister Etienne Charles Lomenie de Brienne (1727-1794)

Archbishop of Toulouse Spent a year trying to get the Parlements to accept change without an Estates General.

1788 Coup d'etat of ParlementsDeadlock

Parlement of Paris rejects Kings attempts to force change, so King abolishes Parlements.

King said registration of laws now to be in a plenary court for the whole of France. Anarchy/revolts throughout France. This forced the calling of an Estates General. E.G. was called as a response to nobles' rejection of a modernization plan.

The Calling of the Estates General

Representative body of the Three Estates was the Estates-General.

Called in July 1788 (last met 1614), to meet in 1789. This was the crucial step: the end of absolutism

Parlements were recalled and asked on how the Estates General should be run

Said it should be done in the same way as in 1614. This disgusted the Third estate, who would only have 1/3 of votes.

Royal Council - Dec 1788 - said Third Estate would twice as many reps as the other two.

Catalyst for a lot of political excitement.

Political Developments in Fall 1788- Spring 1789

Rapid discussion of ideas, more radical than anything in the Enlightenment. The weeks after 25th Sept 1788 saw most radical change of all.

The most famous pamphlet was by the Abbé Sieyes 1748-1835- "What is the Third Estate?"

-Everything-What has it been until Now? – Nothing-What does it ask? - to become something

Nobles faced a real and new revolution which would sweep it away.

Cahiers des DoleancesA national survey of people' opinions  was compiled between the calling of the Estates General and its assembly.

Objections to current system from Parish of St.Vaast, March 1789 Lettres de Cachet (i.e. wanted due process) Nation should agree to its own taxes E.G. every 4 years (i.e. objected to no consultation) Taxes equally on all classes, inc. Nobles and clergy Third estates to have justices in the Parlements NO call for a republic in any Cahier But some reports of peasants already believing that they were free of manorial dues.

The Estates General Meets May 5th 1789 Third Estate probably ready to strengthen hand of King vs. nobles and clergy

Background of rising bread prices from 1788-89 - people in Paris being radicalized by this at just the right moment

The Liberal Revolution The Estates General May 1789 - July 1789

King still in ChargeEstates General met May 5 1789 at Versailles

Third Estate had twice as many Reps (agreed in Dec)Its reps were largely lawyers and Govt officials

Still disputes over voting - e.g. should all estates meet together or separately. Third Estate kept being slighted - it refused to sit alone Other Estates invited to join with it on June 1st.

Events Third Estate Declares itself National Assembly June 17th Tennis Court Oath June 20th 1789 King opposed it but majority of the clergy some nobles joined it. June 27th the King capitulated.

National assembly takes name NATIONAL CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY

National Constituent Assembly July 1789 - 1791 Nominal Absolute Monarchy State Church with Priests paid by State CREATES A LIBERAL REVOLUTION

King's Fatal Decision Louis tried to re-assert his authority - with an army near Versailles - 18,000 troops-Marie Antoinette advised him to attack it.

King acts stupidly - tries to undermine NAT. Assembly but not effectively creates anxiety amongst its supporters -

Abandoned the bourgeoisie and supported the nobility To revolt against the nobility the 3rd Estate also had to revolt against the King.

Two Mass Uprisings of the Masses saved the Nat. Assembly Revolt of the Poor of Paris

Rising bread prices 1788-89 - riots already in the spring of 1789 Paris politicized by the elections to the E.G. - had continued to meet after elections. Paris mob storms the Bastille - JULY 14 1789

Basically a prison, but not used very much by 1789 Raided to find weapons for revolutionary militias growing up in Paris troops fired into crowd, killing 98 - crowd storms fortress - kills troops Symbolic importance: First re-direction of the Revolution by pop of Paris

– Caused similar disturbances in other cities Militias take name NATIONAL GUARD - led by Lafayette

Take Tricolor as flag (Blue and red for Paris, white for the bourbon king)

Revolt of the Peasants - revolts from Spring 1789

In July - Massive revolts throughout France The Great Fear

fear of royal troops Destruction of many medieval documents

Forced the National Assembly to abolish "feudal" duesAugust 4th 1789

Peasantry had a very quite and almost conservative role - it had what it wanted - LAND. Economic conditions had made the Revolution take on such vast proportions.

Ideological Actions of the National Constituent Assembly August 4th Laws

All French now subject to the same laws. Abolished the "feudal regime" + Tithes + hunting rights + venal offices Peasants supposed to pay compensation

Declaration of the Rights of Man - August 27th 1789

Printed in 1000s of leaflets and distributed around France.IMPORTANCE OF PROPAGANDA Ideals

equality before the lawdue process (art 7)natural rights - liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression (art 2)sovereignty resides in the Nation (art 3)law is an expression of the General Will (art.6)freedom of religion (art 10) [Jews as well, for 1st time)free speech (art 11)separation of powers (art 16)Enlightenment ideas + American declarations of rights (e.g. Virginia in 1776)

King and Government Move to Paris - October 6th Forced by the Poor Women of Paris Made government function under threat of mob violence

France was now to peaceful for almost 3 years

Reconstruction of France National Constituent Assembly

Faced massive problems of control and state debt

Administration - the Reforming of France Provinces replaced by 83 Departments Same sort of courts and laws applied throughout France.

Economic Liberalism Gets rid of tariffs - unlimited economic freedom Suppresses guilds and forbids workers associations

The State Debt Solution was to attack the Church -nationalization of Church lands

Made the Revolution unpopular in many quarters. Emigrés begin to leave Split between anticlericals and pro-clericals has been at center of French life ever since.

Printed bonds - assignats based on value of Church land - became used as money. The Church: Civil Constitution of the Clergy July 1790

Made bishoprics same as departments Priests and bishops to be elected + paid by state (anyone could vote - including atheistsChurch seen as part of the state - i.e. no separation of Church and State)

Religious orders were abolished. Assembly required an oath from the clergy - to oppose the pope - only half did so + 7 bishops Pope condemned the Revolution,liberalism, & the Rights of Man

Began attack on liberalism for next century.

Constitution of 1791 Purpose of the National Constituent Assembly

One Chamber House Only men paying tax could vote

Olmpe de Gouge wrote against this policy Only 50,000 would qualify to be electedi.e. less than the number of the nobility

Members of National Assembly not eligible for election.

Counterrevolutionary Activities

King's Actions Destabilize the Liberal Revolution King was becoming more and more impotent.

June 20 1791 - Louis XVI tried to flee, but was stopped at Varennes and brought back June 24 a virtual prisoner.

Attitude of the King made the constitutional monarchy of the 1791 Constitution impossible to work.No strong executive provided for apart from the King's ministers.

Reaction to Revolution AbroadIntellectuals

Most Intellectuals and philosophes praised it:

Adam Smith, Thomas Paine, Beethoven

Conservatives opposed it

Edmund Burke - Reflections on the French Revolution 1790 (i.e. before the Terror).

Good government is going to come about through long experience and should not be overthrown

Government is complicated and simple schemes can never be satisfactory-

Longing for how things were that goes with all conservatism

The Revolution also upset other monarchs

Not unhappy to see France weakened.

Dd not want revolution to spread -

End of Enlightened Despotism. There were attempts all over Europe to stop reform movements

The Wars Begin1791 Declaration of Pillnitz August 27

threatens invasion by Austria and Prussianot really a threat as GB would not join in

War Period - Begins April 1792 Beginning of a long period of war which forms a background to everything for the next 30 or so years.

In retaliation to Dec. of Pillnitz the French Deputies (in Assembly) declare war on Austria - 20th Apr 1792

Pressure from democratic exiles from other countries Radicals thought a successful War would bring them support.Louis XVI supported the war - he hoped a loss would restore his position

Robespierre opposed the war as he saw danger of defeat

French armies were soon retreating Caused radicalization at Home.

A Second Radical Revolution

Political Infighting in the Legislative Assembly Idea of left and Right - origins in the meetings of the Legislative Assembly.

Different Factions Monarchists - inc. Lafayette The Jacobins

a sort of elitist political clubwanted a republic met in a Dominican priory (Jacobin a name for OPs)

One group of Jacobins known as Girondists assumed leadershipFirst led by Jacque-Pierre Brissot 1754-93. sometimes known as Brissotins)

April 20 1792 -declared war on Austria thinking that it would bring most radical revolutionaries to power.

The Second Revolution The Revolution became much more radical in 1792.

Losses in the war radicalized the pop of Paris and the rest of France.

The War, the Monarchy and the Press The Prussian Army pushed into France as far as Verdun –

July - the Duke of Brunswick issued a threat to Paris if the King was hurt.

Girondists blamed the monarchy and Marie Antoinette for secret intrigues and this put the monarchical constitution under strain. Absolute freedom of the press

Campaign of denunciation vs. the government Marat and his Ami du Peuple was prominent as a radical here.

Process of Radicalization Popular agitation was transformed into something powerful by two factors.

arrival of volunteer National Guardsmen from all over France in July (8th)political organization of Paris into a Commune and 48 Sections - all centers of insurrection.

Second Revolution Events

August 10th 1792 Attack on Tuileries PalacePeople of Paris + Vol attack the Tuileries Palace King had to take refuge with the Legislative Assembly.

Deserted his Swiss Guard - 800+ killed.

September 1792 September Massacres1200 prisoners are murdered in Paris jails as counter-revolutionaries.

The Sans-Culottes Paris artisans, shopkeepers, wage earners and factory workers. Name comes from the fact they wore long trousers not the knee breeches (culottes) favored by the middle and professional classes.

Wanted immediate relief from hunger, Resented all social inequality, Suspicious of representative government.Opposed the unregulated economy so beloved of all the m/c revolutionaries, including the Jacobins.

Compelled the Legislative Assembly to agree to call a new assembly to write new democratic constitution - to be called the Convention.

Tulleries Palacedestroyed in 1871

The Rule of the Convention - 1792-95Creation Elected by universal male suffrage

Only 7 1/2% of electorate voted. (not best atmosphere for a free election)

First met September 21 1792 and declares France a Republic as its first act Girondists were still major voice but gradually lost control over next few months to another group of Jacobins known as The Mountain

Prepared to work with the Sans-Cullottes.Maximilien Robespierre one of leaders.

Political groups here were the Girondists [or Brissotins] (name from region deputies supposed to have come from) the Mountain, (name from their seats high in the Assembly Hall)the Marais - the plain.(name from their seats low in the Assembly Hall)

9 months of political struggle in the Convention.

Fighting the War War with Austria and Prussia which had radicalized the revolution was still going on.

Revolution was saved by the slowness and weakness of Prussian and Austrian preparation Could certainly have won at first. Too busy in the East digesting Poland.

Major Events August 1792 - LaFayette defects to Austrians sees no point in fighting monarchist cause in France.

20th September 1792 - Battle of Valmy - Valmy was the effective start of the French Revolutionary WarsNovember 1792

Convention offers to help all revolutionary groups in Europe.

Dec 15 1792 The Convention abolishes feudalism in occupied territory - beginning of restructuring of Europe.

Feb 1 1793 - growing Anglophobia reflected in declaration of war vs. England and Netherlands, by March Spain was also dec. an enemy. March 1793 - By now France was at War with all of Europe April 1793 - Dumouriez defects to Austria - aware he could not restore monarchy in France.

Domestic Politics In the ConventionCondemnation and Execution of the King

The Mountain had found Louis XVI's correspondence to Austria.

Condemnation of King also put Girondists in a bind

If they supported it they lost moderate support, if they opposed it they lost patriot support.

Robespierre saw this.

The King was tried as Citizen Capet - [should have been Bourbon.]

Vote to Condemn –

No one thought Louis was innocent.

King executed 21 Jan 1793

Counter Counter-Revolutionary Activity

March 1793Counter-revolts going on esp. in conservative Catholic areas, especially in the Vendee.

Great concern in the Convention, still under Girondist control, about counter revolution.

it strengthened laws against émigrés.Revolutionary Tribunals were set upA decree was passed condemning to death all rebels taken in the act.March 21 1793 - Watch Committees set up in every area

Committee of Public Safety

6th April 1793

Set up to supervise, for Convention, the executive. Given its own funds

100,000 livres to pay agents

100,000 livre for secret purposes

At first middle men were elected - Jacque Danton (1759-1794)

Committee of General Security Set up to fight the War abroad.

The Mountain Takes Over

Population of Paris was still not happy

Inflation due to war + paper money. Made use of by the Mountain - whose main difference with the Girondists was that they would work with the mob.

May/June 2 1793 New insurrection Mob demanded the expulsion of the Girondist members.

The Mountain seizes control in the Convention. They passed a new Democratic Constitution - June 22

On hold until the war was over.

Appointed a new Committee of Public Safety- June 1793

This body was to rule France for the next year.

The Rule of the Committee for Public Safety July 1793-July 1794

from the Mountain

Herault de Sechelles - a noble

Jeanbon Saint-Andre - Protestant pastor

Saint Just - wanted a Spartan state

Couthon - a follower of Robespierre

Prieur, of the Marne

from the Marais

Barere de Viezac

Robert Lindet

added in July Maximilien Robespierre (1753-1794)Not a dictator - a lawyer from Arras –

Principles were everything, Men nothing.Influenced by Rousseau and his ideas on virtue.

added in August Lazare Carnot (1753-1823) - in charge of military Prieur, of the Cote d'Or

added in September Billaud-Varrenne Collot d'Herbois - the only mob orator -both were known as men of blood

A ruthless and effective government – Convention and ministers official government, but CPS had all power.

Problems Facing the Committee for Public Safety

Counter revolt and the war with Europe i.e. same as before June takeover

Dealt with the war - by military effectiveness and the internal revolt with the terror

Aimed to restructure society in the most revolutionary manner

National mission against evil inside and outside France.

Total WarCPS dealt with military threat by use of total war

Whole country was put on a war footing (cf. small ancien regime armies) Carnot led the effort

23 August 1793 the levee en masse Conscripted males into the army Planned economy to supply the war + to aid the poor and keep their support.

September 17 Maximum price rules established. Assignats stopped falling in value in year of CPS control.

By Spring 1794 an Army of 800,000 Largest ever assembled, until then, by European power. Citizen army, fighting for ideals, as opposed to its opposing armies, made up of serfs.

The Reign of Terror or the Republic of Virtue

Revolts around France July 13 1793 Marat, a radical killed by Charlotte Corday - made revolutionaries feel threatened.

Height of Terror from Fall 1793 to July 1794 Marie-Antoinette + Royal Family,AristocratsGirondists, 1794 moves to provinces and includes peasants and sans-cullottes, then in Spring 1794 even includes republicans like Danton

CPS also opposing even more extreme groups from among sans-cullotes

known as Hebertists June 10 - Law of 22 Prairal

conviction without evidence was now allowed Large increase in numbers killed in last month of Terror.

Terror fiercest in those areas of rebellion + Paris circa. 25,000-40,000 killed/300,000 arrested - It was intentional,

The New Culture

Fashions

Followed Roman and/or sans-cullotish style.

New Calendar

Convention began dating form Year One when it abolished the Monarchy. A system of new months adopted on November 10th 1793Messidor, Thermidor, Fructidor, Vendemiaire, Brumaire, Frimaire, Nivose, Pluviose, Ventose, Germinal, Floreal, Prairal

Beginning from Sept 22, 1792, Day after monarchy abolished.

Every 10th day as rest day (not good for workers)

– Aim was to blot out the cycle of Sundays and Saint's days

– It was part of dechristianisation effort.

New ReligionRevolution had been anti-clerical from the start

November 1793 The Convention outlawed the worship of God

Notre Dame made a Temple to Reasonceremonies were conducted by the Commune of Paris.

November 10 Cult of Reason begun Alienated Christians Made direct efforts to close Churches throughout France.[Dechristianisation opposed by Robespierre– Toleration of Catholics was ordered by CPS under his orders.Robespierre thought this not sufficient as effective religion.

May 7 1794 Cult of the Supreme Being proclaimed Deism + cultic festivals celebrating republican virtues - humanity, liberty etc.June 8 Robespierre leads a massive public Festival of Supreme Being. Emphasizes the attempt to restructure the whole civilization.

Reaction and the Rise of NapoleonThe Thermidorean Reaction (1795-1799)

The Reign of Terror

Was not popular in the long run

It was genuinely terrifying - it got out of hand and malicious accusations were made

episode of the rafts at Nantes and 2000 killed

Politicians feared for their own heads when Robespierre made a threatening speech on July 26th

Robespierre

Condemned to the Guillotine in the Convention

9th of Thermidor (July 27th 1794)

executed July 28th 1794

The New Government - The DirectoryThe Directory

The Directory was a 5 man executive body Aim was to avoid dictatorship and excessive democracy.

Four-year period of lack of strong government and a series of coup d'etats.

People in control were again rich bourgeois liberals Girondist deputies allowed to take seats

Paris Commune outlawed

Law of 22 Prairal revoked

People involved in the Terror were now attacked

the White Terroreconomic liberalism revived + inflation

A frivolous culture came into being fashions etc. Salons re-opened

There was also a revival of CatholicismCult of reason and the new calendar were kept.

1795 August 22 - Constitution of the Year IIIFirst formally constituted Republic.

property and wealth, not birth were now important.Peasants now were a major landowning group in society. Sans-cullottes were removed from political life.Riots by the poor were now put down

October 1795 - a Paris mob was put down.– Napoleon commanded the cannon.

Poor had been victims of the Terror so some loss of fervor for revolution.

Political pressures on the Directory

Pressure from the left, from old Jacobins + there were food riots.Strong movements to have the Monarchy restored

Monarchists won a majority in the election of 1797

Directory staged a coup against them, supported by Napoleon

Problem for Monarchists was when Louis (XVII), the son of Louis XVI died. New legitimate heir wanted to restore the 1789 constitution

Not acceptable to the Peasants, the moderate Middle Class, or to Napoleon. To keep control Directory increasingly depended on the Army - opens way to Napoleon.

Expansion and Empire

The Military expansion begun under the convention continued, with help of CPS's war economy - great new generals had been brought to the fore in eight of Napoleons marshals.

March 1795 - Peace concluded with Prussia and Spain but war continued with GB and Austria.

Directory dependent on the military for stability

Military Successes under the Directory Under the Directory Military expansion begun under the convention continued

with help of CPS's war economy - great new generals had been brought to the fore - inc. 8 of Napoleons future marshals - as old officer class went into exile.

March 1795 Peace concluded with Prussia and Spain but war continued with GB and Austria. Directory was dependent on the military for stability at home and success abroad.

One of most successful Generals was Napoleon.First Triumph in defending Toulon in 1793He appealed to many, disgusted with the Directory, who looked for authority from above.

Summing Up the French RevolutionThree Periods

Liberal Revolution 1789-1792Estates General - Nat. Assem. - Nat. Const. Assem - -Legislative Assembly

Radical Revolution 1792-1794 The Convention - + Comm. Pub. Safety

Thermidorean Reaction 1794-1799The Directory

Achievements of French RevolutionLiberal Rev

end of FeudalismMade the people important in politicsThe old order was never re-established

Radical Rev. National army, Idea of a Nation at warMetric system (Convention) + Abolishes Slavery in Colonies (Nap. rescinds)

In General In idea of Liberty, Equality, Fraternity- leads to nationalism

Problems of French RevolutionIt did not produce a stable government The Reign of Terror Rad. Rev - led to ideas of totalitarian democracy