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HARVEST INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

The genetics behind human immortality

Investigative Report

Aarushi Krishnan

Grade XI


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Acknowledgements

Miss Shalini B. M. , VIT University, has helped me profoundly with this project, not

only by sharing her personal workings on the field of telomerase but also but

painstakingly going through my project and giving me very helpful pointers. I would

like to convey my deepest gratitude to her for the same.

Miss Priyanka Swamynathan, from Thermo Fisher Scientific, also greatly influenced

my project by giving me advice and corrections. I would like to thank her for her

help.

I would like to thank to my Biology teachers Dr. Ratna Mirchandani and Dr. Sita

Shankar as well as the principal of our school Dr. Dakshayini Kanna, all of whom

gave me the wonderful opportunity to do this investigatory project on the topic of

human immortality, which helped me engage in the field of research and

consequently gain valuable insight on a field such as this.

Finally I would like to thank my friends and family, who have supported me and have

helped me in every way they can.


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Abstract

The concept of human immortality via genetics is a long researched topic, and we now seem to be

on the edge of its unveil.

The enhancement and modification of telomeres and telomerase plays a pivotal role in this process,

and there are numerous trials underway that all primarily aim at using telomerase to lengthen

telomeres and overcome the Hayflick limit, or by completely skipping this step, by altering genes so

that a part of the telomeres do not get shaved off on division of the cell.

Other methods to achieve biological immortality are also discussed, such as transdifferentiation and

CRISPR technology, with passages on how other organisms are already showing biological

immortality naturally.


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Index

Introduction 5

Pre-existing evidence of biological immortality 6

Transdifferentiation and Turritopsis dohrnii 7

Telomerase enzyme 8

The first immortal human cell line- HeLa cells 11

CRISPR Cas 9 Technology 12

Nanotech cell repair 14

Cloning 15

Attempts to engineer biological immortality in humans 16

Immortalism and immortality as a movement 18

Ethics 19

Arguments against human immortality 20

Conclusion 21

Biblography 22


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Introduction

Ever since humanity has discovered the world of genetics and has understood its

implications, we have been obsessed with creating a “super-race”: genetically modified

humans with desirable modifications. From Josef Mengele’s macabre experiments in

Auschwitz to the fictional realm of the X-Men, genetic enhancements have been saturated

into seemingly all parts of our life.

But is this already a reality? In the September of 2017, a team from Sun Yat-Sen University,

Guandong, have created the first ever genetically- modified human embryo. They did so by

taking human tripronuclear embryos, and altered mutant DNA causing β- thalassemia, a life

threatening disease.

So just how far can we take genome manipulation? Is it possible to create humans with so

called superpowers, such as immortality? And just what would be the limiting factor- our

technology, or the ethics behind it?

The following pages will discuss in the possibility of human immortality in depth, taking into

consideration available technology, current genomic knowledge, and conventionalities and

moralities in place.

Human embryo-initial stages


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Pre-existing evidence of biological immortality

The scientific definition of biological immortality is a state in which the rate of mortality

from senescence is stable or decreasing, thus decoupling it from chronological age. Simply

put, this means that a person who will continue living for eternity, as long as he does not

face any terminal harm in the form of injuries or disease.

Extraordinarily, there are organisms that naturally show biological immortality- some

examples are Sebastes aleutianus (Rougheye rockfish) and Arctica islandica (Ocean Quahog

Clam. Some plants can live for even longer lengths of time (Pinus longaeva lives on average

for 4000 years, with the oldest ever recorded Pinus being roughly 5,120 years old, and is still

alive and growing today).

These organisms live for hundreds of years while showing absolutely minimal signs of

ageing, while remaining healthy, active, and fertile. They are able to achieve “immortality”

as their cells divide much more slowly than those of other organisms, and can almost be

considered to be in a state of suspended animation. Under ideal growing conditions, when a

cell splits symmetrically to produce two daughter cells, the process of cell division can

restore the cell to a youthful state.

All cnidarians and some platyhelminthes (such as Planarian flatworms) can undergo

regeneration. Moreover, they posses no post-mitotic cells, meaning that they are in a state

of continuous division. Research has shown that they never undergo senescence, meaning

that they are biologically immortal.

Nonetheless, biological immortality is not synonymous with true perpetuity. It can rightly be

argued that as these organisms do actually die, albeit after an inordinate amount of time,

they are not truly immortal.


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Transdifferentiation and Turritopsis dohrnii

There is said to be only one animal that can truly live forever- Turritopsis dohrnii (literally

translated as the Immortal Jellyfish). They are able to achieve this state by constantly

reverting from sexually active state medusa to sexually inactive state polyp, in a perpetual

cycle.

The secret to this organisms’ immortality lies in a process known as transdifferentiation.

Also known as linear reprogramming, it is a process in which one mature somatic cell

transforms into another mature somatic cell without undergoing an intermediate

pluripotent stage. This means that somatic cells (or non-germ cells) have the ability to shift

from one form to another without going into a division phase (the pluripotent phase) which

usually acts as a precursor in the form of mitosis. Transdifferentiation is a type of metaplasia

(the abnormal change in the nature of a tissue) which includes all cell fate switches,

including the interconversion of stem cells.

It is obvious that humans are unable to achieve this form of immortality; we are simply too

structurally differentiated to return back to a juvenile phase upon maturation, and unlike

the jellyfish, which are essentially not much more than a muscular bag, our body is much

more hard and sturdy, making it impossible to revert into a younger form.

Though the answer to human immortality does not lie in transdifferetiation, the research in

the process has proved to be invaluable in the multiple fields. Current uses of transdifferentiation

include disease modelling and drug discovery and in the future may include gene

therapy and regenerative medicine.

Turritopsis dohrnii


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Telomerase enzyme

A telomere is a repeating DNA sequence at the end of the body's chromosomes. They

function by preventing chromosomes from losing base pair sequences at their ends, and

also stop chromosomes from fusing to each other. Telomeres are controlled by the

presence of the enzyme telomerase.

Telomerase, known also as telomere terminal transferase, is an enzyme made of protein

and RNA subunits (called TERC), that elongates chromosomes. Essentially this means that

telomerase aids in the continuous replication of cells, as seen in germ cells, tumour cells (at

much more rapid and uncontrolled levels that normal) and foetal tissue.

So why don’t cells replicate indefinitely? Each time a cell divides, some of the telomere is

lost. When the telomere becomes too short, the chromosome reaches a "critical length" and

can no longer replicate. The cell then dies by a process called apoptosis.

Human telomerase activity is often determined by the expression level of telomerase

reverse transcriptase (TERT), the catalytic subunit of the ribonucleoprotein complex.

Telomerase functions by binding the first few nucleotides to the last telomere sequence on

the chromosome, adding a new telomere repeat sequence, letting go, and repeating the

process. Telomerase activity is regulated during development and has a very low, almost

undetectable activity in somatic cells. Because these somatic cells do not regularly use

telomerase, they age. The result of aging cells is an aging body. If telomerase is activated in

a cell, the cell will continue to grow and divide. This "immortal cell" theory is important

concept for senescence.

Senescence is due to the shortening of chromosomal telomeres to the point that the

chromosome reaches a critical length. As our cells are constantly dividing they are thus

constantly ageing. Quiescent cells age as well, as the telomeres eventually get worn down

and exhausted.

The length of a person’s life span is dictated by the limited number of times a human cell

can divide. Though the immortal reproductive cell can divide a limitless number of times,

once the human reproductive cell, in the developing embryo, turns into a developmental

cell the clock starts ticking. The cell’s fate is doomed to a limited 75-100 number of cell

divisions (termed as the Hayflick Limit). Once that limit has been reached, the cell and all of

its progeny completely lose the ability to divide and then enter senescence.

As the function of telomeres becomes better understood, some private companies including

Telomere Health and Life Length have begun offering to measure an individual’s


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chromosomal length, and so determine their “biological age”, as opposed to the

chronological age. It is known that people with shorter telomeres are more likely to suffer

various diseases, including diabetes, Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s, and tend to die younger.

One study found that people with shorter telomeres were eight times more likely to die

from an infection and three times more likely to die from a heart attack.

In the laboratory dish, the introduction of telomerase into cultured human cells transforms

otherwise aging mortal cells into immortal cells without transforming them into cancer cells.

On the heels of this discovery, small molecule activators of telomerase are being developed

for use in treating cellular aging and nutritional supplements are being marketed for the

treatment of aging.

A quite controversial remedy, a nutraceutical called TA-65, is already commercially available

and several people have already signed up to benefit from its potential to extend health

span and life span. Unfortunately, this manufacture of this remedy is yet to start as

geneticists theorize that it also carries with it a potential for promoting cancer. TA-65 is

presently the only potential cure for telomere shortening, and though the data are not

overwhelming enough yet to convince scientists that TA-65 is, in fact, extending health span

and life span, they do show a lot of promise and are supported on many theoretical

grounds. Other drugs similar to TA- 65 are also currently in the initial stages of testing, but

none show the same potential as TA- 65 does. It seems that the solution would be quicker

found in improving the drugs that are already heavily tested, rather than trying to make new

ones, and going through the laborious process of testing yet again.

There was a massive trial into a vaccine against telomerase, called TeloVac, training the

immune system to recognise it so that it would detect it in cancer cells. The trial showed no

improvement over the standard chemotherapy treatment for the pancreatic cancer it

targeted, but trials for a modified version of TeloVac is currently being conducted.

About 85-95% of all cancers express telomerase activity. The foremost aim of most

oncologists in research labs is to develop inhibitors of telomerase activity to cure cancer. So,

it might seem insane and immoral to intentionally turn telomerase activity on. But, the data

show that telomerase is, in fact, not the cause of cancer. Instead, cancers turn on

telomerase expression only to extend their life span; just like researchers want to turn on

telomerase expression in our non-cancer cells to extend their life span.

Some nutritionists argue that the secret to telomerase activation lies in the food we eat.

According to them, telomeres respond to sulforaphane—a major active component of

cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, and kale. These compounds

seem to control telomerase through epigenetic means—that is, by altering the chemical

markers on the telomerase gene to keep telomerase production steady, continuous and

controlled. It is common knowledge that cancer is linked to our diet, but studies have

proved that this polyphenol diet is also linked to a longer life.


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It is important to note that though we have achieved immortality of human somatic cells,

being able to do things at a cellular level and for a whole organism are two entirely different

things. There is still much research to be done before telomerase can safely activated fully.

Diagrammatic representation of the

functioning of telomerase. Roughly the same process is carried out through all forms of life,

though there are minor differences in chemical structures and duration of each step.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Working_principle_of_telomerase.png


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The first immortal human cell line-

HeLa cells

In 1951, a scientist at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland, created the first

immortal human cell line with a tissue sample taken from a young black woman with

cervical cancer. Those cells, called HeLa cells in honour of the patient, Henrietta Lacks,

quickly became invaluable to medical research.

Perhaps the most intriguing fact about HeLa cells is that even after extensive research no

one knows why this cell line, unlike other cancerous cells, just never died. Billions of her

cells are in labs all over the world, as Henrietta’s cells were the first immortal human cells

ever grown in culture. They even went up in the first space missions to see what would

happen to cells in zero gravity. Many scientific landmarks since then have used her cells,

including cloning, gene mapping and in vitro fertilization.

In the past, researchers spent more time trying to keep cells alive than actually performing

experiments or procedures. Due to their immortality, HeLa cells allowed researchers to keep

cells alive long enough to have breakthroughs, such as the development of the polio

vaccine. Since then, HeLa cells have been used for many other types of research and

testing. It is those differences from other cancer cells that render them helpful.

The reason HeLa cells differ from “normal” cancer cells is that they defied the normal

mechanisms of senescence by acquiring certain mutations. Telomerase is active during HeLa

cell division, and though other cancer cells may also have active telomerase, it seems to be

particularly effective in HeLa cells. Moreover, HeLa cells can have anywhere from 76 to 80

total chromosomes. This differs from other cells, as the normal (diploid) number of

chromosomes is 46.Due to this characteristic, along with other survival characteristics, some

researchers have proposed HeLa cells be classified as a new species. Other evolutionary

biologists, however, do not agree.

Though HeLa cells are by far the most famous immortal cell line, they are not considered to be the only one. Jurkat cells are an immortalized line of human T lymphocyte cells that are used to study primarily acute T cell leukaemia, and HIV. They were harvested from a 14 year old boy with T cell lukemia.Jurkat cells are useful in science because of their ability to produce interleukin 2, which is a protein that regulates the activities of leukocytes, or white blood cells. Their primary use, however, is to determine the mechanism of differential susceptibility of cancers to drugs and radiation. There is also line of immortalised mouse cells that predate the HeLa line by several years.


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CRSIPR Cas9 technology

CRISPR stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats. It is a simple yet

powerful tool for editing genomes that works by allowing researchers to easily alter DNA sequences

and modify gene function. It is a specialized region of DNA with two distinct characteristics: the

presence of nucleotide repeats, and variable sequences called spacers. Its many potential

applications include correcting genetic defects, treating and preventing the spread of diseases and

improving crops.

CRISPR technology was adapted from the natural defence mechanisms of bacteria and archaea.

These organisms use CRISPR-derived RNA and various Cas proteins, including Cas9, to foil attacks by

viruses and other foreign bodies. Bacteria fight off viruses by wielding the Cas9 enzyme to reorder

those repeated genetic segments.

In popular usage, "CRISPR" is shorthand for "CRISPR-Cas9." The Cas9 protein is an enzyme that cuts

foreign DNA. The pair acts as a “genetic scissor”, capable of chopping up and destroying the DNA of

a foreign invader. When these components are transferred into other, more complex, organisms, it

allows for the manipulation of genes, or "editing."

The protein typically binds to two RNA molecules: crRNA and another called tracrRNA.It works by using two separate regions, or "domains" on its structure. Cas9 cuts both strands of the DNA double helix, making what is known as a "double-stranded break”. There is a built-in safety mechanism, which ensures that Cas9 doesn't just cut anywhere in a genome.

CRISPR-Cas9 has become popular in recent years. The technology is easy to use and is considered to

be about four times more efficient than the previous best genome-editing tool, called TALENS.

Considering the extensive knowledge available on telomerase and nearly limitless potential of

CRISPR technology, it seems to be an obvious conclusion to combine the two, and essentially

produce human immortality.

So can CRISPR technology be used to lengthen telomeres? Theoretically, yes, but the construction

has to be planned carefully such that the telomeres’ sequence is not messed up, therefore

making telomerase unable to replenish them.

CRISPR technology has already proved to have benefits in a plethora of fields. TERT, the catalytic

subunit of telomerase, is very difficult to detect. TERT is a lowly expressed protein with only several

hundred molecules per cell, whose main function is to provide instructions for making one

component of telomerase. In the last few years there have been numerous studies in creating TERT

antibodies to treat genetic maladies, as “tagging” TERT genes via this medication makes it easier to

control and manipulate. However, commercially available TERT antibodies have been shown to be

either inefficient or non-specific in targeting endogenous (having no origin) TERT. CRISPR-Cas9-

mediated genome editing provides an alternative approach, allowing tagging of the endogenous


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TERT protein with a well-defined epitope tag (the part of an antigen molecule to which an antibody

attaches itself), for which well-characterized antibodies are available.

The National Institute for Aging and the Glenn Foundation both firmly believe that the secret of anti-

aging lies in CRISPR technology, and are investing millions of dollars in its research. Their primary

goal is to “reverse” aging via controlling telomerase activity, which would be a monumental feat, if

achieved. Though scientists have been able to manage the telomerase length of some animals, like

mice and fruit flies (and also a few plants) the sheer complexity and ingenuity of the human body

proves yet again to be a hurdle for geneticists all around the globe.

Still scientists have had some pretty overwhelming breakthroughs via CRISPR engineering, such as-

removing Malaria from mosquitoes, transplanting organs grown from pig cells to humans, and

even treating diseases that were previously thought to be incurable, such as muscular

dystrophy, HIV, and complete blindness.

A diagrammatic representation of the functioning of cas9 proteins. PAM stands for

Protospacer adjacent motif, and is a base pair DNA sequence immediately following Cas9

crRNA (CRISPR targeting RNA) containing the sequence complementary to the target region

of DNA. tracrRNA (trans-activating CRISPR RNA) forms a complex with the crRNA. Both

crRNA and tracrRNA are found naturally in cells. gRNA (guide RNA) is a synthetic RNA that

combines both the crRNA and tracrRNA components, but in a single RNA strand.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_pair

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cas9


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Nanotech cell repair

Nanotechnology is essentially the usage of microscopic machines and materials that can

build and fix the cell and its components. It can also be considered as the manipulation of

matter on an atomic and molecular scale. They also target genes, with the potential to even

completely change them for the better, such as for removing the genes for certain diseases.

It has capabilities galore, from combating cancer to achieving human immortality.

It has been hypothesized that by 2040 it will be possible for nanobots to cure ailments and

replenish blood, adding years to our lives and perhaps even making us immortal. If nanobots

swim in, or even replace, biological blood, then wounds could be healed almost instantly.

Limbs could be reground. Backed up memories and personalities could even be accessed

after a head trauma.

Researchers at MIT are already are using nanoparticles to deliver “killer genes” that battle late-stage cancer. The university reported just last month the nano-based treatment killed ovarian cancer, which is considered to be one of the most deadly cancers, in mice. It was done by modulating the mitochondrial metabolic function.

There are many religious organizations, ethic boards and even other scientists who are against nanotech cell repair in humans, arguing that these machines inside our bodies will make us “less human”. However, this is clearly a misconception. Nanobots can be thought of the same way as a pacer or a prosthetic limb : as a tool to enhance the human life.

A nanobot’s repair machine, University of Pennsylvania.


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Cloning

Cloning can broadly be categorized into two groups- therapeutic and reproductive.

Therapeutic cloning, also called somatic cell nuclear transfer, does not result in the creation

of a human being. It is rather the transfer of a nucleus from a germ cell (typically from the

female germ cell) to a somatic cell. The benefit of this form of therapy is that cells removed

are pluripotent, so it proves to be quite useful for organ growth and repair.

Reproductive cloning, on the other hand, creates a facsimile copy of the organism that the

genetic material was taken from. Cloning of an entire animal was first famously done on

Dolly the sheep, in 1997. Reproductive human cloning has not yet been done not only due

to lack of adequate technology, but also due to the moral reasons surrounding it.

The way cloning comes into play in terms of immortality is in terms of limb cloning, where

only a single organ is cloned. This will be invaluable to those waiting to receive organs (an

average of 19 people die every day as they required an organ). Epithelial cells of a sheep

were cloned and genetically modified into liver cells, which was then transplanted into the

same sheep. Human epithelial cells have been cloned in the same way, but transplantations

are yet to be done.

In a non-binding edict, the UN General Assembly in August of 2005 did adopt a declaration prohibiting all forms of human cloning. Human cloning is legal in the U.S .however, but there are some Federal prohibitions against research.

Magnified view of the nucleus being removed from a germ cell


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Attempts to engineer biological immortality in humans

SENS research foundation

Founded in 2009, SENS (Strategies for Engineered Negligible Senescence) is a non-profit

organization that advocates a number of (what it claims are) plausible research pathways

that might lead to engineered negligible senescence in humans. Their aim is a world free of

age-related disease, with research focusing the application of regenerative medicine, with

the intent of repairing underlying damage to the body’s tissues, cells, and molecules, which

they announce will lead to immortality.

Since their outset, they have proved to be incredibly efficient and productive, creating drugs

for Alzheimer prevention, gene therapy for mitochondrial mutations, and have been

invaluable forefront for their studies on CRISPR technology on RNA.

BioViva

Elizabeth Parrish, CEO of BioViva Inc. has become the first human being to be successfully rejuvenated by gene therapy, after her own company’s experimental therapies reversed 20 years of normal telomere shortening. In September 2015, Parrish received two experimental gene therapies: one to protect against loss of muscle mass with age, another to battle stem cell depletion responsible for diverse age-related diseases and infirmities. She has since reported feeling more energetic, but long-term study of the treatment is ongoing.

The treatment was originally intended to demonstrate the safety of the latest generation of the therapies. But if early data is accurate, it is already the world’s first successful example of telomere lengthening via gene therapy in a human individual. Gene therapy has been used to lengthen telomeres before in cultured cells and in mice, but never in a human patient.

BioViva's gene therapy delivers telomerase to the blood with the help of weakened viruses

called adeno-associated viruses (AAVs), which they modified to carry the telomerase gene.

The virus infects human cells and releases its payload into them, where the "transgene"

produces extra telomerase

However, BioViva’s claims are dubious at best, for a number of factors. Parrish herself has

no medical background, and acts merely as a spokesperson. BioViva’s Chief Medical Officer,

Jason Williams, previously ran stem cell clinic, Precision StemCell (now located in

Mexico) that offers stem cell therapies to patients with ALS. He was continuously under fire


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from the media and other geneticists for charging exorbitant amounts for therapy of

absolutely no effect.

In conclusion, the company needs to produce more data, on more patients, to construct

even a mildly convincing scientific argument. Getting more patients may be very difficult,

though: Parrish bypassed FDA regulations by travelling to Colombia to administer her

company's gene therapy to herself.

Suspended animation and cryopreservation

For several decades, researchers have pursued various forms of suspended animation as a

means by which to indefinitely extend mammalian lifespan. Suspended animation is the

temporary state of interrupted breathing and loss of consciousness, resembling death.

When put into suspended animation, the patient’s blood is drained at replaced by a fluid

(usually a mixture of saline solution and glucose particles) and the body of the patient is

substantially lowered in a method called cryopreservation. This is a process that in the

future is sure to prove invaluable not just for lifespan elongation, but also for space travel

and patients that have undergone grievous physical harm.

The feasibility of cyropreservaton in humans is termed as cyronics. The goal of current

cryonics procedures is tissue vitrification, a technique first used to reversibly cryopreserve a

viable whole organ in 2005.

A concept similar to cyronics is chemical brain preservation, where only the brain is

preserved to later be surgically placed into a new body via transplants.

NAD+

In early 2017, Harvard scientists headed by biologist David Sinclair announced they have

tested a compound called NAD+ on mice and have successfully reversed the cellular aging

process and can protect the DNA from future damage. NAD+ stands for Nicotinamide

adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and is a coenzyme found in all living cells.

Treating mice with a NAD+ precursor, or “booster,” called NMN improved their cells’ ability

to repair DNA damage caused by radiation exposure or old age. In fact, Sinclair states that

the cells of the old mice were indistinguishable from the young mice, after just one week of

treatment.

Early trials of NMN human trials, which were launched in September, prove to be very

promising, as the treatments are safe and do not induce major adverse side effects.


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Immortalism and immortality as a movement

In 2012 in Russia, the pro-immortality Transhumanist political party was launched. Since

then, the party and its ideology have spread to the United States, Israel, and the

Netherlands. This is perhaps one of the only political parties that consider science and

genetics is of pivotal importance for the countries success- all other issues come later.

Zoltan Istvan, the leader of the Transhumanist party and independent presidential

candidate, has spent almost two years spreading his transhumanist agenda, which is to put

science, health and technology at the forefront of America’s politics. Like all transhumanists,

Istvan believes that through scientific advancement, humans will be able to reverse ageing

and eventually death.

His techno-utopian ideas have gained some traction on the east and west coasts of the US,

especially amongst liberals. In fact, famous US liberal party Stonewall Democrats has

partnered with Istvan several times, and has even gone as far as to fund several of their

research projects and campaigns.

However, the party has also received massive backlash, predominantly from the Bible belt,

which is obvious upon considering the severely atheist views of the group. Many scientists

mock the party as well, considering them to be charlatans whose only interest is fame and

not science.

Biogerontologist Marios Kyriazis, another prominent life extentionist, suggested that

biological immortality in humans is an inevitable consequence of natural evolution. He put

forth a theory of extreme lifespans. This proved that it was possible to expand human

lifespans to an indefinite amount through perpetual-equalising interventions (ELPIs). It

proposed that the ability to attain indefinite lifespans is inherent in human biology, and that

there will come a time when humans will continue to develop their intelligence by living

indefinitely, rather than through evolution by natural selection.

Party logo for the Transhumanist movement


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Arguments against human immortality

Perhaps the most rational argument is lack of space and resources. Even at present, without yet

achieving immortality, our population is expanding exponentially, and our resources are obviously

getting exhausted rapidly as well. The mass influx of population that due to immortality will mean

that the already paltry habitable land per person ratio (which currently stands at 0.008 sq miles per

person) will dwindle even further. The new generations, who the future belongs to, will be cheated

of materials and opportunities.

The most moral problem is the already existing “unequal death”. Developed countries already get to

enjoy a much higher standard of living as compared to their sill developing or underdeveloped

counterparts. If immortality indeed becomes a reality in the future, is quite obvious that only the

rich and educated, most probably from first world countries, will be able to have the finances and

opportunities to benefit from it. This inequality, which obtains both between the First World and the

Third World and between rich and poor within western welfare societies, is the main ethical

obstacle. How can we justify trying to extend the lives of those who have more already?

Something to consider is that immortality is not equivalent to invincibility. Though our body may

never age, that does not mean we will not acquire scars and physical ailments. Just by taking the

average amount of scars a person gets during an average lifespan, and relating it to a larger scale it is

easy to see why immortality might not aesthetically appealing.

Evolution may be another limiting factor. We look remarkably different from apes, our closest

ancestor. A person of this generation who attains immortality will thus also look remarkably

different from the people several dozen generations in the future. So ironically, instead of being

thought of as a marvel of science, he may be looked down on as genetically inferior.

Consider if a caveman somehow achieved immortality, and now lives in the modern world

amongst us. Our bodies and brains continue to adapt to an ever-changing world. The

caveman’s won't. Will his digestive system be able to handle the same food we eat? Will his

brain enjoy the same entertainment? Will his non-evolved tongue even be able to speak the

languages we speak? Then it seems impossible to assume that we would be able to do so in

the future. Most probably a person who has achieved immortality will not be able to breed

after a certain amount of time, as the other people have incompatible DNA.


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Ethics

Because gene therapy involves making changes to the body’s set of basic instructions, it

raises many unique ethical concerns. Before any research can be done on any topic,

geneticists must first get clearance from their ethic board. If the ethics board deems the

research unethical, the scientists will be denied its funding and will be forced not to conduct

trials.

Ethics plays a big role in the current phase of genetics. Essentially, genetic therapy is the

editing of one’s DNA, and some ethic boards feel that it is too much like playing God to allow

the technology to be carried on. Nearly 65% of genetic research is put on hold at any

moment due to ethical reasons. Surprisingly, considering how integrated ethics is with

genetics, it is still a relatively new concept to have ethic boards, with the first rudimentary

ethical screening appearing in the 1950s.

Many geneticists speak firmly against having an ethics board. They argue that if some of the

greatest discoveries of science- the discovery of penicillin, X-rays, or the harvesting of

nuclear energy, for example- all might have been deemed unethical by some, denying

humanity of invaluable technology and remedies.

However, ethical testing keeps scientists in check. Science can often lead down some quite

bizarre pathways, and scientists might get so caught up in their research that they lose track

of their own morals.

Some of the most remarkable aspects of genetics, like xenotransplantation and gene

therapy, which have potential to make scientific history, are constantly getting held back due

to ethical issues. Even when ethics is cleared, it is a slow and laborious process to obtain

the required paperwork from a number of sources

Though ethical procedures definitely have its benefits in terms of the general public, the

broader picture must also be taken into consideration. These trials must become shortened

and more acute to be of maximum effect.


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Conclusion

In summation, modern genetics is a goldmine for anti-aging technology. Taking it a step further, the

science could, in the future, make human immortality tangible. CRISPR technology seems to be a

prime candidate for the same, however it must be noted that though the technology is progressing

at a remarkable rate, it is not yet developed enough to make immortality a reality.

The ethics behind the process must also be considered before any advancements can be

undertaken. Subjects such as immortality will always be on shaky grounds, and it can easily turn foul,

especially in the wrong hands.

The field of genetics is truly remarkable. Though one of the newest areas of modern biology, it has

grown exponentially in minute periods of time. In the space of less than a decade, geneticists have

gone from mapping the genome to making immense changes to human genes, saving countless

lives. With progressions like this, the future of genetics seems golden.


23

Biblography

Books and theses

Adam Rutherford- A Brief History of Everyone Who Ever Lived

Armand Marie Leroy- Mutants: On Genetic Variety and the Human Body

Carol Greider, Johns Hopkins University- Telomeres, telomerase, cancer and age-related

disease

Gordijn B.- Medical utopias: ethical reflections about emerging medical technologies

Gregory Cochran and Henry Harpending – The 10,000 year explosion

Matt Ridely - Genome: The Autobiography of a Species in 23 Chapters

Mauron A. - The choosy reaper: From the myth of eternal youth to the reality of unequal

death

Nessa Carey- Epigenetic Revolution: How Modern Biology Is Rewriting Our Understanding of

Genetics, Disease and Inheritance

Peter J Russel - iGenetics: a Mendelian approach

Richard Dawkins- The Extended Phenotype

Shalini B. M. - Telomeres and telomerase: the path from maize, Tetrahymena and yeast to human

cancer and aging

Stuart H. Orkin- Haematopoiesis: An Evolving Paradigm for Stem Cell Biology

Xin Chen, Johns Hopkins University- Epigenetic regulation of Drosophila germ cell

differentiation from a stem cell lineage

Magazines and newsletters


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European Society of Human Genetics

Forbes- Pharma & Healthcare

Genetic Alliance

Human Genetics Newsletter, Mc Gill Publications

Phenomena- National Geographic (April edition, 2015)

PreventionGenetics

Snopes Newsletter

Stanford medicine- Genetics newsletter spring edition 2017

The Conversation magazine, Australia edition

University of Wisconsin- Madison annual newsletter

Websites

23andme

Cracked

Genetics Home Reference

Learn.genetics

LiveScience

National Human Genome research institute

National Institute for Aging

News medical

SENS research foundation

TED- Ed

US National Library of Medicine

UT Southwestern Medical Centre Research lab

the genetics behind human immortality - amazon s3 · the genetics behind human immortality 3...

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