The Great Omayyad Mosque

By Dr. Ali al-Qayyem

Translated by: M. Allam Khoudr

Function of the Mosque in Islam

The mosques is the most important institution of the Arab Muslim city, based on the vital role it plays in the society. Besides its religious significance, the mosque has been a center for discussion of political, educational and social affairs. It was the place where Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) used to meet ambassadors of other countries to organize inter-state relations with his country. The mosque was the place where he delivered sermons to Muslims, discussed their affairs and preached the doctrines of Islam. Caliphs (the title of Prophet Mohammad’s successors) also used the minbar (a pulpit where the Imam or leader of prayer in the mosque stands to deliver sermons) to announce the latest developments of Islamic conquests and guide armies before they set forth on holy missions. But with the expansion of Muslim conquests, the mosque assumed a new role and became a court-like venue where the Emir used the minbar as a platform to announce his policies, ideas and plans and to introduce the principles of the government and the duties of the people. This speech represented the Constitution, responsibilities shouldered by the ruler and duties of the people.

Being a gathering place for worshippers to practice the religion of Islam on the one hand, and meet to discuss public issues on the other, the mosque became the “center” of the city. Planning the site of the mosque came ahead of other parts of the city where residential areas were built in clusters around the mosque and all road and streets should lead to it in one way or another.

The city of Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) was the prototype from which all later forms developed. The Prophet's Mosque held a prime location of the city, and the Muhajireen (Muslims who migrated from Mecca into Medina) planned and built their houses around the mosque. Soon, newly built major cities in the region followed suit by selecting a prime site of the city to build a central mosque, and this became a traditional rule in almost all Arab Muslim cities, including older cities conquered by Muslim Arabs, such as Damascus, Aleppo and Cordoba. The prime location of the mosque in the city center was similar, so to speak, to the

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acropolis in ancient Greek cities and the capitols in Roman cities – the similarity prompted some scholars to believe that planning of Islamic cities was influenced by the Greek and Roman models. Nevertheless and irrespective of the different reasons, selection of a central site in the Islamic city for building a mosque basically aimed to make this place in proximity of all parts and outskirts of the city to become easily accessible for worshippers whether coming from urban or suburban areas.

Thanks to the Great Omayyad Mosque of Damascus, the city gained a new destination towards “qibla” (the direction in which all Muslims turn their faces in prayers and that direction is towards the Ka'aba in Mecca). Shops previously located at the edges of the eastern part of the city or in its public squares, gradually moved to the western part coming closer to hub of streets and roads normally approached by worshippers from and to the mosque and the fort which grew into a great citadel. Even today, the city markets can be seen to have had encroached into the surrounding areas of the Omayyad Mosque to sell diverse goods in crowded areas. The religious indication of this sacred and august place drove successive rulers to build other magnificent shrines and mausoleums adjacent to the Great Mosque, forming - in the course of centuries following the Arab Muslim conquest - the city center which consisted of buildings of religious nature with various duties: mosques, schools, religious institutes, bimaristans (hospitals), hammams (public baths), public fountains, etc.

The grandeur of the Omayyad Mosque was also demonstrated in the shrines and mausoleums built in surrounding areas by outstanding rulers who later governed Syria and played a vital role in the life of the country and elsewhere in the Arab world. Their monuments were manifested in the construction of several public buildings, including Madrasa (school) Nuriyya which holds the tomb of Sultan Nureddin bin Mahmoud Zangi (d. 1174), whose reign brought Bilad al-Sham (the Levant or Greater Syria) into unity, driving the Crusaders' threat off the country. Other prominent buildings also included the mausoleum known for its ribbed dome housing the tomb of Salahuddin al-Ayyubi (better known in the West as Saladin), founder of the Ayyubid Empire. However, after successive military victories over the Crusaders and the liberation of al-Quds, Saladin died in 1193. Another noteworthy building was the Madrasa al-'Adiliya which holds the tomb of Saladin's successor, al-Adil Seif-u-Din (d. 1218), who united and ruled Egypt and Syria under the Ayyubid Empire. Madrasa al-Zahiriya with its huge dome and the tomb of Baybars (d. 1277), who repelled the Moguls off Syria and fought

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victorious battles over the Crusaders, is another example of the great historical monuments still standing today.

The sacred heart of Damascus encircled by the Great Omayyad Mosque also became the preferred residential areas of Muslims. The most prominent Mamluk ruler of Damascus, Tengiz (d. 1341) built his magnificent palace near the Omayyad Mosque, while Asa'ad Paha Azem (d. 1749) erected his own palace, the Azem Palace (now the Museum of Popular Arts and Traditions) on the site of Tengiz's palace. Even after the Caliphate's capital moved from Damascus to Baghdad in 750 AD, the Great Omayyad Mosque had always remained the everlasting beacon and cultural center of the city.

It may be said that this unique mosque is viewed as the most important of all architectural and religious buildings ever constructed throughout the Arab and Muslim history. The building of the Omayyad Mosque with its Arabian ambience housing a millennium of classical civilizations was the first symbol and illustration of Islam as depicted and exemplified in the newly-born arts of architecture and painting. It was a full-grown beginning of an art that felt its way through cultural and literary values and principles of the new faith. The Great Omayyad Mosque was constructed at the hands of Arab artists and architects who embraced Islam and brought the originality of their skills to light, rejecting the false formation of a foreign art that had been compulsorily expressed earlier by order of the Byzantine rule.

Temple of Hadad

Several temples had been built across the 1st millennium BC on the site where the Great Omayyad Mosque stands today. The most important and famous of those temples was the Aramaic Temple of Hadad, the Aramaic deity of rain, fertility and thunder in ancient Syria and the Orient. The only remains of the Hadad Temple left over the centuries was a carved black basalt slab (orthostat) depicting a sphinx, which reflects the style of Aramaic sculptures uncovered in different archeological sites and ancient cities of Bilad al-Sham (the Levant). This Aramaic orthostat was found in the north wall of the Omayyad Mosque during some repairs in 1984, and is now at the National Museum in Damascus. The Temple of Hadad, which occupied an area measuring 380m by 300m, was later converted by the Greeks into a temple of their deity during the Hellenistic era, and so did the Romans by adapting it into the temple of their god, Jupiter, the god of gods.

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Temple of Jupiter

It was built on the ruins of the Aramaic Temple of Hadad during the Roman occupation of Syria. Although a number of foreign archeologists have conducted several researches and studies on the Temple of Jupiter, the greatest monument ever left in Damascus by the Romans, full and comprehensive documentation of this monument is still lacking. However, excavations revealing the remains of inscriptions and other architectural decorations can still be of benefit to the documentation process of the temple.

The Damascus Temple of Jupiter was located in the northwestern part of the old city surrounded by its walls, and exactly at the western edge of the noticeable network of cross-roads. It has also been found that a colonnaded street, 300m to the north of the Straight Street, where the Temple stretched to a quadrate square at the eastern part of the Straight Street itself, had previously formed the city market. The structure of the Temple of Jupiter was constructed in two courtyards, one within the other, with walls surrounding each of the two courtyards. The outer wall measured 385m by 305m, forming the walls of the present Great Omayyad Mosque. The parts originally constructed during the Roman era still stand in both the south and west walls of the mosque.

The interior wall holds the structure within its limits and separates the inner part of the temple (the cella) from the outer part. The wall was provided with towers in its four corners and every tower had stone ladders leading to sections comprising four storeys, and every storey had two chambers. The main entrance of the Temple, located at its eastern side, consisted of three gateways preceded by porticoes, while the west gate consisted of one entrance unparallel to the east gate which included two small entrance entries on both sides – probably used for bringing in cattle sacrifices. Such entrances were common in Syria’s pagan temples, such as the Temple of Bel in Palmyra.

In the context of changes introduced to the Temple of Jupiter during the Byzantine era, the interior wall gates were linked to the interior wall gates by means of two rows of parallel columns. The remains of these colonnades are still standing in the east and west sides of the Omayyad Mosque.

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The Church

When Christianity was proclaimed the official religion of the region, replacing paganism, Christians thought of using the sacred spot of the Temple of Jupiter along with its walls and colonnades. Emperor Theodosius, therefore, converted the Temple into the Church of John the Baptist in 379 AD. But historians have different views of the architectural shape and design of this Church. Dusou believes that the church initially consisted of a nave divided by two aisles, a theory supported by the two German architects Karl Wulzinger and Carl Watzinger. But Terse says the opposite, maintaining that the whole nave (prayer hall) was built in an Islamic design and did not exist in the Christian era. Other scholars argue that all such views were not based on texts, documents or any archeological study and that they were mere assumptions. But generally speaking, the majority of views maintain that the Church of John the Baptist was built in the court of the Roman temple.

Archolve, a French traveler who visited Damascus in 50 Hijra, affirmed that Muslims did not share Christians the Church of John the Baptist and that each side had their own space of worship. Kritzol quoted Ibn Shakir al-Kutubi as saying that Muslims and Christians used the triple entrance of the south gate of the temple to enter the basilica where Muslims turned right to offer their prayers, while Christians turned left to pray in their church. Adding credence to the belief that the Church of John the Baptist was not shared by both Christians and Muslims, is that relevant accounts did not occur before the lifetime of Ibn Asakir and Ibn Jubair. The idea held by some orientalists saying that the Church of John the Baptist was converted into the present Great Mosque is therefore baseless.

The Omayyad Mosque before Al-Walid bin Abdul Malik

The Arab Muslim conquest reached Damascus in 635 AD and liberated the city from the Byzantine rule. Leaders of the Muslim army entered Damascus from its different gates, where Khaled bin al-Walid came through the East Gate; Amr bin al-As through Bab Tuma; Sharhabil bin Hasana through Bab al-Faradis; Abu Obeida bin al-Jarrah through Bab al-Jabya; Yazid bin Abi Sufyan through Bab Kisan (Bab al-Saghir).

The need for a central place to offer their prayer made Muslims choose this sacred site that had been dedicated for worship for thousands of years. Thus they used the deserted open space in the east side of the temple. The first "mihrab" of Islam, "Mihrab of the Companions of the

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Prophet", built by early Muslims against the south wall, proved that Muslims before al-Walid had occupied that section of the temple which had never been part of the church before and built the "Mihrab of the Companions of the Prophet". They had used the small left gate in the south side of the basilica to enter their mosque, which was connected to the Green Palace. It was probably Mu'away bin Abi Sufyan who restored the prayer hall into the form of a temporary mosque. This denies the common belief that Muslims had shared the same church with Christians to practice their rituals and worship under one roof, a matter that certainly does not stand to reason.

Muslims had occupied the eastern half of the temple to build their mosque and left the church already erected in the west side for Christians. This situation lasted 70 years where Muslims and Christians attended their worship side by side.

Al-Walid’s Mosque

When al-Walid bin Abdul Malik ascended the Omayyad Caliphate in 705 AD, the temporary mosque built on a limited area of the temple grew smaller to accommodate Muslim worshipers and became inadequate as an architectural monument representing the new religion. Al-Walid found that annexation of the church to the mosque as the only solution for expanding the mosque of the Companions of the Prophet. A settlement was reached after negotiations with the Christians to relinquish half of the temple on which they built their church in exchange for appropriating four churches in different parts of Damascus, including the grand Church of St. John as compensation. Al-Walid demolished Roman and Byzantine parts enclosed by the walls of the temple, and kept the walls standing to erect his mosque within their boundary in a new and innovative design which could meet both the requirements of the religion of Islam and the public, and suit the grandeur of the Islamic Empire with Damascus as its capital. As a result, the new mosque was built in a unique and unprecedented design and was the most impressive and largest in the Islamic world at the time. The new mosque remained for centuries a source of inspiration to architects to build great mosques on the pattern of the Omayyad Mosque.

The Great Omayyad Mosque was one of the most prominent Islamic landmarks worldwide, and Muslims in the Middle Ages viewed this mosque as one of the wonders of the world. Although inscriptions on the foundations of the building are no longer there, but scientifically speaking

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and through the many evidenced documents, the foundation of the mosque was laid by al-Walid bin Abdul Malik in 705 AD. Construction and decoration of the Great Omayyad Mosque took a period extending over the whole Caliphate reign of al-Walid. However, the building was finally completed by al-Walid's nephew, Suleiman bin Abdul al-Malik, after a decade when the mosque came as a revolution against simplicity and austerity, forming a new beginning in Arab Islamic art and architecture. The design of the Great Mosque mirrored the Omayyad era with all its prosperity and progress. The first principles of Islamic art and architecture were wonderfully invested in this architectural masterpiece. The French scholar Jean Sauvaget gave a concise description of the mosque "The mosque with its magnificent decorations have left all its visitors over a period of three and a half centuries greatly impressed and even flabbergasted." History books say that Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'moun accompanied by al-Mou'tasem and Yahya bin Aktham had visited the mosque and asked them:

"- What is the wonder in this mosque?- Al-Mou'tasem said: The gold and its survival ... the gold ornamentations we use in our palaces change appearance in only 20 years’ time ..- Al-Ma'moun said: It's not the gold that won my admiration ..- Yahya said: It must be the composition of its marble that I have never seen anything of the same in my life ..- Al-Ma'moun said: No, it's not the marble that won my admiration ..- Al-Mou'tasem and Yahya inquired: Well, what hath won your admiration then?- Al-Ma'moun said: The unprecedented model of its building …"

According to historians, the efforts and money spent by al-Walid for building the Great Omayyad Mosque were not limited to its decoration works, but also for its construction in a new innovative design. He made use only of some of the temple's walls and colonnades in situ. Referring to this point in his research about the mosque, Dr. Afif Bahnasi said: "The architect in the Islamic era benefited from the Greek outline as well as from the relics of stones, columns and capitals. We believe that the original basilica measured 97m by 115m, but was expanded westward to become 97m by 115m. The colonnades and prayer hall were built, and the Eagle Dome and the Minaret of the Bride were erected. An increase of 10.40m wide-section was added twice, where every section had two corner towers, two mausoleums and a central gate. Masons employed by al-Walid to build the Great Omayyad Mosque found the area full of ruins and remains of columns and capitals. Thus they made use of these available relics in building the grandest Islamic monument.”

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Many historians maintain that al-Walid spent huge amounts of money on building the magnificent Omayyad Mosque: 400 boxes containing 14000 dinars each, which consumed – it is said - seven years of Syria's earnings and that it took 18 camels to carry the notes of cost calculations but al-Walid did not look into them and ordered to have them burned, saying "... It is something we have made only for the sake of God."

Some history sources said that people were alarmed by the amounts of money spent by al-Walid on building the mosque until one day he heard of these rumours and called for holding a mass meeting in the mosque and told the people "I came to know that you circulate amongst you that al-Walid hath spent money unwisely …". He asked the Treasurer, Omar bin Muhajir, to bring in the reserved funds saved in "Bait-ul-Mal" (the Treasury), and mules carrying the state money came in and the money was unloaded forming high heaps to the extent that people in the north side of the prayer hall became unable to see those in the south direction of "qibla". Al-Walid ordered his men to bring scales and the money was weighed, calculated and they found out that the reserved funds in Bait-ul-Mal could meet the expenditures of the state for several more years.

Outline and Sections of the Mosque

The Omayyad Mosque has a rectangular shape measuring 156m by 97m. Its north side is occupied by an open and enormous courtyard surrounded by roofed colonnaded walkways, while its south side is occupied by the prayer hall. The mosque has an elevated engraved stone-built wall, which is originally the wall of the Roman temple renovated in some of its sections during the different Islamic eras. The wall of the Roman temple measured 5m in height, then increased by al-Walid to reach up to 14m. This wall had multi-storey quadrangle towers in its corners accessed by interior stairs used by Muslims to call for prayers (azan). Only two of these towers remained standing in the south side, on which two minarets were later built.

Gates of the Mosque

The Great Omayyad Mosque has four gates: (Bab Jairun) in the east side; (Bab al-Barid) in the west; (Bab al-Amarah) in the north, and the large gate of (Bab al-Ziyada) in the south side facing the "qibla", which gives immediate access to the prayer hall.

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The most important of these gates in terms of architecture are the west gate of (Bab al-Barid) and the east gate of (Bab Jairun), each consisting of three rectangular openings provided with lintels. The central opening is large with round arch on top.

Courtyard and Colonnades of the Mosque

Having a rectangular shape measuring 132m by 50m, the courtyard of the mosque is paved with stone renovated in several eras and thus gained a higher level than the original, but has been lately returned to the proper level first made during the Omayyad era by paving the court with shiny stone brought from the Damascus quarry of Mezzeh.

The courtyard is surrounded from all sides, excluding the south section, by arcades supported by high quadrangle pillars. Archeological research revealed that the pillars had been made of stone covered with a layer of lime decorated in simple patterns in addition to cylindrical columns arranged by erecting two columns and two pillars in sequence, totaling 13 pillars and 34 columns erected in the 18th century. Vaulted arches mounting the pillars support the roofs of the arcades. According to historical resources, the walls facing the court had been wholly decorated with mosaics. Shrines, mausoleums and chambers were built just behind these walls. The north colonnaded passageway changed appearance when it was renovated in the aftermath of an earthquake that hit the country in 1759 AD and it was rebuilt with pillars decorated with stuccowork.

There are three small domes in the courtyard of the mosque. The Treasury Dome in the west side rests on eight columns deeply fixed in the floor without any base, and still hold their Corinthian capitals. The second dome, the Dome of the Hours (also known as the Dome of Zein-ul-Abidin), is located at the east side of the court. It is said that it was renovated by the ruler Othman Pasha a hundred years ago. The third one was constructed above the fountain in the center of the courtyard.

The Prayer Hall

The prayer hall, measuring 136m by 37m, consists of three double-storey colonnades, where the lower section consists of big round arches, while the upper part includes twofold arches similar to those arcades surrounding the courtyard. The prayer hall is roofed by hump-like (or camel's back shape) timber lead-covered roofs known as "gable roofs".

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Mausoleums

The Omayyad Mosque is flanked from the east and west sides by four mausoleums dedicated to the following Orthodox Caliphs:- Mausoleum of Abu Bakr in the southwest corner.- Mausoleum of Omar bin al-Khattab in the southeast side corner.- Mausoleum of Othman bin Affan in the northwest corner.- Mausoleum of Ali (known later as Mausoleum of Zein-ul-Abidin), behind which the Shrine of al-Hussein was built in the northeast corner - it is said that the head of al-Hussein is buried there.

Historical resources indicate that the names of these mausoleums, which were used as libraries and centers for teaching, offering prayer, holding of meetings, have changed over the centuries.

Minarets of the Omayyad Mosque

The Roman temple originally had four towers, but only two of them remained standing during the construction of the Omayyad Mosque. They were converted into minarets by Muslims and a third quadrangle tower-shaped minaret, known later as the Minaret of the Bride, was erected near the north entrance of the mosque. In terms of architecture, the Minaret of the Bride may be the one which most represents the Syrian quadrangle style of minarets with their three major components: body, enclosed shaft and lantern-like dome. The Minaret of the Bride was a source of inspiration for building similar minarets in Andalusia and North Africa countries. The east-side minaret, known as the Minaret of Jesus, was erected on the temple tower, while the west-side minaret was built on the other tower.

The Minaret of the Bride

It is also known by several other names, including the North Minaret (due to its location in the north side of the mosque); the White Minaret (based on the white-color paint that used to cover the minaret); the Limekiln Minaret (it derived the name from the location overlooking the Kallasa "limekiln" quarter). However, it is best known as the Minaret of the Bride, a name derived from its appearance as a bride on the eve of her wedding, glittering and twinkling with ceremonial lantern lights on religious and national occasions. Today, however, restoration works and

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modern lighting systems have regained the original glitter of this minaret more dazzlingly.

According to historical resources, these minarets witnessed restoration and renovation works throughout different eras. The Minaret of the Bride, for example, had its upper part renovated during the Ottoman rule, while its central part was renovated during the Ayyubid epoch, circa 1247 AD.

The western minaret of the Omayyad Mosque - also known as the Minaret of al-Miskiyya in view of its proximity to the al-Miskiyya quarter - was ravaged by fire in 1479 AD and was rebuilt in 1488 by Mamluk Sultan Abu al-Nasr Qaitbey. The renovated minaret was a pastiche of the architectural style common in Egypt.

The eastern minaret, known as the Minaret of Jesus, was extensively damaged but was renovated several times. The last of the restoration works applied to the Minaret of Jesus were carried out in the wake of an earthquake that hit the country in 1759 AD. The minaret derived its name from Prophetic tradition (Hadith) saying Christ will be resurrected on Judgment Day and will descend to earth at the White Minaret in the eastern part of Damascus – a spot confirmed by "Hadith" narrators to be in the Omayyad Mosque, and exactly at the Minaret of Jesus.

The Minaret of Jesus is also known as the Minaret of al-Nofara (Fountain) or the Minaret of Jairun. The title is ascribed to the quarter of al-Nofara (Fountain), previously known as the Jairun quarter, which faces the said minaret.

The 16m-diameter Dome of the Eagle, built by al-Walid bin Abdul Malik, stands at 45m above the level of the courtyard of the mosque. It was described by Ibn Jubair as "the greatest part of this mosque is the lead-made minaret which is connected to the mihrab and stands high up in the air in a marvelous round shape …". The Dome of the Eagle is supported by a cross gable. It was restored and renovated in 1075 AD during the reign of Seljuk Sultan Vizir Shah. Two corners of the dome were renovated a hundred years later by Saladin. But a powerful earthquake in 1200 AD. Caused serious cracks in the dome and it is said that it collapsed over the people. It was later repaired and supported by wood-wedges.

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Mosaic Decorations of the Omayyad Mosque

The Great Omayyad Mosque may be distinguished from other Arab Islamic mosques by its marvelous decorations which made it a masterpiece of artistry, innovation and magnificence. In his effort to make this mosque an everlasting monument of Damascus, al-Walid bin Abdul Malik spent lots of money on its construction and decoration and employed the most renowned artisans and craftsmen from all over the world to carry out the beautiful decoration works for his great project. Employing the best of their talents, skills and creativity, the craftsmen came out with mosaic works which formed the most magnificent, amazing and marvelous decorations of all time. Al-Walid had also ordered to have all walls, arcades and arches of the mosque to be decorated with splendid multi-colour glazed stones gilded in gold and silver. Mosaics heavily adorned interior and exterior upper sections of the prayer hall, arcades, arches and the undersides of vaults. Although the majority of these mosaic works were lost as a result of earthquakes, tremours and fires, which inflicted heavy damage on the Omayyad Mosque and its decorations, yet what remained of these wonderful mosaics is still a priceless and invaluable treasure of art. The remains of these fine decorations can still be seen today – as they were skillfully made long ago in the Omayyad era – on the western wall of the arcade facing the courtyard of the mosque, the passageway of Bab al-Barid gate and on the façade of the mosque itself. In certain parts of these locations, mosaic works have been recently made and incorporated within the original decorations and have been marked with red-colour lines to differentiate modern decorations from original ones.

Splendid Landscapes

Walls of the Omayyad Mosque were covered with thousands of square meters of eye-catching mosaics depicting splendid sceneries and geometric patterns in their natural colours. These beautiful mosaic pictures gained unprecedented accounts by historians, travelers and orientalists. The earliest of these descriptions was made by al-Hasan bin Mohammad al-Mohallabi, who visited the Omayyad Mosque in the 4th

century of Hijra: "Corners and walls up to the ceiling are all beautifully decorated with the finest colour-painted and gilded mosaic inscriptions. The wall standing in the direction of qibla is adorned with Koranic verses of gilded mosaics."

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Al-Maqdisi, a notable medieval Arab geographer and historian gave a very detailed account of the Omayyad Mosque and described the interior mosaic decorations in his book "The Best Divisions for Knowledge of the Regions": "The inner walls of the mosque, for twice the height of a man, are faced with variegated marbles; and above this, even to the very ceiling, are mosaics of various colours and in gold, showing figures of trees and towns and beautiful inscriptions, all most exquisitely and finely worked. The capitals of the columns are covered with gold and the vaulting above the arcade is everywhere ornamented in mosaic."

Mosaic Industry

It is interesting to know how mosaics were made and which art was used for their inlay. Historical sources indicate that mosaic industry was unknown in its form common before the Hellenistic era. However, this industry developed and flourished to become an indication of luxury, grandeur and magnificence during Greek, Roman and Byzantine time when mosaics were extensively used in flooring and wall decoration in houses, palaces, churches, etc. Mosaics were ornamental small pieces of coloured stone and marble made in the shape of cubes of different sizes. Glass later "invaded" this sophisticated industry at an accelerated pace, especially that craftsmen found glass an easier substance for moulding and colouring. Glass mosaics reached their heyday in both the Byzantine and Omayyad eras when the newly-developed form of mosaics became the major item of ornamentation. Remains of mosaic works applied in Omayyad buildings and palaces show that only slight portions of coloured stone and marble mosaics are fixed amongst the opulent ornamental glass pieces.

Historical sources affirm that craftsmen hired by al-Walid to perform decoration works for the Omayyad Mosque were from Bild al-Sham (the Levant) and that they inherited the craftsmanship from their forefathers over the centuries. However, some sources indicate that assistance was also sought from Russian, Indian, Moroccan and Roman artisans. However, this foreign assistance does not underestimate the role of Bilad al-Sham craftsmen and artisans on account of the fact that the Arab Islamic Empire was so vast that its border reached China in the east and Spain in the west. On the other hand, Damascene artisans enjoyed the skill but were unable to accomplish this colossal project by themselves, particularly that estimated area of mosaic works decorating the walls and arcades of the Omayyad Mosque reached up to 30.000 sq.m. and weighed

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some 300 tonnes. It is therefore believed that these masterpieces were performed in joint efforts by the different Arab and Islamic expertise.

Mosaic pieces used in ornamenting the Omayyad Mosque consisted of small cubes made up of transparent-dim glazed paste of diverse colours. Some pieces made up of white marble and shiny mother-of-pearl can still be seen today within the fine mosaic pictures. Coloured glazed pieces were made in the form of large hued plates then cut into smaller pieces. The making of gold and silver gilt mosaic pieces was far more complicated involving the process of adding a thin coat of pure gold or silver to the glazed mosaic plates mentioned above. The produced crust was covered by a thin layer of transparent white glass with the purpose of preserving the brilliance of golden/silver colours for longer periods of time. The glazed tablets were later cut into smaller pieces of straight edges unlike other mosaic pieces made of stone or marble. Scholars and researchers discovered this subtle process when mosaics covering the western colonnaded walkway of the mosque were uncovered by removing the lime substance used to fix dismantled mosaic pieces.

The availability of mosaic pieces factories in Bilad al-Sham is not ruled out, given the extensive use of this material in decorating buildings and palaces. It was unlikely, too, that the huge quantities of mosaic pieces used in ornamenting the Omayyad Mosque were imported from overseas sources due to the difficulty of transporting the same from distant places, like Byzantium, on the one hand, and in view of the poor political relations which did not leave room for exchanging services on the other. Besides, the industry of mosaics in Bilad al-Sham was common in earlier periods. But mosaic manufacturers were possibly in need of certain colours that they could not produce, particularly golden colours, and they therefore sought to obtain the same either by importing these dyes or by encouraging armies to bring them along while coming home from military campaigns abroad. Historians and travelers, like al-Maqdisi and Ibn Asakir, confirmed in their writings that marble and mosaics required for decorating the Great Omayyad Mosque were brought by armies during the Omayyad era. The subject was evidenced by al-Maqdisi in his book "The Best Divisions for Knowledge of the Regions".

Mosaic Themes

Mosaic pictures decorating the Great Omayyad Mosque are characterized by absence of any pictures depicting human figures and are limited to portraying natural landscapes, buildings as well as floral decorations and

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geometric patterns. The mosaic pictures had met the objective sought by al-Walid: highlighting the grandeur of Islam as a holy faith and reflecting the wide spread of Islam as an empire extending as far as China in the east and Spain in the west.

Mosaic decorations in the Omayyad Mosque of Damascus remained enthralling and eye-catching with their charm and magnificence until the 5th century AD when Damascus underwent misfortunes and disasters: big fires destroyed the greater part of mosaic works. Accidents went on to gradually diminish the areas covered with mosaic decorations and unless they were followed up in time by repairs and restoration works throughout history, they would have wholly vanished and left as descriptions only in writing. Luckily enough, relics and remains of mosaic works discovered in several spots of the mosque, especially in the west side of the courtyard, helped us recognize the themes depicted in the mosaic pictures and the artistic style used in making them.

Mosaic themes found in the Omayyad Mosque basically deal with nature: orchards, foliage, trees, rivers, houses and even cities portrayed as fortified palaces. Al-Maqdisi believed that well-known trees and cities were all pictured on the walls of the Omayyad Mosque. This leads us to think that the artists wanted their mosaic work to reflect the power of the Caliph on the vast Islamic Empire. Ibn Asakir said that mosaic work of the Omayyad Mosque imaged all renowned cities and states, including Ka'ba.

Other analysts view decoration themes of mosaic work in the Omayyad Mosque as portraits drawn from the charming oasis of Damascus' Ghuta, River Barada flowing alongside palaces and houses built along its banks, landscapes of fruitful trees, rivers, streams and scenes of various cities well-known at that time, geometric and floral patterns, particularly grapevines that used to adorn all walls of the mosque, as well as verses from the Holy Koran and other inscriptions.

Some historians see the mosaics of the Omayyad Mosque as images of Paradise aimed at reminding worshipers of the heavenly reward awaiting them in the afterlife. However, a final say in this regard seems uneasy on grounds that the mosaic pictures which remain today are far less than those destroyed and lost over the years, despite the recurrent restoration works throughout the history of the Great Omayyad Mosque. Nevertheless, these limited mosaic works we see today form an invaluable treasure of art.

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Marble-work at the Omayyad Mosque

Historical documents describe in detail how the walls of the Omayyad Mosque were covered in marble, a matter clearly evidenced by the existing holes that previously held metal clasps used for fixing marble slabs onto the walls, especially in the well preserved marble cladding seen today in the gateway of the eastern entrance, and on the abutments of capitals. Large sections, including the four columns supporting the dome and the gateway of the eastern entrance, remained gleaming as they did when first built until the 1893 fire which ravaged the mosque.

The marble paneling consisted of slabs ranging between one and two meters in height attached onto the walls by lead-made clasps, and lined up in congruent order of rectangular, rhombus or circular geometric patterns within a set of one, two or four pieces.

Marble decoration was not limited to large slabs covering the walls. A highly ornate stringcourse of carved marble extending all round the walls of the prayer hall was added at the bottom edge of mosaic decorations consisting of floral veinings depicting vine leaves and grapes, a pre-Islam style common in Syria in ancient times. This decorative stringcourse remained eye-catching in its golden colours, which were renovated by order of Baybars and the stones were also covered with a thin coat of gold and gold leaves, until the fire of 1893 changed its appearance.

The marble used for the 4m-high cladding of the walls and pillars was known in ancient times as "variegated", probably because of its veins, where a marble block was cut into two or four slices, then fixed onto walls or colunms in a final corrugated four-dimensional shape.

Ibn Kathir, an Islamic scholar, described the marble decoration of the Omayyad Mosque in his book titled "Plans of Damascus": "The whole floor of the Omayyad Mosque was paved in marble and stone, while marble covered the walls for several times the height of a man …"

Al-Maqdisi also said: "… But of the most wondrous of the sights worthy of remark is verily the setting of the various coloured marbles, and how the veining of each follows from that of its neighbour; and it is such that, should an artist come daily during a whole year and stand before these mosaics, he might always discover some new pattern and some fresh design …"

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Ibn Hawkal, a well-known traveler, said: "Al-Walid paved the floor of the mosque with marble, and covered the walls with variegated marble and the columns and pillars with ornate and carved marble …"

Other decoration elements used in the Omayyad Mosque included ornamental lattice windows with geometric and floral patterns and designs. Stuccowork was also used in decorating the courtyard of the mosque for renovation works applied to the pillars and columns of arcades. These decorations are illustrated by the projecting leaves and feather patterns filling the arches of stalactites (muqarnas) as well as the forms of ornate stringcourses, bars and thin columns in the corners in both entwined and polygonal shapes, along with flat bases and capitals of the columns.

The use of decorative tiles (Kashani) in the Omayyad Mosque dates back to 1900 AD, but they are not viewed as important works of art compared with other ornamental elements in the mosque, like mosaics and marble. These decorative tiles were used to fill the gaps found in the gateway of the east entrance and it seems that they had been brought from 18th and 19th-century buildings. This is clearly seen in the low quality "Kashani" tiles and the theme of their compositions, while the "Kashani" used in restoration works carried out in the 20th century are of good quality and are distinguished from other ornate tiles by the traditional Syrian floral designs.

Ceilings of the western and eastern gateways as well as of the prayer hall – as seen today – are all covered in wonderful wood paneling decorations known in Bilad al-Sham (the Levant) as "Nabati" (floral) decoration.

Decorative beaten metal coating, on the other hand, can be clearly seen in the doors and gates of the Omayyad Mosque - this craftsmanship is deeply-rooted in the history of art in Syria from ancient times.

Political and Cultural Role of the Omayyad Mosque

Throughout its long history, the Great Omayyad Mosque was not only a place of worship but also a center of cultural, political and social activities in view of its grandeur, vastness and sublimity. It was in this sacred place that the Caliph used to receive citizens and emissaries and take decisions on crucial issues. This mosque also served as a community center where people discussed religious and public matters. The Omayyad Mosque was a gathering spot for scholars and intellectuals to

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study and teach. Seminars were held on a regular basis in the courtyard, under the arcades and inside the prayer hall. But the most noteworthy of these seminars were held under the Dome of the Eagle, where it was exclusively dedicated to think-tanks and most prominent scholars of Damascus – study in this spot is equivalent to post-graduate and higher studies of today.

Al-Nua'imi (d. 927 Hijra) said: "The Omayyad Mosque had 9 Imams, 70 seats for Koran readers, 11 seminars for discussion of scientific topics and 3 seminars for the study of Prophetic tradition (Hadith). The expenses of these activities were born by the state treasury."

In his writings about scholarships at the Omayyad Mosque, Ibn Jubair said: "A massive gathering is always held in this blessed mosque after Fajr (Dawn) prayer to recite seven chapters from the Holy Koran and a similar gathering after A'sr (Afternoon) prayer to read what's called (al-Kawthariya), where the audience begin reciting from al-Kawthar (name of a river in Paradise) verses to the end of the Holy Koran. This al-Kawthariya community comprise those who do not memorize Koran. It is one of the glorious traits of this mosque that Koranic verses are recited all day long."

In his account of the seminars held in the Omayyad Mosque, Ibn Jubair said: "The mosque provides seminars for students who receive learning from outstanding teachers. A teaching corner dedicated to the Malikiya school of thought located in the western side is a corner where Moroccans convene and perform remarkably. The services available for strangers in this revered mosque are numerous and all-embracing."

In his book titled "The Masterpiece of Authors and Comfort of Strangers", Ibrahim al-Khyari, who visited Damascus in the 18th century, said that "Damascenes are competing to teach under the Dome of the Eagle and they call the teacher who earns the privilege of teaching there the "Schoolmaster of the Dome". Teaching under this Dome includes a number of subjects: essentials, Islamic jurisprudence, speech, grammar, arithmetic, logic, etc."

Teachers of the Omayyad Mosque played a vital role in the politics of Damascus on account of their strong links with the Muslim leader in Istanbul (during the Ottoman rule) on the one hand, and their contacts with rulers of Damascus on the other.

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The preaching teacher used to sit on a raised seat after Friday mass prayer up to the A'sr (Afternoon) prayer to give lessons to government officials, taking into consideration the language used for best comprehension of the audience; reminding them of their duties and obligations towards the people. The Omayyad Mosque has maintained these activities in the four mausoleums housed in its building as well as at the several corners assigned for teaching purposes.

The mosque also contained huge sets of manuscripts, most of which were later saved in the Zahiriya Library. The features and merits enjoyed by the Omayyad Mosque made it a place of assembly where scholars of Damascus could meet their counterparts coming from different parts of the world to discuss and debate the various sciences known at the time. If a foreign scholar wanted to join the gathering, he should first address the host of scholars of the mosque who examine his scope of knowledge and expertise – regardless of his reputation, title or status – by seeking satisfactory answers to the questions put to him. If he passed this test, he would be honoured and declared as eligible, and if he failed to do so, he had no choice but to walk out.

Misfortunes and Calamities Undergone by the Omayyad Mosque

The Omayyad Mosque remained glamorous as was first built by al-Walid bin Abdul Malik for 350 years. But this culturally and religiously majestic edifice did not escape the misfortunes and calamities of time over the centuries. It was hit by earthquakes and ravaged by fires, and man's mischievous deeds were no less destructive. The first of these catastrophes occurred in 749 AD when an earthquake left a serious crack all along the roof of the mosque. Another earthquake in 847 AD ruined one of the minarets of the mosque. In 1068 AD a ravaging fire gutted down the mosque and only some of its parts remained bare of the once wonderfully decorated in mosaics, while the grounds of the mosque itself turned into heaps of debris and ruins. Mosaic pieces were collected and saved in the mausoleums until they were recovered by the caretaker of the mosque, Magistrate al-Shahrazouri, during the reign of Sultan Nureddin Zangi. The Omayyad Mosque remained in ruins for 14 years until its roof and dome, excluding the courtyard, were rebuilt by Vizir Nizam al-Malik during the rule of Seljuk Sultan Malikshah. The courtyard was later re-paved by al-Malik al-Adil, brother of Saladin, in 600 Hijra.

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In 1174 AD, a fire in the Kallasa (limekiln) quarter to the north of the mosque destroyed the Minaret of the Bride, but was later renovated by Sultan Saladin.

A powerful earthquake hit the mosque in 1201 AD, pulling down parts of the eastern minaret and leaving serious cracks in the Dome of the Eagle – it is said that it later collapsed on the people.

In 1247 AD the Minaret of Jesus caught fire and collapsed. It was rebuilt by Ayyubid al-Malik al-Salih.

In 681 Hijra, the flames of a raging fire in al-Nofara (fountain) and Bab Jairun quarters reached the walls and roof of the mosque.

In 1339 AD, a terrible fire in Damascus ravaged several markets and inflicted heavy damage on the city. The fire reached the mosque and burnt down the eastern minaret and part of the eastern gate.

In 1400 – 1401 AD, Damascus was invaded and occupied by Taimurlink, who wrecked havoc on the city and set properties on fire, including the Omayyad Mosque, where several parts of the mosque were damaged and the southwestern minaret collapsed.

Another big fire in 1482 AD resulted in the collapse of the west-southern minaret and the west and north corners of the mosque. The ruined minaret, however, was rebuilt in 1487 in the Egyptian style by Sultan Qaitbey.

In 1759 AD, a devastating earthquake destroyed several buildings in Damascus and the north and east walls of the Omayyad Mosque collapsed. A month later, another earthquake hit Damascus, resulting in the destruction of many buildings and both the eastern minaret and the Dome of the Eagle were ruined, while the north arcade in the courtyard collapsed.

The worst catastrophe in the history of the Omayyad Mosque happened in 1893 AD when this magnificent edifice went ablaze in a raging fire and only the two mausoleums next to Bab al-Barid gate, the arcade at the courtyard and the colonnaded passageway extending between Bab al-Nofara gate and the Shrine of al-Hussein survived this tragic accident, though the latter was damaged by the fire. This devastating fire resulted in a greater damage which ruined the eastern minaret and the roof and dome of the mosque completely collapsed. The whole mosque was

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destroyed in two and a half hours’ time. The magnificent edifice which stood for centuries in majesty, cost fortunes and consumed huge efforts, and was constructed and decorated by skillful hands over 1300 years was destroyed in only 150 minutes.

Large-scale restoration works of the Omayyad Mosque began in 1896 in collective efforts by the people and the state. People voluntarily contributed to the restoration process in money and hand. All craftsmen and designers of Damascus mobilized themselves to take part in this activity and employed the best of their skills in reconstruction of the mosque, and all labourers and masons worked full time in the mosque. No less than 500 hands worked together every day and construction of the eastern half of the mosque was completed within two years. The whole building of the Omayyad Mosque was finalized and inaugurated in 1901.

But restoration works and repairs of the Omayyad Mosque did not stop at that point and continued over a long period of time extending from 1919 to the 1960’s under the supervision of the Ministry of Awqaf (Religious Affairs) and the Antiquities and Museums Department. The renovation works included marble paving of the two interior courts at the entrance of Bad al-Barid and al-Nofara gates; marble cladding of the walls of Bab al-Barid entrance; laying of Kashani decorative tiles; replacing the high column standing in the east-northern side of the courtyard; repair of the western minaret; removing calcinations off mosaic-work; completing unfinished sections at the gateway of Bab al-Barid and the western colonnade; dismantling the cracked part of the eastern minaret (Minaret of Jesus) and repairing the derelict mosaic-work in the vault of the northwestern corner.

Besides, walls of the northeastern arcade were reinforced and its wooden roof was uncovered, while the second section of this wall (the northern section) was demolished and rebuilt. The exterior façade at the entrance of al-Nofara gate was restored, the brass decorations re-applied and unfinished sections were also completed. The large central door was repaired and mosaic pieces spared from relics saved in storerooms were re-inlaid. A small factory for the manufacture of new glass mosaics was set up for the restoration works and completion of missing mosaic pieces.

In view of the long history of misfortunes and catastrophes mentioned above, particularly the 1893 ravaging fire, the Omayyad Mosque was in need of comprehensive restoration works and repairs including its prayer hall, courtyard, walls and magnificent decorations. Over the years that

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witnessed the accidents undergone by the Omayyad Mosque, several restoration works were applied to important parts of the mosque’s architecture and decoration. Unfortunately, these restoration works were not comprehensive and did not rise up to the level of magnificence and grandeur enjoyed by this great architectural, cultural and sacred edifice.

These repair works were carried out within the artistic and financial potentials available at the time of their performance but they often lacked necessary research, expertise and sophisticated technology.

A turning point in the modern history of the Omayyad Mosque was marked on 6.10.1991 when late President Hafez Assad, President of the Syrian Arab Republic, issued Presidential Decision No. 36, providing for the formation of a Committee comprising prominent historians, archeologists and engineers assigned with the duty of repairing and renovating this significant edifice and recovering the beauty and magnificence of the mosque as it was first erected by al-Walid bin Abdul Malik. The Committee was provided with big funds and necessary technical support and full patronage by the late President Hafez Assad. Thanks to the potentials accorded to the said Committee, it was able to accomplish the numerous tasks in best performance after five years from date of issuance of the Presidential Decision No. 36.

Based on the great attention attached by late President Hafez Assad to preserve the country’s cultural and historical monuments, particularly Arab Islamic heritage as represented splendidly and beautifully in the Great Omayyad Mosque of Damascus, the finest in construction in the Arab and Muslim world and the noblest in beauty, grace and perfection, the Committee accomplished 95 works of different types, including art, construction, architecture, decoration and services.

During the execution of restoration works for the Omayyad Mosque, the Committee took into consideration the necessity to realize the points listed below:

- Maintain the basic functions of the mosque (religiously, culturally and socially speaking) and employ modern technologies to upgrade the performance of these functions;

- Maintain and preserve the originality of the mosque and its historical value to remain an edifice for coming generations as the most important Arab Islamic monument;

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- Maintain the exact balance between preserving the originality of the mosque and its basic functions on the one hand, and renovation and modernization on the other;

- Prepare precise scientific research and study based on historical and archeological documents before the execution of repair and restoration works.

For achieving optimal results, the Committee formed ad hoc engineering work groups of indigenous expertise in the various disciplines supported by local experts in the fields of archeology, plastic arts and handicrafts. Under the mentioned Presidential Decision, emphasis was laid on renovating the Omayyad Mosque to remain the masterpiece of all monuments. A detailed study conducted by the Committee revealed that several sections and parts of the mosque were in a poor state of restoration, including roofs, ceilings, walls and minarets. The Committee used to convene on a regular basis and held seminars with the participation of competent university professors, members of the Damascus Friendship Society, experts in the various areas of engineering, archeology and art. This team of scholars was briefed on the Committee’s plans, agenda and all other details of relevance to the restoration works of the Omayyad Mosque. The Committee underlined the necessity for taking into account the international standards in connection with reinforcing the existing monuments in conformity with the state of the Omayyad Mosque. Emphasis was also laid on finding optimal solutions which would guarantee the safety of the Omayyad Mosque to remain a place of worship, a glorious landmark of the country and an important tourist attraction.

The Committee established personal and official contacts and held meetings with a number of Arab and foreign experts in the field of restoration and preservation of antiquities to discuss the approaches followed in renovation and maintenance of several renowned world monuments.

The restoration works, repairs and development of infrastructure of the Omayyad Mosque included, inter alia, foundations of the building as well as the water-supply and sewerage systems. The efforts also included repair of the derelict western minaret and the tower on which it rests, the four external walls, roofs and ceilings of the prayer hall, colonnades, arcades and a number of the column bases deformed as a result of fires and water. A number of problems facing the mosque were also addressed and resolved: groundwater, water leakage, damaged lead-made sheets

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attached to the roofs as well as some of the damaged timbers were all repaired. Lighting of the mosque was modernized and equipped with electronic safety systems against lightning, fire alarms, temperature and acoustics control systems. Services and utilities were also improved in this sacred place which receives tens of thousands of visitors every day.

It is interesting to know that major landmarks of the Great Omayyad Mosque, its original architecture outline and Omayyad-building style have not changed appearance since the mosque was first erected by al-Walid until today in spite of the series of restoration works applied to the building and the successive accidents and catastrophes that befell this historical edifice.

All restoration works applied to the mosque under Presidential Decision 36 shall be concisely explained in view of the urgent need to repair certain sections which had not been handled in the successive restoration works carried out throughout the history of the 14-century-old mosque.

Restoration Works

1- Restoration of Stone Sections and Stone Walls

A) Construction restoration to stop dereliction of certain stone sections and stone walls which had been hit by earthquakes:

• Restoration of growing cracks in certain walls resulting from leakage of the old sewerage and water supply networks, which led to a land slide and leakage of water into the walls.

• Treatment of stone erosion and cracking resulting from natural factors over the centuries: sunrays, winds, rains, etc.

• Filling gaps left by stones fallen or removed from their place.

• Restoring/replacing ramshackle architecture elements, including capitals of columns along with the bases and buttresses.

• Washing stone façades along with their elements of architecture, decoration and carvings by ways of no effect to their historical value.

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• Coating the stones with substances resistant to natural factors.

B) Treatment of leaning walls: The process was carried out in light of the topographical report and the construction outline:

• Reinforcing foundations of leaning sections.

• Dismantling leaning parts of the walls and rebuilding them in light of the outlines drawn before removing these stones, and on the basis of the topographical report.

• Raising the wall to a higher level after marking pieces of stone and stone stripes with numbers as a guide for the re-erection process.

• Lining up stones on the ground according to numbered marks and place on the wall.

• Examining, evaluating and sorting out the stones into the following categories:

(1) Damaged stones: They were replaced by stones of identical dimensions and specifications.

(2) Cracked stones: They were cut and used in place of smaller dimensions.

(3) Slipped stones: They were treated and re-used.

(4) Stones with dilapidated surface: Worn-out layers were removed, then re-set in their original place.

The repair works mentioned above were limited to the locations listed below:

• Section of the northern wall, east of the Minaret of Jesus and south of the Madrasa (School) Shamisyatiya.

• Section of the western façade facing the shrine of Abu Bakr.

• Two walls of the southern and western tower overlooking the south and west sides of the mosque.

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• Eight meters of the upper part of the western minaret (Qaitbey Minaret).

• Eastern wall of the mausoleum of Ali (Head of al-Hussain) – the grand hall of the shrine itself.

• The eastern section of the south wall.

C) Stone bases of columns at the western arcade:

The bases of these colonnades were restored according to depth of dilapidation and their construction state. Completely worn-out bases were replaced by identical bases in terms of dimensions and appearance, while restorable ones were treated by replacing missing parts either with stone or other restoration materials.

D) Sources of Stone for Restoration Works:

• Source (1): Dismantled stones.

• Source (2): New stones of specifications identical with the older dilapidated ones in terms of colour and solidity. They were cross cut and exactly laid in place. It was found out that stones from quarries at Mount Qasyuon best fit certain sections under restoration, colour and quality-wise.

2- Restoration and Repair of Sloping Roofs, Lead-Covered Roofs of Arcades, Wooden Doors and Windows:

A thorough check of the lead-made roofs revealed that large areas were damaged and leaking due to the 90-year-old manufacture of these roofs, which were treated as follows:

(1) The lead fusion furnace was re-operated for lead sheets dismantled from the roofs and re-cast them in sheets measuring 2m long and 2-3mm thick.

(2) Dilapidated timber was replaced by quality timber. Mud layers were also replaced and older clay was changed by placing fresh clay with high portion of thatch and straw, on which lead sheets were reinstalled in their original form.

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(3) Treating roof timbers: Rafters and other construction timber elements of gabled roofs at the prayer hall, the Mausoleum of al-Husain and other roofs of the colonnaded walkways are considered invaluable for their unusual lengths and diameters as well as for their durability. Being very difficult to produce similar ones today, these 90-year-old gable roofs were cleaned and treated with anti-woodworm and erosion resistant substances.

(4) Wooden doors and windows of the prayer hall were repaired, treated and re-painted. Restoration works for woodwork were generally performed with care and attention in order to preserve their archeological value by treating reparable woodwork and coating them with insulating substance against organic and environmental effects.

3- Restoration Works

(A) Major brass-coated doors were cleaned and treated, and missing parts were also replaced.

(B) Stucco-ornate windows were repaired and provided with missing parts of stained glass.

(C) The mosaic workshop was re-operated to produce necessary mosaics required for missing pieces and parts of the mosaic-work under restoration. Technical teams were properly trained to perform this work, given its historical importance.

(D) Ceilings with coloured surfaces and painted with emboss decorations (known as A'jami) were all restored.

(E) Visible and hidden marble and wood decorations inside the prayer hall and the courtyard were all cleaned and coated with preservative substance.

(F) Kashani decorative tiles were restored, and missing tiles at the entrance adjacent to al-Miskiyya quarter were all replaced.

(G) Granite columns at the western gateway and the arcades were all restored along with the capitals of these columns.

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(H) Efforts were made to prevent pigeons from building their nests inside the prayer hall.

Newly Constructed Sections Include:

1- The Fountain

Outlines were drawn for this fountain based on both photographs taken at the beginning of the 20th century and archeological account of this fountain, which was rebuilt exactly as the original fountain with stone and wood.

2- State and Treatment of the Southwestern Minaret before Restoration

It was observed that the southwestern minaret was in a poor condition, where the minaret itself had leaned, while stones of its upper part had dilapidated and eroded. It was in danger of collapse, threatening the mosque and the neighbourhood. A lean of 15.5 cm was recorded in the axis of the upper part of the minaret. Verticality of the two shafts – lower and middle shafts – of the minaret was examined. Stability of the minaret was also monitored during and after dismantling its upper part. It was found out that axes of the middle and lower shafts were not vertical on each other. Calculations also revealed nonconformity of the two axes and absence of centrality between the two mentioned shafts. The center of the middle shaft changed direction at 3.5 cm off the center of the lower shaft towards the southwestern side at an estimated vertex of 260 grades. The tumbledown 12m-high upper part of the minaret was dismantled and rebuilt with the original fitting stones, while the interior of the minaret was reinforced without changing its appearance.

3- State and Treatment of the Tower beneath the Southwestern Minaret

Curves of equal deformity showed a lean of 30 cm extending over a length of 10m in the south section of the wall under the minaret. Examination of the foundations of the tower proved they were safe. The tower was dismantled after its stones were marked with numbers and documented in photographs. The tower was then re-erected exactly as it was, using approximately 90% of its original stones, and only worn-out or completely damaged pieces were replaced with the same type of the original stones.

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4- State and treatment of the west wall

This wall was originally roofless being part of the inner wall of the ancient temple itself before emergence of Christianity and Islam. This was unanimously approved by opinions and observation of the construction style, and also in writings by Arab historians: Ibn Kathir's "The Beginning and End", al-Nu'aimi's "Learner in the Schools", and Ja'far's "Hasani and Secular Investigation" by Saladin al-Munajid (1947).

Some of the stone pieces damaged and deformed as a result of fire and natural factors were replaced in accordance with the basics set for the stones of the wall by the Antiquities and Museums Department in collaboration with the Ministry of Awqaf (Religious Affairs).

The whitewashed brick-made barrier lately built in the far side of the western façade was removed and replaced by a newly built wall of the same shape as estimated to be standing in the façade when the mosque was first constructed by Omayyad Caliph al-Walid bin Abdul Malik. To accomplish this talks carefully, the following steps were made:

1- Capitals of the wall's piers were repaired or replaced with stone. These capitals are of Canaanite origin which were common in Syria in the 5th

century BC.

2- The crenellated cornice was completed all along the west façade. The ancient architrave of the wall was crowned with the cornice which was kept unchanged by al-Walid as mentioned in Arab historical sources.

All these items were subject to classical Tuscan standards, where the height of the piers (pillars) are sevenfold their diameter, and the radius measures one module at an average of 82.5 cm, whereas components extending from bottom to top and resting on the capitals of the pillars should be one-fourth of the height of these pillars, i.e. (14 modules ÷ 4 = 3 modules and 6 parts).

An architrave (protruding 10 cm off the façade) with crenellated cornice was found at the bottom of the tower and it must have had extended all along the façade. The architrave is overtopped with a plain frieze free of engravings. There is only an 84 cm-high stripe of decorations and another stripe of the same measurement on top instead of the cornice. These components achieve the classical standard at the west façade. The information listed below proves the accuracy of theses measurements:

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1- The Tuscan system adopted in the façade provides that components above the capital are one-fourth of the column's height.

2- Most importantly, there was a trace at the northwestern corner of the tower of a height corresponding to the aforementioned proportion. The trace became clearer on the wall when the old stone stripes added to the depth of the said wall of the tower were dismantled. The upper edge of the wall was finished with the traditional Omayyad chalice-like cornice which crowns the façades of the mosque, with the addition of one-module-high crenellations.

Crenellations

Decorative stair-like crenellations crowning the west wall of the Omayyad Mosque are found in different types in all mosques of the world, past and present. The crenellations standing in the top edges of the Omayyad Mosque's walls are self-evident and highly documented: they were mentioned in the accounts of the Omayyad Mosque made by Dusou and Sauvaget, and verified by perception, archeological evidence, paintings and drawings.

As far as archeological evidence is concerned, the crenellations in their late form can be seen today crowning the wall of the southwestern tower next to Qaitbey Minaret. There is also an early 18th-century painting of the Omayyad Mosque by Russian artist Barsky portraying the walls of the mosque crowned with decorative stair-like crenellations. Furthermore, historical texts – like al-Maqdisi's "The Best Divisions for Knowledge of the Regions" - clearly indicated to the presence of crenellations in the Omayyad Mosque. Ibn Taghri Burdi also said that an earthquake hit Damascus in 233 Hijra and pulled down the crenellations of the Omayyad Mosque, while Abdul Latif Baghdadi said a tremor hit Damascus in 598 Hijra and resulted in the collapse of 18 crenellations in the Omayyad Mosque. Ibn al-Azraq al-Fariqi also said that one of the crenellations of the Omayyad Mosque killed one man when it fell on him in an earthquake.

The shape of the crenellations recently mounted on the west wall of the Great Omayyad Mosque in Damascus apparently belongs in origin to the Omayyad acute-angled pattern as compared to similar designs commonly found in the Cordoba Mosque and the al-Hir al-Gharbi (west) Palace – two of the landmarks of the Omayyad architecture. Unfortunately, many voices rose against rebuilding of the crenellations based on the desire to

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retain the appearance of the west wall as it used to be during the pagan era and the calcified brick link added to the wall even without the ornamental Omayyad chalice-like cornice, which borders the top edge of the south wall and is also found round the top inside edges of the wall in the prayer hall. But the call seemed unreasonable and unjustifiable as it apparently ignored the aesthetics of the wall and the central role played by the Omayyad Mosque as one of the most prestigious and solemnest milestones of Islam.

Essentials Followed in Studying the West Façade of the Mosque

(I) The presence of one tower at the south side rounds off the components of the mosque (tower, minaret, roof of the prayer hall and dome), laying emphasis on the focal formation in the direction of "qibla".

(II) A thorough study of the intact section of the west façade revealed that all components matched classical aesthetic standards. Consequently, the same standards were applied while completing the missing section of this façade by adding an elevation equal to one-fourth of the height of columns.

Details of the section:

1- Completing the part resting at the base of the southwest tower, which consists of a plain stripe at a height of IM=83cm overtopped by a cornice measuring 6P=40cm all along the façade.

2- Completing missing sections:

- A stone stripe at a height of IM=83cm, which represents the frieze, replacing figures with verses from the Holy Koran.

- An Omayyad-style cornice at a height of IM=83cm identical with the cornice found on the south and west sides of the mosque (the wall of the arcade immediately coming after the façade). The total of these three components results in 3M, 5P=1/4 of the height of the column.

3- Addition of the crenellations which were standing throughout the history of mosque at a height of IM=83cm. The crenellations were elevated up the cornice by means of a stone base sloping backward at a height of 2P, which is the approach adopted to clearly demonstrate the section above the cornice.

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State of the South Side of the Mosque

Obviously seen deformations in the south wall of the Omayyad Mosque before restoration were generally limited to three different sections:

1- The western section of this wall up to the wall of the mihrab showed a deviation of 35cm in its track over a distance of 35m southward. A vertical lean of 25cm over a vertical distance of 12.5m southward was also observed at the western section of the south entrance of the mosque.

2- Horizontal deviations at the middle section, which forms the south wall of the mihrab, were almost absent, while vertical slopes reached up to 12cm in the western side and 30cm at the eastern corner of this section. The middle section also showed a decline in the central part while deviation in track remained at an average of 25cm over a distance of 20m southward. Vertical slopes of maximum 10cm, on the other hand, were detected in the center of this section. A decline of maximum 15cm in a limited area of 4 sq.m. was found in the western part of the upper triangular section of the wall.

3- The eastern bottom section of the wall starting from the wall of the mihrab up to the shaft of the minaret showed two slight declines at a distance of 17m and 28m respectively from the eastern corner of the wall of the mihrab. Vertical slopes of 28cm extending over a distance of 12m southward were also detected in this section. But greater vertical slopes southward estimated at 28cm over a distance of 8m were found in an area adjacent to the shaft of the Minaret of Jesus.

Reinforcement of the South Side of the Mosque

In light of the observations and examination of the state of stones of the south façade of the Omayyad Mosque and also on the basis of the topographical report prepared to this effect, the following points were identified:

1- Western and eastern wings of the south wall:

a) A vertical lean southward estimated at 25cm over a vertical distance of 12.5m was found in certain sections of the western wall.

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b) Another vertical slope southward estimated at maximum 22cm over 12m was also observed in certain sections of the eastern wing of the wall.

c) The majority of stones in the bottom section of the wall had undergone natural erosion and corrosion, leaving outer surfaces in a poor condition and in certain locations, the dilapidation was as deep as 8cm, bringing the stones to crumbling even by the bare hand.

d) Most of the piers, whose height amounts to half the overall height of the wall, had their stones either lost or crumbled and generally left with a protrusion of maximum 17cm only.

2- The middle section of the wall which forms the wall of the mihrab:

a) There were vertical slopes of maximum 12cm in the western corner and 25cm in the eastern corner at the bottom part of the middle section.

b) Similar vertical slopes of maximum 10cm southward were also traced in the central part of the middle section of the wall.

c) The triangular section of the upper part marked vertical slopes of approximately 13cm over a vertical distance of 5m, as well as a deviation in track of the wall itself southward.

d) Cracks as wide as 3cm were obviously seen between stones of the bottom part of the upper triangle resulting from deviation southward.

e) Two-centimeter-wide cracks were also found between stones of the two perpendicular upper walls at the triangular section of the south wall itself, although these two walls had been previously reinforced by short metal clamps.

In light of the results reached through observations and calculations, the upper triangle section of the south wall proved to be in an unsafe construction state. Moreover, the bottom parts all along the wall in both its eastern and western wings were in an urgent need for reinforcement to ensure safety of the wall, particularly after the stone pillars and buttresses, which formed an important supporting factor to the wall in general, had been dilapidated and disappeared.

Accordingly, precise construction analyses of the wall components were conducted through the application of the most international sophisticated and advanced approaches of relevance and the help of computers, taking

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into consideration the composition of the wall, the quality of its stones and their weak linkup and junction in certain locations, or absence of such sturdiness elsewhere.

Necessary construction solutions were worked out to guarantee the safety of the wall in its various sections being exposed to vertical effects resulting from wind pressure as well as other effects likely to rise from potential earthquakes and tremours. It may also be noted in this respect that the wall had been hit by several earthquakes which affected its vertical position and created permanent slopes in certain locations.

Reinforcement of the Triangular Section of the South Side of the Mosque

Reinforcement of this section included the elements listed below:

1- Four internal metal clamps above the flat decorated ceiling of the prayer hall. These clamps join the southern triangular upper section with the stone pillars supporting the dome, while the clamps are fixed at their end with to the northern triangular façade of the mosque.

Metal sheets were fixed to the areas of the two southern and northern upper triangles to ensure necessary linkup of stones from both the sides. The metal sheets and clamps were fixed to the stones by means of high-traction metal wedges. Stones indirectly linked to the metal sheets or wedges were fixed in situ by friction power generated by their neighbours of attached stones. Metal sheets in the form of a splint were used as links for the clamps, which were reinforced when fixed to the walls by angle-irons fastened with metal screws. Similarly, the sheets fixed to the two triangles of the south and north walls were reinforced by angle-irons and flat bars to achieve necessary strength. These are also linked to the side walls by subsidiary metal clamps.

2- External metal clamps which consist of long flat bars fixed to the four perpendicular outer walls of the south and north sides of the mosque. These clamps were placed next to the older clamps with the high-traction metal wedges submerged in the epoxy substance before fixture.

3- All clamps and other reinforcement elements were coated in rust-resistant substance.

4- External clamps were coated in paint identical with the older clamps.

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5- All interior reinforcement metal elements as well as wooden elements (gables and the underoof ceiling resting on the decorated ceiling above the mihrab) were coated in a layer of fiberglass protected outwardly with tin paperboard to provide necessary safety against fire.

Reinforcement of the Bottom Section of the Wall in both Eastern and Western Wings

Reinforcement elements include the following:

1- Fourteen piers built in place of the older ones and exactly in their original form. The newly-built piers run up to the end of the bottom section of the wall with the same height of the older piers, i.e. a maximum of 6m at the highest point above ground level.

2- Supporting piers consist of reinforced concrete section wrapped all around with 15cm-thick stones similar in quality to stones of the south wall of the mosque.

3- Supporting piers run underground maintaining their section as deep as 2m below ground level. They are also wrapped all around with 15cm-thick stones as a precautionary measure for potential slide of ground level near the wall in the future.

4- Supporting piers extend at a depth of 2m below surface level to become an integral part of the original foundations of the wall.

5- The piers increase the strength of the south wall at its bottom section which bears maximum loads, and this boosts the bearing power of the wall as a whole against horizontal stress resulting from earthquakes, thus sustaining stability in spite of the permanent slopes and leans found in some of the sections of the wall.

6- The concrete section of the piers joins the wall by the iron wedges after being submerged in the epoxy substance, thus realizing integration in the joint concrete-stone function. Stones wrapping the piers also serve as an integral part of the piers themselves fused with a reinforcement grid for fixture of stones.

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Reinforcement of Horizontal Wooden Elements (Rafters) for Gables of the Ceiling of the Prayer Hall

Vertical wooden elements joining rafters of the gables in the ceiling of the prayer hall showed that certain parts had been worn out due to infection by woodworm and humidity. They were, therefore, treated by chemical substances and reinforced to serve as clamps for the gables. Such wooden clamps (placed inside the linear wood boxes across the ceiling) were reinforced by hidden parallel horizontal iron clamps to bear the traction force if the wooden sections grew weaker in the course of time.

Repair and Restoration of Stones at the Bottom Section of the South Wall

Corrosion and dilapidation of the external surface of stones at the bottom section of the south wall necessitated a way to guarantee the construction safety of the wall and avoid further deterioration. All stones were, therefore, treated by removing the 10cm-thick dilapidated outer layer and replaced by a new layer of similar quality and fixed in situ by wedges and strong plaster. The whole wall was later coated in a chemical substance resistant to fracture and weather factors.

Restoration of Stone Columns along with their Bases

Several columns were restored at the west side of the courtyard of the mosque, replacing their worn-out support metal rings with new ones of identical shape. Stone bases of eight columns were also replaced in the west side of the courtyard.

Many of the columns along with their bases were cracked and dilapidated as a result of natural factors, fires and earthquakes undergone by the mosque over the centuries. A number of these columns contained either crumbled parts or bulging spots with hollows within, a thing which negatively affected their construction solidity. Similarly, the bases of these columns were in a very poor state, either worn out, cracked or even broken up. Some of them, however, had been previously subject to poor restoration with mosaics.

Seriously cracked or damaged stone bases of these columns were, therefore, replaced by new bases of similar design. The columns

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themselves were restored either by grinding their crumbled and cracked parts and re-paste them using the epoxy plaster, replicating an appearance similar to the original one. New support metal rings were also added to the columns as they used to be in the past.

It may be said that restoration works for the stone arches, vaults and columns were all successful and even exceptional in the history of restoration of antiquities in Syria.

Restoration of Entrance Marquees

The marquees listed below were totally absent before restoration:

1- Marquee of the west entrance (main entrance).2- Marquee of the south entrance (Bab al-Ziyada).3- Marquee of the north entrance.

The new marquees are made of wood-covered steel fixed to the stone walls by steel wedges along with epoxy-injected plaster.

A- Mausoleums of Abu Bakr, Othman and al-Hussein:

Envelopment of ceilings, cladding of walls and flooring were thoroughly re-evaluated and studied based on designing outlines – including measurements and dimensions of arched vaults, windows and doors - drawn for each of these mausoleums, giving special attention to Arab Islamic architecture in general, and Omayyad architecture in particular.

B- Mausoleum of al-Hussein (3 halls):

The first of the three halls, which altogether form the Mausoleum of al-Hussein, was treated in the same approach mentioned above. Special treatment was also given to slopes found in the eastern wall of the hall, where its northern section was reinforced and slopes treated properly.

The dilapidated wooden ceiling of the central hall was dismantled, treated and re-installed. Based on the perception of the original hall, it was re-claded and decorated with wood/marble works, retaining the original variegated marble.

C- Al-Hussein's Head Hall:

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Original wall marbling was kept in place, but restored in its upper section. The marble was cleaned and re-gilded. Skylights and windows of the dome were changed, while metal-coated doors were treated properly.

Flooring of al-Miskiya Entrance

A detailed study was conducted in light of a grid based on distances among columns and the proportions deduced from these measurements for paving of the entrance with white and coloured marble. The study was carried out precisely and beautifully.

Extra Works

1- Repair and maintenance of water supply system, including the old canals.

2- Repair of the rainwater drainage network available on the roofs of the mosque.

3- Installation of a fire alarm system; distribution of fire fighting water holes inside and outside the mosque. A water tank with a capacity of 60 cubic meters was installed outside the mosque and was also linked to three reserve water wells.

4- Electricity works:

- Interior lighting for the prayer hall.- Special lighting along with TV filming equipment were set for ceremonial purposes.- Re-distribution of lighting elements inside the prayer hall to fit the space of the place.- Decorative lighting system to fill the building blocks of the mosque and its interior/exterior architectural components with light at night.- Hi-tech acoustic system, inside and outside the mosque.

5- A heating system was designed for the prayer hall and mausoleums, involving underfloor heating network which proved to be the optimal solution for the mosque as compared with the traditional heating systems. The reason is that large spaces require high heating sources, and traditional heating systems normally make hot air currents move upward rather than being distributed horizontally all over the space. The

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accumulated hot air up to ceiling will leave an adverse impact on rafters and other wood parts of the ceiling in the course of time. It has been found out that underfloor heating systems adopted in various religious and cultural complexes are more effective, safer and more economical. In underfloor heating, the temperature of the floor surface does not exceed 35° and as a result, the air is heated and distributed gradually and comfortably in an even and horizontal way. The new system was also provided with necessary safety factors for potential problems or accidents. The new system, which can be controlled by operating certain sections to accommodate the number of people offering prayer, was supplied to the following parts of the mosque:

- The VIP lounge (Mausoleum of Othman).- Mausoleum of Abu Bakr (previously the ablution fountain).- Mausoleum of al-Hussein.- The main wooden attics (suddah).- The right side of the prayer hall.- The ladies' wooden attics (suddah).

Studies and Works in Areas Surrounding the Omayyad Mosque

A thorough study was conducted for necessary harmony between the architecture of the Omayyad Mosque and surrounding areas, starting from al-Miskiya plaza which forms an important aesthetic factor for the west façade of the mosque.

The historical importance of the adjacent Kallasa quarter, which holds the tomb of Saladin and other historical Madrasa (religious school) buildings, prompted the Omayyad Mosque Restoration Committee to create a passageway extending from the west façade of the mosque up to north entrance of Kallasa quarter. Part of the northeastern tower of the mosque, which was occupied as a residential place, was evacuated. An ablution fountain facility provided with lukewarm water supply was also built in the same location, replacing the ablution facility previously located within the Mausoleum of Abu Bakr. It was imperative to shift this facility outside the wall of the mosque on account of the fact that it threatened the construction safety of the building of the mosque.

In view of the historical and religious significance of the Omayyad Mosque, which is regarded not only as a place of worship, but also as an educational institution of religious affairs and letters, the Committee set up a building in the northeastern corner bordering the mosque as a center named after the late President Hafez Assad who initiated the effort of

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restoring the mosque: "Al-Assad Center for Higher Islamic Research and Studies". Activities of this Center revolve around Islamic heritage, architecture and religious affairs with the aim of projecting the vital role played by the Arab Islamic civilization in general, and Bilad al-Sham in particular. The "Al-Assad Center for Higher Islamic Research and Studies" along with the comprehensive restoration works of the Omayyad Mosque have revived the essential historical role of the mosque as one of the most well known standing monuments of the world, a permanent milestone of Arab Islamic civilization and a source of heritage for all humanity.

Historians’ Accounts of the Omayyad Mosque

Over the centuries, many descriptions and accounts were made by Arab and western historians, travelers and geographers lauding the grandeur of this sacred and historical building of the Omayyad Mosque. In his book titled "The Animal' (Al-Hayawan), al-Jahez said "The Damascene people say: whenever we think of our mosque, the construction of our mihrab and the dome of our haram (prayer hall), they drive us into meditation … opened our eyes for unique beauties we have never beheld before … marvelous craftsmanship that we have never come across…"

In other writings, al-Jahez also said: "The ancestors said there should be no people most eager to be in Paradise than the Damascenes for what they see of splendour of their mosque."

Ibn Asakir, a renowned historian who visited the Omayyad Mosque in 432 Hijra described it as "It is the novelty of age and rarity of all time. By building this mosque, the Omayyads left an everlasting monument."

In his book titled "The Travels of Ibn Jubair", which included a remarkable account of the Great Omayyad Mosque of Damascus - worth quoting at good length - Ibn Jubair, a Spanish-Arab historian and traveler, said:

"The Mosque of Damascus is the fairest of any that the Muslims now hold. From whatever quarter you approach the city, you see this dome, high above all else, as though suspended in the air. No spiders ever spin their webs in the mosque, nor do any swallows ever nest there.

Its mihrab is the most wonderful in Islam for its beauty and rare art, and the whole of it gleams with gold. Within it are small mihrabs adjoining its

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wall and surrounded by small columns, voluted like a bracelet as if done by a turner, than which nothing more beautiful could be seen, some of them being red as coral.

The interior was embellished with gold and multi-colored mosaic, 74 stained-glass windows, and marble columns - and the mosque employed 70 muezzins." Ibn Jubair goes on in his description of the Great Omayyad Mosque, saying: "It has four gates. The eastern door, called the Jayntn door, is the largest of the doors of the mosque. It has a large passage, leading out to an extensive colonnade, which is entered through a quintuple gateway between six tall columns. Along both sides of this passage are pillars supporting circular galleries, where the cloth merchants, among others, have their shops. Above these are long galleries in which are the shops of the jewelers and booksellers and makers of admirable glassware. In the square adjoining the first door are the stalls of the principal notaries, in each of which there may be five or six witnesses in attendance and a person authorized by the qadi to perform marriage ceremonies. Near these bazaars are the stalls of the stationers who sell paper, pens, and-ink.... To the right as one comes out of the Jayrun door, which is also called "The Door of the Hours," is an upper gallery shaped like a large arch, within which are small open arches furnished with doors, to the number of the hours of the day. These doors are painted green on the inside and yellow on the outside. As each hour of the day passes the green inner side of the door is turned to the outside. There is a person inside the room responsible for turning them by hand....

On your right hand, coming out of the Bab Jairun, in the wall of the portico fronting you, is a gallery, which has the form of a great archway, and set around it are arches of brass, in which open small doors, in number according to the number of the hours of the day. Through the working of a piece of mechanism, when one hour of the day is passed, there fall two weights of brass from the mouths of two falcons fashioned in brass, who stand above two brazen cups, set one under each of the birds. One of the falcons is below the first of the doors, and the second below the last of them. Now the cups are perforated, and as soon as the balls have fallen, they run back through a hole in the wall to the gallery. The falcons appear to extend their necks when holding the balls, leaning towards the cups, and to throw the balls off with quick motion, so wondrous to see that one would imagine it was magic. With the falling of the two balls into the two cups, there is heard a sound (as of striking) a bell: and thereupon the doorway, which pertains to the hour that has elapsed, is shut with a brass door. A similar action goes on for each of the hours of the day; and when all the hours of the day are passed, all the

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doors are shut. When all the day hours are passed, the mechanism returns to its first condition. For the hours of the night they have another mechanism.

In the bow of the great arch, which goes over the small arches (with the doors), just mentioned, are twelve circles cut out in the brass, and over each of these openings, in the wall of the gallery, is set a plate of glass. This is all so arranged as to lie behind the doors (for the day hours) above mentioned. Behind each glass is a lamp glass, which is water set to run for the space of one hour. When the hour is past, the light of the lamp coming down, illumines the glass, and the rays shine out of the round opening in front of it, and it appears to the sight of a red circle. This same happens to each circle in turn, till all the hours of the night are passed, and then all the circles have red light in them. There are eleven workmen (belonging to the mosque) who attend to this gallery, and keep the mechanism in order, and see the opening of the doors, and the running back of the weights into their proper places. This (piece of mechanism) is what people call al-Mikanikiyah.

The courtyard is a lively center of social life. There is always a concourse of townspeople, coming to meet and converse pleasurably every evening. You may see them coming and going from east to west ... walking and talking."

During his visit to Damascus, Ibn Jubair also reported the high number and varied facilities for foreign students and visitors at the Umayyad Mosque, and he himself encouraged students from Spain to go east for education. Ibn Jubair held that “… Anyone in the West who seeks success, let him come to this city (Damascus) to study, because assistance here is abundant. The chief thing is that the student here is relieved of all worry about food and lodging, which is a great help."

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CONTENTS

• Function of the Mosque in Islam• Temple of Hadad• Temple of Jupiter

• The Church• The Omayyad Mosque before Al-Walid bin Abdul Malik

• Al-Walid’s Mosque• Outline and Sections of the Mosque• Gates of the Mosque• Courtyard and Colonnades of the Mosque• The Prayer Hall• Mausoleums• Minarets of the Omayyad Mosque• Mosaic Decorations of the Omayyad Mosque• Mosaic Industry• Mosaic Themes• Marble-work at the Omayyad Mosque• Political and Cultural Role of the Omayyad Mosque• Misfortunes and Calamities Undergone by the Omayyad Mosque• Restoration Works• Newly Constructed Sections Include:• Crenellations• Essentials Followed in Studying the West Façade of the Mosque• State of the South Side of the Mosque• Reinforcement of Horizontal Wooden Elements (Rafters) for

Gables of the Ceiling of the Prayer Hall• Repair and Restoration of Stones at the Bottom Section of the

South Wall• Restoration of Stone Columns along with their Bases• Restoration of Entrance Marquees• Flooring of al-Miskiya Entrance• Extra Works• Studies and Works in Areas Surrounding the Omayyad Mosque• Historians’ Accounts of the Omayyad Mosque

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