The Great War/World War I (WWI)

1914-1918

U.S. Entry = 1917

Nationalism – belief that national interests and national unity should be placed ahead of global cooperation.◦ A nation’s foreign affairs should be guided by its own self-

interests.◦ France and Germany wanted to lead Europe

France had lost the Alsace-Lorraine region during the Franco-Prussian War of 1871 and wanted it back.

Germany wanted to protect industrialization by ensuring open markets and access to overseas territories.

◦ Russia was seen as a protector of the European Slavic people (ex. Serbs) Serbia (in the Balkans) was independent by many Serbs lived under

the Austro-Hungarian rule Russia and Austria-Hungary tried to influence Serbia

◦ Some ethnic groups wanted to have their own nations Czechs, Poles, etc.

Four Long Term Causes to WWI

Imperialism – expanding economic and political control◦ Linked to industrialization◦ Germany, France, and Britain wanted colonies that supplied raw

materials (cotton, oil, etc.) France and Britain nearly fought over Africa Russo-Japanese War over Korea and Manchuria

Militarism – development of armed forces and their use as a tool of diplomacy◦ Empires are expensive to maintain – budgets rose◦ 1890 – Germany was the strongest militarily in Europe and the

British had the strongest navy in the world.◦ Germany wanted to build a strong navy◦ Soon Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Japan, and the U.S. were in

a naval arms race and military build-up.

Long Term Causes continued…

Alliance System – all of this tension led nations to sign alliance treaties to help the other in case of attack◦ By 1914 there were two major alliances:

Triple Entente (Allies) – France, Great Britain, Russia Russia also had an alliance with Serbia

Triple Alliance – Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy 1915 – Italy joined Allies for promised territory Germany, and Austria-Hungary later joined with the

Ottoman Empire to form the Central Powers.

Long Term Causes continued…

Balkan Peninsula (“Powder Keg of Europe”)◦ Surrounded by Black Sea, Adriatic Sea, Mediterranean Sea, and the

Aegean Sea◦ Many countries had interests there:

Russia wanted access to the Mediterranean Sea Germany wanted a Railroad to the Ottoman Empire Austria-Hungary (annexed Bosnia in 1908) objected to Serbia encouraging

Bosnian rejection of their rule June 28, 1914 – assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (in

Sarajevo)◦ Heir to the Austrian throne◦ Gavrilo Princip (member of a secret society aiming to unite all Serbs

under one government) shot Ferdinand and his wife◦ Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia (others followed)

Russia mobilized troops to help Serbia Germany declared war on Russia to help Austria-Hungary and then France Great Britain declared war on Germany and Austria-Hungary to help France

Assassination Sparks War

Germany invaded Belgium on August 4, 1914◦ Schlieffen Plan – plan to avoid a two-front war by

concentrating troops in the west and quickly defeating the French and then, if necessary, rushing those troops by rail to the East to face Russia.

◦ Late 1914-early 1915 trench warfare became a big factor (essentially a stalemate/deadlocks throughout Europe) First Battle of Somme (July 1 – November 1916)

Britain lost 60,000 troops on the first day By the end there were 1.2 million casualties, but only 7

miles of ground had changed hands. 650,000 German, 420,000 British, 200,000 French

Fighting Begins

1914 – Americans saw this as a European war 3,000 miles away, not involving us.◦ Imperialist struggle between Germany and England◦ Pacifist saw war as evil◦ Sympathy for nations involved

German atrocities – killing women and children◦ Naturalized citizens had ties to their native origins (Germans, Irish,

French, etc.)◦ Connection with British

Common ancestry, language, democratic institutions and legal systems◦ Strong economic ties to allies (traded twice as much with them than

with Germany) TNT, cannon powder, copper wire, etc.

1916 – Wilson was elected because he “kept us out of war”

America Neutral (until 1917)

1917 U.S. mobilized for war◦ Ensure the allies paid back their debts◦ Prevent Germans from threatening U.S. shipping

British set up a blockade to keep military goods and food from Germany◦ American ships carrying goods for Germany refused to

challenge the blockade Germany found it difficult to import food and fertilizer (750,000

starved to death)◦ German U-Boats (Unterseebooten)/submarines

Any ship for Britain or allies was to be sunk (75,000 died at the hand of the U-Boats)

◦ Some Americans were mad about British blockade but more mad about the U-Boats Public opinion became more negative toward Germany

U.S. Enters War

May 7, 1915 the British carrier RMS Lusitania traveling from New York to Liverpool was sunk.◦ Torpedoed and sunk by a German U-Boat◦ 1,198 people were killed (128 were Americans)◦ Germans said the ship carried war materials (they had warned that they

would be sunk)◦ In the following months the U.S. stayed neutral, but more ships were sunk

and more Americans died Break off diplomatic relations with Germany unless they changed their tactics –

agreed under one condition: The U.S. had to persuade Britain to lift its blockade against food and fertilizers or else

Germany would renew unrestricted submarine warfare. 1917 – Zimmerman Note

◦ Written by the German foreign minister to the German Ambassador in Mexico – intercepted by British (in an attempt to keep the U.S. neutral or else, unrestricted submarine warfare would begin). Suggested an allegiance between Germany and Mexico if Mexico would fight the

U.S. for Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona President Wilson asked Congress to declare war – both houses declared war on

Germany and the U.S. entered WWI

Final Draw into War

German commander ordered trenches to be dug to protect troops from the advancing French and British troops. Allies couldn’t break through so they too dug trenches.

Germans dug in on the high ground◦ Tactical advantage and also forced the allies to live in worse

conditions.◦ Invariably found water 2-3 feet below the surface = never-ending

struggle against water and mud.◦ Much of the land was either sand or clay = water could not pass

through the clay and with the sand on top, trenches became waterlogged when it rained.

◦ Trenches were hard to dig and kept on collapsing.◦ Shells from guns and bombs made craters in the ground – rain filled

up the craters and then poured into the trenches.◦ Duck-boards were placed at the bottom of trenches to protect

soldiers against problems like trench foot.

Trench Warfare

Trench Foot – infection of the feet cause by cold, wet and unsanitary conditions.◦ Men stood for hours in the waterlogged trenches without being

able to remove wet socks or boots.◦ Feet would go numb and skin turned red or blue – untreated,

trench foot turned gangrenous and resulted in amputation.◦ Only remedy was for soldiers to dry their feet and change their

socks several times a day. Soldiers also had to cover their feet with a grease made of whale-oil (battalion used 10 gallons a day).

Rats – decomposing bodies and foot scraps attracted rats and a pair of rats can produce 880 offspring a year.◦ Some grew extremely large – eat a wounded man if he couldn’t

defend himself and took food from sleeping men.◦ 2-3 rats would be found in a dead body – went for the eyes first

and then burrowed their way into the corpse.

Dangers of Trench Warfare

Snipers – specifically trained marksmen who had rifles with telescopic sights.◦ German snipers crept out at dawn into no-man’s land and remained

their all day. Wore camouflaged clothing and used a fake tree for cover, they waited

for a British soldier to pop his head above the trench. Common trick: send up a kite with English writing – anyone who raised

his head to read it was shot. Shell-Shock – tiredness, irritability, giddiness, lack of

concentration and headaches and eventually mental breakdowns (PTSD) caused by enemy’s heavy artillery.◦ Bursting shell disturbs the cerebro-spinal fluid, which upsets the

working of the brain. Only cure was complete rest away from fighting – some officers were

sent home, however, the army was often less sympathetic (cowards trying to get out of fighting).

Dangers continued…

Poisonous gas was considered an uncivilized weapon and many were reluctant to use it.◦ French were the first to use – tear-gas grenades.◦ Germans began firing shrapnel shells in which the steel balls had been treated

with a chemical irritant◦ Chlorine gas cylinders – destroyed the respiratory organs and led to a slow

death by asphyxiation. Victim would cough and limited the intake of poison.

◦ Phosgene – small amount needed and usually killed its victims within 48 hours◦ Mustard Gas – (Germans) was most lethal – almost odorless and took 12 hours

to take effect. Remained in the soil and active for several weeks.◦ Bromine and chloropicrin – nerve gas

Allied troops were supplied with masks of cotton pads soaked in urine – ammonia in the pad neutralized the poison. ◦ Handkerchiefs, socks, flannel body-belt dampened with a solution of

bicarbonate of soda tied across the mouth and nose.◦ Was not until 1915 when efficient gas masks and anti-asphyxiation respirators

were given.

Gas Attacks

Raising of an army during WWI◦ Selective Service Act (draft) – required men to register with the

government in order to be randomly selected for service.◦ At the time of declaration, only 200,000 men were in service and

very few had combat experience.◦ 8 month training in U.S. and France – 17 hour days.◦ Women = nurses.

Increase ship production◦ Exempted shipyard workers from the draft/being deployed

(“deferred”)◦ Emphasized the importance of shipyard workers◦ Fabrication techniques – standardized parts were built elsewhere

and then assembled at the yard.◦ Government took over commercial and private ships to use them

in war.

How did the U.S. mobilize for War?

Convoy System – protected Allies’ merchant ships from being sunk by U-boats.◦ Heavy guard of destroyers escorted merchant ships

across the Atlantic.◦ Shipping losses were cut in half by 1917.◦ Helped to lay 230 miles of mines across the North

Sea from Scotland to Norway – bottle up U-boats to keep them out of the Atlantic.

New arrival of troops (U.S. troops)◦ Brought freshness and enthusiasm to exhausted and

demoralized Allied troops◦ Had already been fighting for 2 years

Battlefield Successes

American Expeditionary Force (AEF) – led by General John J. Pershing◦ Urged to be used and an independent fighting force not simply as

reinforcements.◦ Believed in aggressive combat (trenches made Allies too defensive)

New Weapons◦ Refined the machine gun (600 rounds/minute)◦ Tanks running on treads – mow-down barbed wire/soldiers and were built from

steal (bullet proof)◦ Airplanes with front-mounted machine guns and bombs (Zeppelins – floating

gas-filled airships)◦ Anti-aircraft guns and poison gases

All could attack more soldiers and cover greater distances – also a threat for civilians and communities

Medical Services – physical and emotional wounds◦ Improved methods of fighting infections◦ Skin-graft technology for gunshot wound to the face◦ Importance of rehabilitation◦ Filthy conditions, poison gases, lack of sleep, “shell shock”, trench

foot/mouth/fever

New Weapons and Medical Problems

Alvin York◦ Originally a conscientious objector (opposed war on moral grounds – Bible says,

“Thou Shall Not Kill”) – but realized it was morally acceptable to fight for a just cause.

◦ With just a rifle and a revolver in Meuse-Argonne, he killed 25 Germans and captured 132 prisoners.

Collapse of Germany◦ November 3, 1918 – Austria-Hungary surrendered and German sailors mutinied

against government authority to end fighting.◦ German republic was established and Kaiser Wilhelm gave up his throne.◦ Germans were too exhausted to continue fighting.◦ 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month in 1918 (11/11/1918)

Shocking numbers◦ 22 million deaths – more than half were civilians◦ 20 million wounded◦ 10 million more became refuges◦ Cost (directly) - $338 billion◦ New technology continues to advance, which means more harm and war related

wounds (physically and emotionally).

U.S. Offenses and the End of War

Saw this with ship production Went from producing consumer goods to war supplies

◦ Business and government collaborated (power of the government expanded)

◦ Wilson had direct control to fix prices and regulate certain war-related industries

War Industries Board (WIB) – encouraged companies to use mass-production techniques to increase efficiency, standardizing products, and set quotas and allocated raw materials. Price controls – chemicals, meatpacking, oil, and steel Railroad Administration, - railroads Fuel Administration – coal

supplies (rationing gasoline and heating oil) People – “gasless Sunday”, “lightless nights”

Economy => War Production

Industrial wages increased, however so did the prices of food/housing, affecting the consumers.

Enormous profits for stockholders and large corporations.◦ Unions boomed as a result of uneven pay between labor and

management, increasing work hours, child labor, and dangerous “speed up” conditions => strikes broke out.

◦ National Labor Board – workers who refused to obey board decisions would lose their draft exemptions and also worked to improve factory conditions.

Production/Conservation of food – Food Administration◦ Food shipments to Allied troops tripled.◦ Did not ration food but followed the “gospel of the clean plate”◦ Special Days: “meatless”, “sweetless”, two days – “wheatless”,

“porkless”◦ “Victory Gardens” by homeowners – children spent their

afternoons growing tomatoes and cucumber public parks.

Effect on Economy

Had to raise money for the war ($35.5 billion) and convince the public to support the war◦ Taxes – progressive income (high incomes have higher tax rates), war-profits

tax, and higher excise taxes on tobacco, liquor, and luxury goods.◦ Public borrowing by selling “Liberty/Victory Loan” bonds.◦ Movie stars spoke at rallies◦ Committee on Public Information (CPI) to set up propaganda: biased

communication designed to influence people’s thoughts and actions. Paintings, posters, cartoons, and sculptures promoting the war “Four-Minute Men”: spoke about the draft, rationing, bond drives, victory

gardens, and other war related topics. Promoted patriotism but also inflamed hatred and violations of the civil

liberties of certain ethnic groups and opponents of the war.◦ Anti-Immigrant Hysteria (especially around those who emigrated from Germany

and Austria-Hungry)◦ Espionage Act (1917) and the Sedition Act (1918): person could be fined up to

$10,000 and sentenced to 20 years in jail for interfering with the war effort or for saying anything disloyal, profane, or abusive about the government or war effort. Violation of the First Amendment!

Financial and Moral Support

Black opinions were divided about the war (most African Americans backed the war)◦ W.E.B. Du Bois thought blacks should support the war because it would strengthen

calls for racial justice.◦ Victims of racism should not support a historically racist government

Great Migration – large-scale movement of hundreds of thousands of Southern blacks to cities in the North◦ Escape racial discrimination in the South◦ Boll weevil infestation from floods and droughts, which ruined much of the cotton

fields◦ More job opportunities (WWI and drop in European immigration) in steel mills,

munitions plants, and stockyards. Racial prejudice also existed in the North, and new migrants caused overcrowding and intensified

racial tensions. Women moved into jobs formerly held by men – railroad workers, cooks,

dockworkers, bricklayers, mined coal, and as shipbuilders.◦ Also held “traditional jobs” – nurses, clerks, and teachers.◦ Volunteered for the Red Cross and encouraged the sale of bonds and planting of

victory gardens.◦ Acknowledgement of their hard work did not include equal pay for equal work, but it

did help bolster public support for women’s suffrage (1919).

Social Changes – African Americans and Women

Home-front suffered when the international flu affected ¼ of the U.S. population.◦ Mines shut down, telephone services cut, and

factories and offices staggered working hours to avoid the spread.

In the army, where living conditions were already terrible, ¼ of the soldiers caught the disease (Germans fell victim in larger numbers than the Allies)

30 million people dead worldwide

Flu Epidemic - 1918

Meeting at the Versailles Palace, President Wilson tried to persuade the Allies to construct a just and lasting peace to establish a League of Nations◦ Many Allies were looking for vengeance on Germany after

four years of warfare so his peace plan was shut down.◦ Various groups were looking for Wilson to help them set

up independent nations.◦ “Big Four” – U.S., France, Great Britain, and Italy

Russia and the Central Powers were not a part of this conference

IN AN IDEAL WORLD, CAN PEOPLE AND GOVERNMENTS RESOLVE THEIR DIFFERENCES WITHOUT WAR?

Everlasting Peace…?

Fourteen Points◦ Three groups – the first five represented issues that Wilson believed had

to be addressed to prevent another war: No secret treaties among nations (ZIMMERMAN NOTE) Freedom of the seas for all (BRITISH BLOCKADE/U-BOATS) Tariffs/economic barriers should be lowered or abolished to foster free

trade (IMPERIALISTIC COMPETITION) Arms should be reduced – as low as possible to still ensure domestic

safety (MILITARISTIC COMPETITION) Colonial policies must consider the interests of both the colonial people

and imperialist powers (NATIONALISM)◦ Next eight points dealt with boundary changes

Self-determination along historic lines of nationality – distinct ethnic identities formed their own nation-states or decide to which they would belong. (NATIONALISM)

◦ Last point called for the creation of a League of Nations that would meet to settle grievances without going to war.

Fourteen Points

Allied leaders rejected the plan as it was too lenient on Germany◦ Too much anger from Allied leaders to settle on a peace

treaty French premier, Georges Clemenceau wanted to prevent future

invasions British prime minister, David Lloyd George won reelection with

the slogan of “Make Germany Pay” Italian prime minister, Vittorio Orlando wanted control of

Austrian territory◦ Peace agreement did not include Central Powers or Russia

who was now under the control of a Communist government Wilson let go many of his points in his meeting with the “Big

Four” for the establishment of the League of Nations. Wanted stability for a rebuilt Europe, however anger ensued

Issues with the Plan

Established 9 new nations – Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia – and shifted the boundaries of others◦ 5 areas where the Ottoman Empire was were divided up between France and Great

Britain as mandates (temporary colonies) – administer their policies until they were ready or self-rule and independence.

Barred Germany from maintaining an army and required Germany to return the region of Alsace-Lorraine to France and to pay reparations (war damages - $33 billion).

Weaknesses – treatment of Germany (to take the blame) made lasting peace almost impossible◦ War-Guilt Clause: forced Germany to admit sole responsibility for starting WWI◦ Impossible for Germany to pay the financial reparations (lost its colonial possessions in

the Pacific that could have at least helped)◦ Russia lost more territory than Germany because it was excluded from the peace

conference – Soviet Union was determined to regain the territory◦ Ignored claims of colonized people for self-determination (Vietnam)

Opposition◦ Herbert Hoover thought it was too harsh◦ Sell-out to imperialism (exchanged some colonial rules for others)◦ Ethnic groups were upset about the shift in control (Poles/Germans)◦ League of Nations threatened the U.S. policy of isolation

Unsure about the joint-economic and military action against aggression (now fully involved in foreign wars) – would have to align its foreign policy with the League.

◦ U.S. never joined the League – rejected by the Senate

Treaty of Versailles

Warren G. Harding (new president) pushed for a “return to normalcy”.

Strengthened the military and the government, while creating social change, especially for African Americans and women.

The war created political (and economic) instability in many countries – Communism in Russia and fascism in Italy, Spain, and Germany (dictators rise to power)◦ Austrian Adolf Hitler (angry veteran from WWI) and other

leaders (Russia, Italy, etc.) sought for vengeance almost two decades later.

Unresolved issues (arguably, newly created issues) in Europe would drag America into a much wider war

Legacy of WWI