The Great West and the Agricultural Revolution 1. The Clash of Cultures on the Plains 1. The West, after the Civil War, was still largely untamed. It was inhabited

by Indians, buffalo, coyotes, Mexicans, and Mormons. 2. The American Indians found themselves caught in between their own

traditions and the westward-pushing white man. 1. Indians fought one another as with the Comanche over the

Apache, the Chippewa over the Cheyenne, and the Sioux over the Crow, Kiowa, and Pawnee. By this time, the Sioux had become expert horsemen and effectively hunted buffalo on the Spanish beasts.

2. Whites' diseases were still striking at Native Americans. And, whites struck at the massive buffalo herds.

3. Relations between Indians and the federal government were strained at best.

1. Treaties were made at Fort Laramie (1851) and Fort Laramie (1853). The agreements started the system of reservations where Indians were to live on certain lands unmolested by whites.

2. Whites didn't understand Indian society and that a "chief" didn't always exactly sign an agreement for an entire group or area. There were many chiefs representing many areas or even no area.

3. Indians expected help from the federal government in return for their lands. The help (food, blankets, supplies) often never got there or were swindled by corrupt officials.

4. After the Civil War, the U.S. Army’s new mission was to clear out the West of Indians for white settlers to move in.

1. The so-called "Indian Wars" took place roughly from 1864-1890 (from the Sand Creek Massacre to the Battle of Wounded Knee). It was really less of a war than a long series of skirmishes, battles, and massacres.

2. At first, the Indians actually had the advantage because their arrows could be fired more rapidly than a muzzle-loading rifle. The invention of the Colt .45 revolver (the six-shooter by Samuel Colt) and Winchester repeating rifle changed this.

3. Notably, one-fifth of the U.S. Army out West was black, the "Buffalo Soldiers" as the Indians called them.

2. Receding Native Population 1. Violence out West began just before the Civil War ended. 1. Col. J.M. Chivington's troops circled then killed 400 Indians who

thought they'd been given immunity. This was the infamous Sand Creek Massacre (1864).

2. Two years later, the Indians struck revenge in the Fetterman Massacre. The Sioux sought to stop the Bozeman Trail to Montana's gold and killed Capt. William J. Fetterman and his 81 soldiers.

3. These two tic-for-tac massacres set the stage for terrible Indian-white relations and started the Indian wars.

2. Just after Fetterman, the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) was made between the federal government and the Sioux. The government gave up on the Bozeman Trail and the huge Sioux reservation was established. The treaty looked promising but was short-lived.

1. Six years later, in 1874, gold was discovered in the Black Hills of South Dakota (on the Sioux reservation) when Col. William Armstrong Custer led a "geological" expedition into the Black Hills.

3. The Battle of Little Bighorn (1876) (AKA "Custer's Last Stand") followed.

1. Led by Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull, some Sioux stubbornly refused to go to the reservation.

2. Custer led about 400 cavalry against Crazy Horse who was labeled as a "hostile" Indian. Custer faced some 10,000 Indians, about 2,500 warriors. All 200+ or so of Custer's detachment were killed, including Custer himself, "Chief Yellow Hair."

3. The Little Bighorn battle brought the U.S. military out for revenge and sealed the Indian-white relationship as little better than warfare.

4. The Nez Perce tribe, led by Chief Joseph, revolted when the government tried to force them onto a reservation. They bugged out over some 1,700 miles, across the Rocky Mountains, and fled for Canada.

1. They were caught and defeated at the Battle of Bear Paw Mountain only 40 miles from the Canada border. Chief Joseph "buried his hatchet" and gave his famous speech saying, “From where the sun now stands I will fight no more forever.”

2. The Nez Perce were sent to a Kansas reservation where 40% died from disease.

5. The Apache of the Southwest were troublesome to the Army. Led by Geronimo, the military chased him and the Apache into Mexico where he proved to be a very wily adversary.

1. The apache, and Geronimo, were eventually caught, imprisoned in Florida and then Oklahoma.

6. The Indians were subdued due to (1) railroads, (2) diseases, (3) lack of

buffalo, (4) war, and (5) the loss of their land to white settlement. 3. Bellowing Herds of Bison 1. There was an estimated 15 million buffalo around by the end of the Civil

War. The buffalo herds diminished largely due to the railroads. 1. The railroads literally split the Great Plains into sections. This

decreased the buffalo's ability to roam around. Even more detrimental, railroads brought more and more whites who put more and more pressure on them.

2. Buffalo were killed (a) for hides, (b) for sport, and (c) to kill off the Indian way of life.

3. By 1885, an estimated only 1,000 survived, mostly located in Yellowstone National Park. The vast majority died off or "went the way of the buffalo."

4. The End of the Trail 1. By the 1880's, the people were beginning to recognize the plight of the

American Indian. Helen Hunt Jackson's book A Century of Dishonor helped outline the injustice done to Indians by the U.S. government. Her novel Ramona had the same effect in fiction form.

1. Native Americans faced a stark decision: to join modern times, stick with traditional ways, or somehow try to mix both.

2. Many whites wanted to try to help the Indians "walk the white man's road."

3. Others felt the tough policies of containing Indians on reservations and punishing "hostiles" was the way to go.

2. Missionaries were eager for Indians to convert to the Christian religion. They helped convince the government to outlaw the "Sun Dance."

1. Later, the "Ghost Dance" fad swept through the Sioux nation and prompted the Battle of Wounded Knee (1890).

2. Wounded Knee was not a battle but a massacre. 200+ Indians were killed, essentially killed for dancing. This battle marked the end of the Indian Wars. By this time, all Indians were either on reservations or dead.

3. 1890 was also the year that the federal government said there was "no discernible frontier"; that is to say that by 1890, the West was won, or lost, depending on the viewpoint.

3. In 1887 the Dawes Severalty Act was passed. Its overall goal was to erase tribes and set the Indians on the road to "becoming white." It was a very insulting law…

1. Although the Indians were truly "Native Americans" and the whites were the immigrants, the law said that Indians could become U.S. citizens after 25 years if they behaved as the U.S. government preferred (like "good white settlers").

2. Looking back, this policy seems absurd since a European stepping

off the boat in 1887 would receive citizenship in just a few short years, not 25.

3. The Carlisle Indian School which opened in 1879 exemplifies the ambitions of the Dawes Act. Carlisle's goal was was train Indian children in whites' ways. The children were completely immersed in white culture and grew up that way. Carlisle's results were successful in their goal by following "kill the Indian, save the child" policies.

1. A notable graduate of the Carlisle School was Jim Thorpe, likely one of the best all-around athletes in American history. He played professional football, professional baseball, professional basketball, and won Olympic gold medals in the decathlon and pentathlon.

4. The Dawes Act held the goal of killing the Indian way of life, and largely succeeded. In 1900, Indians held only 50% of the land they'd held just 20 years prior.

1. The forced-assimilation policies of the Dawes Act would rule until the Indian Reorganization Act (1934) was passed. By then, things had changed too much.

5. Mining: From Dishpan to Ore Breaker This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com

1. At Pike's Peak Colorado, gold was discovered in 1858 and "fifty-niners" flooded to the hills to dig. Most prospectors didn't find much or any gold, but many stayed to mine silver or farm.

2. The Comstock Lode of silver was discovered in Nevada shortly after Pike's Peak. The lode was extremely productive: $340 million dollars worth was unearthed. In 1864, Nevada became a state almost overnight.

3. There was a routine to the growth of mining towns… 1. First, gold/silver was found as in Virginia City, Nevada. When word

got out, they grew like wild—too fast for their own good. These boomtowns were nicknamed "Helldorados" because of their lawlessness.

2. Saloons and bordellos quickly came to town, and a general store for supplies.

3. Later, if the town remained, a post office, school, sheriff, and an opera house for entertainment might arrive.

4. For many towns, when the minerals ran out, the townsfolk simply left and the town became a ghost town.

4. Notably women in these western towns gained a certain independence they lacked back East. Women found jobs in traditional female roles (like cooks or store clerks) as well as prostitutes. Still, they were making money for themselves.

1. The independence and equality of western women is best seen in many states granting women the right to vote—Wyoming (1866), Utah (1870), Colorado (1893) and Idaho (1896).

5. Mining life was captured and mixed into American folklore by stories by Bret Harte and Mark Twain.

6. Beef Bonanzas and the Long Drive 1. As cities back East boomed in the latter half of the nineteenth century,

the demand for food and meat increased sharply. The problem then became—how to get the western cattle to the easter cities? The solution was the railroads.

1. Beef became big business. Stockyard towns like Kansas City and Chicago gave birth to "beef barons" such as the Swift and the Armour families.

2. Much of the cattle was in south Texas, where the railroads hadn't reached yet. The problem then became—how to get the Texas longhorns to the railroad. The solution was the "long drive", a cattle drive from Texas to the Kansas railroads.

1. Cowboys wound round up a herd then drive them northward across plains and rivers.

2. Their destination was the stockyards in towns like Dodge City or Abilene in Kansas, Ogallala, NE, and Cheyenne, WY.

3. These towns became famous for the Wild West activities—hard liquor, wild women, gambling, shootouts, and their famous lawmen like Wyatt Earp and Wild Bill Hickock.

3. The days of the cowboy driving cattle across the prairie on the long drive were short-lived. Several factors ended the days of the open range…

1. Sheep herders came in and nibbled the grass off too short for cattle to feed.

2. Several years of drought dried up the grass and hard freezes took their toll.

3. Mostly, when railroads came to Texas, there was no need to drive cattle. The invention of barbed wire (and wire promoter Samuel Glidden) fenced in the land and the cattle business changed from roaming the open range to staying on a ranch.

1. Ranching had become big business and big power, evidenced by the Wyoming Stock'-Growers Association who controlled the state.

4. Despite being around only 20 years or so, the image of the American cowboy riding free across open land was deeply emblazoned on the American psyche.

7. The Farmers’ Frontier 1. The Homestead Act (1862) offered 160 acres of free land. Settlers only

had to pay a small fee and improve the land, meaning build a small cabin on it. Alternately, the land could be purchased flat-out for $1.25 per acre.

1. Either way, the Homestead Act was a great deal. Some 500,000 settlers took up the offer and headed west.

2. Settlers often had a rude awakening—due to its sparse nature, 160 acres of western land seemed much less than 160 acres back east.

1. Settlers often were forced to give up due to drought, extreme cold or heat, or simply because 160 acres wasn't enough to sustain a family.

3. Fraudsters accompanied the Homestead Act. Speculators grabbed up 10 times as much land as real farmers in hopes of turning a profit one day. Some hucksters built a twelve by fourteen cabin on the land, twelve by fourteen inches.

2. Ever since the railroads came through, people realized that the American west, though dry, was actually fertile. The trick was to get water to the soil.

1. Wheat prices soared due to worldwide crop failure and American settlers pushed farther and farther westward, even west of the 100th meridian. This line also the 20-inch rainfall line, the amount generally necessary to grow crops.

2. Geologist John Wesley Powell, who'd shot the rapids of the Colorado River, had warned that the land was too dry.

1. Farmers developed "dry farming" to deal with the sparse rain. With this technique, farmers would plow the dew into the top few inches of soil. The system worked but it created a dusty layer of powder atop the soil. In the 1930's the Great Dust Bowl would result.

2. A more drought resistant strain of wheat was imported from Russia and corn was replaced by easier-to-grow crops.

3. The federal government irrigation projects would eventually dam up the Missouri and Columbia Rivers. Irrigation would suck the Colorado River so that it would peter out and never make it to the sea.

8. The Far West Comes of Age 1. The West boomed in population during the 1870's to 1890's and news

states were ready to join the U.S. Several were admitted in one block vote: North and South Dakota, Montana, Washington, Idaho, and Wyoming.

2. The Mormons finally banned polygamy (marrying multiple wives) in 1890 and Utah was then admitted as a state in 1896.

3. The Oklahoma territory was opened to settlers in a "land rush" in 1889.

Many jumped the starting gun and snuck out to the land "sooner" than the others—earning the nickname of the "Sooner state." Most land rusher participants went home empty-handed but Oklahoma became a state by th end of 1889.

9. The Fading Frontier 1. The census bureau announced in 1890 there was no longer a discernible

frontier in America. 2. The loss of frontier and land made people worry that it'd be gobbled up

for good. Yellowstone was obtained by the federal government as the first national park in 1872. Yosemite and Sequoia parks followed in 1890.

3. Frederick Jackson Turner wrote of the "Turner Thesis" saying that the frontier had played an important role in American history and in people's psychology.

1. Turner wrote, "American history has been in a large degree the history of the colonization of the Great West."

4. Americans could always just up-and-leave, go westward, and start over (called the "safety-valve theory").

1. City-dwellers typically did not move out West since they had no farming skills or money for equipment. The western cities (Chicago, Denver, San Francisco) did grow as workers sought jobs there. But, even the possibility of frontier land may have kept wages up since employers wouldn't want to lose valuable employees.

2. Immigrant farmers were the ones to typically take up the western land to farm.

5. The west saw several cultures bang heads: Native Americans, whites, Hispanics, Asian, and the immense role of government holding much of the land.

6. The Great West was captured in word and on canvas by writers like Bret Harte, Mark Twain, Helen Hunt Jackson, Francis Parkman and painters George Catlin, Fredric Remington, and Albert Bierstadt.

10. The Farm Becomes a Factory 1. Farming changed too. Farmers used to grow and make whatever they

needed. They now switched to growing "cash crops"—crops to be sold, not eaten or used. Other items would be purchased.

1. If a desired item wasn't at the local general store, farmers could buy anything via mail order catalog. Montgomery Ward sent its first catalog out in 1872.

2. Inventions turned farms into food-factories. 1. Steam driven tractors could plow much more land than by mule or

oxen. 2. The "combine", a mix of reaper and thresher, harvested much

more wheat. 3. The drawback of these machines was that farmers got themselves

into loads of debt. Many went bankrupt. The end result was that the small farmers faded and huge mega-farms emerged.

3. California agriculture was amazing. They were extremely large and extremely productive.

1. Migrant Mexican and Chinese workers were paid very little; profits were hefty.

2. The refrigerator car was invented in the 1880's and California fruits and vegetables began moving eastward.

11. Deflation Dooms the Debtor 1. The economy bounced back, worldwide, in the 1880's. Markets went up,

farmers produced more crops, and food prices dropped. In this situation, the farmer was the one to suffer.

1. Grain farmers were at the whim of world crop prices. A bumper crop, in say Argentina, meant American wheat farmers faced ruin.

2. The two major concerns of the farmer were (1) low crop prices and (2) deflated currency.

1. Crop prices generally dropped due to the increased production that machinery could generate.

2. Deflated currency meant that it was more difficult to pay off debts. 1. Farmers faced two problems here: (1) low crop prices meant

they'd need to grow more crops to pay the debt (which meant lower crop prices again), and (2) there was literally less money in circulation making it tougher to get their hands on money. Less money in circulation was called “contraction.”

3. The farmers operated at a loss each year, which mounted their debt, and sent them into a spiral toward foreclosure. Interest rates ran between 8 and 40%.

4. After "losing the farm," farmers typically became "tenant farmers" where they lived on and worked, but did not own, the land. This situation was similar to the sharecroppers in the South after the Civil War.

12. Unhappy Farmers 1. If debt wasn't enough, farmers also faced drought, heat, prairie fires,

floods, locust swarms that would eat everything but the mortgage, and the boll weevil decimated Southern cotton.

2. The government added insult-to-injury by taxing farmers to death. Their lands were assessed too high meaning their taxes were too high.

1. The farmers' assets (land) were in the open, by comparison, Easterners could hide their assets (stocks and bonds) in safe-

deposit boxes. 3. Perhaps the farmers' biggest enemy was the railroads. 1. Farmers relied on the railroads to get the crops to the market.

Farmers were at the railroads' mercy. 2. Middlemen got a hefty cut by buying from the farmer, storing the

grain, then selling to the railroad shipper. 3. Railroad rates were high. Any disgruntled and complaining farmer

just saw his crops left at the railroad station to rot. 4. In 1890, 1/2 of Americans were still farmers (although the number had

been dropping since colonial days). 1. Though big in numbers, they had a major weakness in that they

were not organized. Whereas factory workers were organizing in labor unions, farmers did not.

2. Two reasons cut at any farm organization: (1) farmers were/are by nature individualists and independent-minded; they rely on themselves, not on the "hide-behind-safety-in-numbers" theory of labor unions, and (2) from a practical sense, farmers were simply too spread out geographically to organize.

13. The Farmers Take Their Stand 1. The Greenback movement (push for paper money) had shown how

farmers were disgruntled back in 1868. 2. In 1869, the Grange (officially the National Grange of the Patrons of

Husbandry) was started by Oliver H. Kelley. The Grange was a national farmers' organization aimed at advancing farmers' agenda.

1. The initial goal was social in nature—to have "get-togethers" for isolated farmers. By 1875 it had 800,000 members.

2. The Grange then added helping the farmers' lot in life to their goals. Especially, the Grange wanted to get the trusts off of farmers' backs.

1. They set up "co-ops" (cooperatively owned stores) so farmers wouldn't have to sell to one grain elevator.

2. They tried, and failed, to produce their own farm machinery. 3. They got into politics, had some success in the Midwest, and

sought to regulate railroads. These were called "Granger Laws."

4. They faced a major setback in the Supreme Court's Wasbash case which said the states could not regulate interstate trade (meaning the railroads).

3. Overall, the Grange had mixed results… 1. On the good side, in 1878, they elected 14 members of Congress.

They also stirred a sleeping lion in the American farmer. 2. On the bad side, in 1880, the Greenback Party nominated Granger

James B. Weaver for president but he got a measly 3% of the

vote. 14. Prelude to Populism 1. In the 1870's an organization very similar to the Grangers emerged—the

Farmers' Alliance. Their goals were the same also: to socialize and to push the farmers' agenda.

1. The Alliance swelled to over 1,000,000 by 1890, but could've been even bigger. It excluded tenant farmers, share-croppers, farm workers, and blacks.

2. A separate Colored Farmers' National Alliance was started for black farmers. It gained 250,000 members.

2. Out of the Farmers' Alliance a new party was spawned—the People's Party, also known as the Populist Party. They agreed on the following:

1. To fight the "money trust" on Wall Street. 2. To nationalize railroads, telephone, and the telegraph. 3. To start a graduated income tax (graduated meaning steps or

levels, where the tax rate is higher the more a person earns). 4. To start a "sub-treasury" to provide loans to farmers. 5. To call for the unlimited coinage of silver. 3. Of these goals, the coinage of silver rose to the top of the list. It sparked

the most fire amongst the farmers and their leaders. 1. William Hope Harvey wrote a pamphlet called Coin's Financial

School. It laid out the arguments for silver and was illustrated with such scenes as a gold beast beheading a silver maiden.

2. Ignatius Donnelly was elected to Congress from Minnesota three times on the silver stance.

3. Mary Elizabeth Lease said farmers should raise "less corn and more hell." And she did just that, earning her the nicknames of "Mary Yellin'" or the "Kansas Pythoness."

4. In 1892, the Populists won several seats in Congress. Their candidate, again James B. Weaver, earned over 1,000,000 votes.

1. They were hindered by racial tensions in the South. Their challenge was to join the North and join up with city workers to make a political party with a rural/urban one-two punch.

15. Coxey’s Army and the Pullman Strike 1. The Panic of 1893 fueled the passion of the Populists. Many disgruntled

unemployed fled to D.C. calling for change. 1. Most famous of these people was “General” Jacob Coxey. “Coxey’s

Army” (AKA the "Commonweal Army") marched on Washington with scores of followers and many newspaper reporters. They called for:

1. Relieving unemployment by a government public works program.

2. An issuance of $500 million in paper money. Both of these would create inflation and therefore make debts easier to pay off.

2. The march fizzled out when they were arrested for walking on the grass.

2. The Pullman Strike in Chicago, led by Eugene Debs, was more dramatic.

1. Debs helped organize the workers of the Pullman Palace Car Company.

2. The company was hit hard by the depression and cut wages by about 1/3.

3. Workers went on strike, sometimes violently. 4. U.S. Attorney General Richard Olney called in federal troops to

break up the strike. His rationale: the strike was interfering with the transit of U.S. mail.

5. Debs went to prison for 6 months and turned into the leading Socialist in America.

16. Golden McKinley and Silver Bryan 1. The presidential election of 1896 was an important one. It essentially

asked, then answered, the question, "Will the U.S. base its money on gold, silver, or both?" It also saw disgruntled and restless workers going up against the conservative and worried business class.

2. The Republicans nominated William McKinley. 1. McKinley was "safe" in that he was pro-tariff, had a respectable

Civil War record, a respectable Congressional record, and had a friendly mannerism.

2. McKinley's right-hand-man was Mark Hanna, a businessman through-and-through. Hanna held very pro-business ideas and wanted to get McKinley elected so government could help business.

3. Hanna organized the entire campaign. They were a bit indirect about the gold/silver issue, but they leaned gold.

3. The Democrats nominated William Jennings Bryan. 1. The Democrats were a bit lost without a leader until the young

(36) Bryan came forward. He was a super speaker, called the "boy orator of the Platte" (a river in his home state of Nebraska).

2. Bryan "wowed" the convention crowd with his Cross of Gold Speech saying, "You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns, you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold." Bryan was formerly nominated by the Democrats.

3. This speech made the gold/silver issue the top issue in the election.

1. The Democrats then stole the Populist Party's main push—they called for the value and coinage of silver at a ratio of 16:1, gold-to-silver.

2. Fearing a McKinley win, Populists largely favored joining the Democrats in what could be called a "Demo-Pop" Party.

17. Class Conflict: Plowholders Versus Bondholders 1. In 1896 election was heated. William Jennings Bryan went on a blitz of

campaign speeches. He once gave 36 in one day. 2. The idea of silver money rose to near religion status. Silver was going to

save the poor. 1. Both sides threw around wild economic accusations and played on

people's economic fears. 3. McKinley's campaign amassed $16 million (the most up to that time),

whereas Bryan's only drummed up $1 million. 4. McKinley, and Mark Hanna, played on people's fears in the week before

the election. 1. They hinted that, if Bryan were elected, people need not report to

work the next morning because their job would be gone. 2. They initiated rumors that workers were considering paying in 50

cent pieces rather than dollars. 5. McKinley won the election 1896 easily, 271 to 176 electoral votes. Bryan

carried the South and West, McKinley carried the Northeast, Midwest, and far West.

6. The election was important in that (a) gold was decided upon as America's economic basis, (b) it was a victory for business, conservatives, and middle class values (as opposed to the working class), and (c) it started 16 years of Republican presidents (and 8 of the next 36 years).

18. Republican Standpattism Enthroned 1. William McKinley, as president, was safe in his decisions. He didn't ruffle

feathers and tried to stay close to public opinion. 2. With the gold/silver issue decided, the tariff became the lead issue. 1. It was decided that the Wilson-Gorman Tariff wasn't bringing in

enough money. 2. So, Congress worked through the Dingley Tariff Bill. It eventually

raised tariff rates to 46.5%, higher, but not as high as some had wanted.

3. The gold issue was settled. 1. Congress passed the Gold Standard Act (1900) saying people

could trade in paper money for gold. Just knowing and trusting that meant there was no need to do that. This brought

economic calm and stability. 2. Also, there was a gold rush in Alaska, the "Klondike gold rush."

Lots of new gold, also from worldwide sources, brought the inflation that the silverites had long wanted.

4. The economy rebounded as well in 1897, McKinley's first year in office. This was due to…

1. The 1893 recession had run its course and it was time for growth. McKinley likely brought a sense of calm both in his pro-business policies and by simply having the gold/silver question answered. The economy, and especially Wall Street, never likes uncertainty.

Progressivism and the Republican Roosevelt I. Progressive Roots

5. When the 1900's dawned, there were 76 million Americans. 1 out of 7 were foreign-born.

6. A new reform movement immediately began, led by "Progressives". Their goals were to stop monopolies, corruption, inefficiency, and social injustice.

1. The method of the progressives was to strengthen the state—to give more powers to the government. Their over-arching goal was to use the government "as an agency of human welfare."

7. The roots of Progressivism began with the Greenback Party (1870's) and the Populist Party (1890's). A modern industrial society seemed to call for more government action and to take a step back from pure, laissez-faire capitalism.

8. Writers used the power of the pen to make their progressive points. 1. Henry Demarest Lloyd wrote Wealth Against Commonwealth

(1894) which struck at the Standard Oil Company. 2. Thorstein Veblen wrote The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899)

criticizing people who made money seemingly for money's sake. He spoke of "predatory wealth" and "conspicuous consumption."

3. Jacob Riis wrote How the Other Half Lives (1890) about the lives of the poor. He wanted to divert attention from America's infatuation with how the rich live and show the life of squalor in the New York slums. This book would influence Teddy Roosevelt, a future New York police commissioner.

4. Theodore Dreiser made his points through his realist fiction. In The Financier (1912) and The Titan (1914) he criticized promoters and profiteers.

9. Other causes gained steam during the Progressive era.

1. Socialists, influenced by strong European governments, called for more government action in the U.S. and started gaining votes in the ballot box.

2. Advocates of the "social gospel" (Christian charity) called for helping the poor.

3. Female suffragists also called for social justice, as well as the right to vote. They were led by Jane Addams and Lillian Wald.

19. Raking Muck with the Muckrakers 1. Around 1902, a new group of social critics emerged—the muckrakers.

They typically exposed what they saw as corruption or injustice in writings. Favorite outlets for the muckrakers were liberal, reform-minded magazines like McClure's, Collier's, Cosmopolitan, and Everybody's.

1. They were called "muckrakers" first by Teddy Roosevelt. It was a derogatory term, him being unimpressed with their tendency to focus on the negatives and "rake through the muck" of society.

2. The muckrakers were very active and prolific… 1. Lincoln Steffens wrote "The Shame of the Cities" (1902) which

exposed city corruption in cahoots with big business. 2. Ida Tarbell wrote an exposé in McClure's that laid bare the

ruthless business tactics of John D. Rockefeller and the Standard Oil Company. Some thought she was just out for revenge because her father's business had been ruined by Rockefeller. But, all of her facts checked out.

3. Thomas Lawson exposed the practices of stock market speculators in "Frenzied Finance" (1905-06), published in Everybody's. (He'd made $50 million himself playing the market.)

4. David Phillips wrote "The Treason of the Senate" (1906) in Cosmopolitan. He said that 75 of the 90 U.S. senators represented big businesses rather than the people. He backed up his charges with enough evidence to also impress Teddy Roosevelt.

5. John Spargo wrote The Bitter Cry of the Children (1906) exposing, and critical of, child labor.

6. Ray Stannard Baker wrote Following the Color Line (1908) about the still-sorry state of life for Southern blacks.

7. Dr. Harvey Wiley criticized patent medicines which were largely unregulated, habit-forming, and normally did more bad than good. He and his "Poison Squad" used themselves as guinea pigs for experiments.

3. Muckrakers were loud about the ills, but didn't offer cures. To the muckrakers, the cure for societal ills was democracy. They had no

faith in politicians leading the charge, but wanted to get the story out to the public. Muckrakers believed that the public conscience would eventually remedy the problems.

20. Political Progressivism 1. The progressives generally came from the middle class. They felt

somehow sandwiched between the big business trusts and tycoons on the top and the immigrant, working class on the bottom.

2. Progressives pushed for a variety of political reforms to help their cause. They favored and generally got the following accomplished:

1. The initiative where voters could initiate laws, rather than waiting and hoping a legislator might do it.

2. The referendum where voters could vote proposed bills into law, circumventing unresponsive legislators altogether.

3. The recall where voters could remove elected officials rather than waiting for his term to expire. The thought was, "We voted them in, we can vote them out."

4. The secret ballot, called the Australian ballot, to help get a true vote and avoid intimidation at the polls.

5. The direct election of senators by the people. At the time, U.S. senators were chosen by state legislators, not the people. This became reality in 1913, with the 17th Amendment.

6. And female suffrage. This would have to wait a bit longer (until 1920).

21. Progressivism in the Cities and States 1. Progressivism really got its start and took off on a more local level

rather than national. 2. Galveston, TX successfully used the city-manager system. The idea

was to use professional people trained in their field of city management, rather than using "friends" of a corrupt mayor or city boss. The result was much greater efficiency and other cities took note of Galveston.

3. Local Progressives cracked down on "slumlords," rampant prostitution, and juvenile delinquency.

4. Wisconsin was the Progressive leader for states. Led by Gov. Robert "Fighting Bob" LaFollette, Wisconsin was able to grab power back from the big businesses and return it to the people.

1. Other states took note and attacked trusts, railroads. Examples included Oregon and California (led by Gov. Hiram Johnson). Gov. Charles Evan Hughes, of New York, took on the wrongs of gas and insurance companies.

22. Progressive Women This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com

1. Women were an indispensable catalyst in the Progressive army. They

couldn’t vote or hold political office, but were active none-the-less. Women focused their changes on family-oriented ills such as child labor.

2. Court decisions impacted women. 1. The Supreme Court case of Muller v. Oregon (1908) said that

laws protecting female workers were indeed constitutional. The case was successfully argued by attorney Louis Brandeis saying women's weaker bodies suffered harmful effects in factory work.

1. This victory, however, came with a cost to women. Brandeis' own argument of weaker female bodies would later be used to keep women out of certain "male" jobs.

2. A loss occurred in the case of Lochner v. New York (1905). In the case, the Supreme Court struck down a 10-hour workday for bakers.

3. Women reformers gained speed after the Triangle Shirtwaist Company burnt down in 1911, trapping and killing 146 mostly young, women workers. The tragedy gained much attention and gave the women momentum.

1. The public outcry prompted many states to pass laws regulating hours and conditions in such "sweatshops" and to pass workers' compensation laws.

4. Alcohol had long been under fire by women. During the Progressive era, temperance would reach its peak.

1. Francis Willard, founder of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) got 1 million women to join the cause against alcohol. The WCTU was joined by the Anti-Saloon League. They were well-organized and well-financed.

2. Many states and counties went "dry." In 1914, 1/2 of Americans lived in dry areas.

3. The movement culminated in 1919 with the 18th Amendment (AKA Prohibition) that banned alcohol's sale, consumption, and possession.

23. TR’s Square Deal for Labor 1. President Roosevelt had been moved the by muckrakers and the

Progressives' ideals. He pursued the "three C's": (1) control of the corporations, (2) consumer protection, and (3) conservation of natural resources.

2. A strike took place in 1902 at coal mines of Pennsylvania. The workers called for a 20% pay increase and a reduction of work hours from 10 to 9 hours.

1. Coal supplies dwindled and the nation felt the effects of the coal shortage so TR called in strike workers to the White House.

Roosevelt was not impressed with the strike leaders. 2. Roosevelt finally threatened to use federal troops to operate the

mines. At this threat, the owners agreed to go to arbitration. The workers were given a 10% increase and the 9 hour day. The workers' union, however, was not officially recognized for bargaining.

3. Roosevelt called on Congress to form the Dept. of Commerce and Labor, which it did. The department split in half ten years later.

1. The Bureau of Corporations would investigate interstate trade and become important for breaking up monopolies during the "trust-busting" days.

24. TR Corrals the Corporations 1. The Interstate Commerce Commission (1887) had been designed to

regulate railroads but it was proving to be ineffective. Therefore, it was decided more needed to be done.

1. Congress passed the Elkins Act in 1903. It banned and prosecuted rebates awarded by railroaders.

2. The Hepburn Act placed restrictions on free passes handed out by railroads (usually to the press to ensure good reports).

2. Teddy Roosevelt nurtured the reputation of a trust buster. TR concluded, however that there were "good trusts" and there were "bad trusts." The bad trusts had to go.

1. TR's most noteworthy target was the Northern Securities Company run by J.P. Morgan and James Hill.

1. TR busted up Northern Securities (his decision was upheld by the Supreme Court). Busting J.P. Morgan's outfit angered Wall Street but this high-profile bust furthered TR's trust buster image.

2. In all, Roosevelt attacked some 40 trusts, including busting the beef, sugar, fertilizer, and harvester trusts

3. Despite his reputation as a trust buster, TR allowed the "good trusts" to survive. He believed his actions against the bad trusts would prevent the good ones from going astray.

4. William Howard Taft, who succeeded Roosevelt, would actually be more of a trust buster than TR. Taft actually busted more trusts than TR.

1. Another example occurred over the U.S. Steel Company. U.S. Steel wanted to acquire the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company. TR had said that the move of this good trust would be okay, but Taft felt otherwise. Roosevelt was very angry over Taft's reversal of his position.

25. Caring for the Consumer 1. Upton Sinclair wrote The Jungle about the meat packing industry's

horrible conditions. Sinclair's goal was to reveal the plight of the workers. But, the real effect was to gross out America and initiate action in Congress.

1. His book motivated Congress to pass the Meat Inspection Act (1906). Henceforth meat would be inspected by the U.S.D.A.

2. The Pure Food and Drug Act was also passed. Its goal was to ensure proper labeling of food and drugs.and to prevent tampering.

2. These acts would help Europe to trust American meat and thus help exports..

26. Earth Control 1. Americans had long considered their natural resources inexhaustible. By

about 1900, they were realizing this was not true and that conservation was needed. Acts of Congress began preserving the land…

1. The first conservation act was the Desert Land Act (1877). It sold desert land at a cheap rate on the promise the land would be irrigated.

2. The Forest Reserve Act (1891) gave the president permission to set aside land as parks and reserves. Millions of acres of old-growth forests were preserved under this authority.

3. The Carey Act (1894) gave federal land to the states, again on the promise of irrigation.

2. Teddy Roosevelt's presidency truly started a new era in conservation. Roosevelt was a consummate outdoorsman, was very concerned about the nation's timber and mineral depletion, and started the conservation movement with action.

1. Others helped Roosevelt in the push to conserve, notably conservationist and Division of Forest head Gifford Pinchot and naturalist John Muir, the most well-known spokesman for Mother Nature.

2. TR got the Newlands Act (1902) passed to begin massive irrigation projects out West. The Roosevelt Dam (on Arizona's Salt River) and dozens of other western dams created reservoirs to water, and bring life to, the arid land.

3. TR wanted to save to the trees. By 1900, only 1/4 of the nation's once-vast virgin trees still stood.

1. Roosevelt set aside 125 million acres of forest land (3 times the acreage of his 3 predecessors). Large quantities of land were also set aside for coal and water reserves. Purely as an example, he had no White House Christmas tree in 1902.

3. The public shared TR's concern and passion for nature.

1. Jack London's outdoorsy novels became popular, such as The Call of the Wild about Alaska's Klondike gold rush.

2. Outdoorsy organizations emerged, such as the Boy Scouts of America and the Sierra Club (whose goal was/is conservation).

4. The Hetchy Hetch Valley of Yosemite National Park exposed a philosophical rupture amongst the conservationists.

1. Hetchy Hetch was a beautiful Gorge that John Muir and the Sierra Club wanted to save. San Francisco wanted to dam it up for the city's water supply. In this case, TR sided with the city.

1. Notably, TR and Muir were good friends, but TR was a pragmatist—always seeking a practical solution over an idealized solution.

2. The division was clearly shown. The question asked, "Should land be simply set aside and untouched forever?" as John Muir advocated. Or, "Should the land be wisely managed for man's benefit?", as Teddy Roosevelt advocated.

2. The federal government gave San Francisco the okay to dam up the valley. Roosevelt's policy of "multiple-use resource management" was set. The policy tried to use the land for recreation, reservoirs (for drinking, irrigating, water recreation), saw-then-replant logging, and summer stock grazing.

27. The “Roosevelt Panic” of 1907 1. Theodore Roosevelt was loved by the people, witnessed by the "Teddy"

bear. Conservatives thought of him as unpredictable due to his Progressive ways they meddled the government into businesses.

1. After winning his election in 1904, he announced he would not seek a third term. This cut his power a bit since everyone then knew he'd be out in four years.

2. The economy took a sudden and sharp downtown in 1907. Wall Street was pounded, banks were run, suicides went up, and there were many Wall Street "speculators" were indicted on sneaky dealings.

1. As with any economic downtown, the president was blamed, justly or not. Conservatives, especially, charged that Roosevelt's meddling in business had fouled up the cogs of the economy. They called it the "Roosevelt Panic."

2. The Panic did reveal the need for a more elastic currency supply. In other words, the banks needed reserves to release into circulation if times got tough.

1. Congress passed the Aldrich-Vreeland Act (1908) authorizing national banks to release money into circulation.

2. This law/action paved the way for the monumental Federal

Reserve Act (1913). 28. The Rough Rider Thunders Out 1. In 1908, TR was still very popular. He used his popularity to endorse a

candidate that had similar policies as himself—William Howard Taft.

1. Taft was a big fellow and very likable. The old saying was that "everybody loves a fat man" and in Taft's case the saying seemed to fit.

2. The Democrats put forth William Jennings Bryan yet again. Bryan also painted himself as a Progressive.

3. Riding on TR's popularity, Taft won the election easily, 321 to 162 in the electoral.

1. As a sign-of-the-times Socialist Party candidate Eugene Debs (of Pullman Strike fame) garnered a surprising 420,000 votes.

2. After the election, TR went to Africa on a hunting safari. His exploits were much followed and he returned as energetic as ever, still only 51 years old.

1. TR's legacy was to begin to tame unbridled capitalism. He wasn't an enemy of business, but brought it under control. He sought the middle-ground in between the "me alone" idea of pure capitalism and the "father knows best" ideas of a government that controls people's lives.

2. Other parts of his legacy include: (1) increasing the power of the presidency, (2) he initiated reforms, and (3) he showed that the U.S. was a world power and thus held great responsibilities.

29. Taft: A Round Peg in a Square Hole 1. At first, Taft seemed just fine. He was likable, seemed capable, had a

solid background in experience. 2. Tricky problems soon bogged him down. TR had been able to work

through problems due to his force-of-personality and political instincts.

1. Taft took a hands-off approach toward Congress which did not serve him well.

2. He was a mild progressive only, more inclined toward the status quo than reform.

30. The Dollar Goes Abroad as Diplomat 1. President Taft encouraged a policy called "Dollar Diplomacy" where

Americans invested in foreign countries to gain power. 1. Wall Street was urged to invest in strategic areas, especially the

Far East and Latin America. 2. The Dollar Diplomacy policy would thus strengthen the U.S. and

make money at the same time. Whereas TR had used the in-your-face Big Stick policy, Taft used the sneakier Dollar Diplomacy policy.

2. A Dollar Diplomacy mishap occurred in China's Manchuria region. 1. Taft wanted to buy Manchuria's railroads from Russia and Japan,

then turn them over to the Chinese. This would keep the Open Door policy open, and strengthen the U.S.'s position in China.

2. Russian and Japan blocked Sec. of State Philander Knox's deal and Taft suffered a Dollar Diplomacy black eye.

3. Latin America was a busy spot for the Dollar Diplomacy policy. The Monroe Doctrine forbade Europe from intervening, so the U.S. did.

1. The U.S. invested heavily in Honduras and Haiti, thinking they may become trouble spots.

2. Ordering Europe to stay away from Latin America, and investing heavily there, meant the U.S. now had a vested interest and shouldered responsibility there.

1. Several flare-ups required the U.S. to intervene militarily including Cuba, Honduras, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua (for 13 years).

31. Taft the Trustbuster 1. Taft was more of a trust buster than Roosevelt; Taft brought 90 lawsuits

against trusts during his 4 years in office 2. Perhaps his most noteworthy bust was the Standard Oil Company. The

Supreme Court ordered in broken into smaller companies in 1911. 3. The U.S. Steel Company was under fire from Taft, even though

Roosevelt had agreed to let the company survive as one of his "good trusts." When Taft sought to break it up, Roosevelt was furious at his successor's actions.

32. Taft Splits the Republican Party 1. Two main issues split the Republican party: (1) the tariff and (2)

conservation of lands. 2. On the tariff, old-school Republicans were high-tariff; New/Progressive

Republicans were low tariff. 1. Taft, as the mild Progressive, had promised to lower the tariff. As

president, he sought to do just that, if only a small reduction. 2. Sen. Nelson Aldrich added many increases to the bill while it was

in the Senate. When passed and signed by Taft, the Payne-Aldrich Bill actually broke his campaign promise and angered many.

1. Pres. Taft even unwisely named it "the best bill that the Republican party ever passed."

3. In actuality, the Payne-Aldrich Bill split the Republican party. 3. On conservation, old-school Republicans favored using or developing the

lands for business; new/Progressive Republicans favored conservation of lands.

1. Taft did set up the Bureau of Mines to manage mineral resources. This was a "Progessive-ish" move and likely a popular one.

2. However, Taft's involvement in the Ballinger-Pinchot quarrel (1910) was unpopular.

1. Sec. of Interior Richard Ballinger said that public lands in Wyoming, Montana, and Alaska would be open for development.

2. Chief of Forestry Gifford Pinchot was critical of the decision. Apparently siding with Ballinger, Taft fired Pinchot—an unpopular move.

4. The Republican party split became apparent in the 1910 Congress election.

1. In the election, the old-school Republicans and new/Progressive Republicans split the vote, thus the Democrats won heavily in the House of Rep's.

2. Also, Socialist Eugene Berger of Milwaukee won a seat in Congress—again, showing the movement toward Socialism.

33. The Taft-Roosevelt Rupture 1. The Republican split turned from differing opinions to different parties.

The National Progressive Republican League began in 1911. Sen. Robert La Follette ("Fighting Bob" of Wisconsin) seemed destined to become their candidate.

2. Teddy Roosevelt was so upset about Taft's policies that TR dropped hints that he'd be interested in running again for president.

1. He finally said, "My hat is in the ring!" arguing that he hadn't wanted three consecutive terms as president.

2. La Follette was brushed aside and Roosevelt was named as the Progressive Republican.

3. The Taft-Roosevelt showdown came in June of 1912 at the Republican convention. Both men vied for the Republican nomination.

1. As the sitting president, Taft was nominated as the Republican candidate for 1912.

Roosevelt wasn't done, however. TR would simply run on his own as a third party candidate.

Wilsonian Progressivism at Home and Abroad 34. The “Bull Moose” Campaign of 1912 1. Democrats in 1912 felt they could take the White House (since being out

for 16 years) because the Republicans had split their party. 2. Democrats looked to Dr. Woodrow Wilson, the governor of New

Jersey. 1. Wilson had been a mild conservative but had turned become an

strong progressive. 2. His background was in education as a history professor, then as

president of Princeton Univ. As governor of NJ, he made a name for himself by standing up to the bosses, trusts, and as a liberal.

3. At their convention, it took 46 votes to choose Wilson. The final vote was cast after William Jennings Bryan threw his support behind Wilson.

3. The Democrats now had a candidate in Woodrow Wilson and they added a platform they named the "New Freedom."

1. The New Freedom platform was made up of liberal and progressive policies.

4. At the Progressive party convention Teddy Roosevelt was nominated by reformer Jane Addams (of Hull House in Chicago). Roosevelt's speech enthralled its listeners.

1. TR won the nomination (which was a foregone conclusion) and commented that he felt "as strong as a bull moose." The Progressive party then had a symbol and a nickname: the Bull Moose Party.

5. The 1912 presidential campaign was thus set and the campaigning began.

1. The 1912 candidates were… 1. Republican: Pres. William Howard Taft 2. Democrat: Woodrow Wilson 3. Progressive: Theodore Roosevelt 2. Talk between Taft and TR got nasty as the two old friends laid into

one another. Wilson could enjoy just letting his other two opponents rip themselves.

3. Personality wars aside, Wilson's New Freedom plan and Roosevelt's "New Nationalism" plan came front-and-center.

1. The New Nationalism plan had been inspired by The Promise of American Life by Herbert Croly (1910). The book agreed with TR's old policy of leaving good trusts alone but controlling bad trusts.

2. The New Nationalism also pushed for female suffrage and social programs such as minimum wage laws social insurance programs. These such programs would later be manifested during the Great Depression in Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal.

These "socialistic" social welfare programs would be a hard pill to swallow for business folks and conservatives.

3. The New Freedom plan supported small business and wanted to bust all trusts, not distinguishing good or bad. The plan did not include social welfare programs.

4. TR was shot in the chest in Milwaukee while on the campaign trail. Though shot, TR delivered his speech, went to the hospital, and recovered in 2 weeks time.

35. Woodrow Wilson: A Minority President 1. With the Republicans split, it was time for the Democrats. Woodrow

Wilson won the 1912 electoral vote handily: Wilson had 435 electoral votes, Roosevelt had 88, and Taft had 8.

1. The popular vote was much different however. Wilson garnered only 41% of the people's votes, TR and Taft totaled 50%. Thus, most people in America did not want Wilson as their president.

2. The conclusion seemed clear—Roosevelt's Bull Moose party had cost Republicans, and given the Democrats, the White House.

2. The Socialist party continued to be on the rise. Eugene V. Debs got 6% of the popular vote—a strong showing by a third party and, again, a sign-of-the-times for people liking what the Socialists were saying.

3. Taft didn't just go away after his one term. He would later become the chief justice of the Supreme Court.

36. Wilson: The Idealist in Politics 1. He was born and raised in the South who sympathized with the

Confederacy's struggle to rule itself during the Civil War. This may have influenced his "self-determination" policy of post-WWI where the people chose their government.

2. His father was a Presbyterian minister and Wilson was deeply religious himself as well as a superb speaker. It was noted that he was born halfway between the bible and the dictionary and never strayed far from either.

3. Like Teddy Roosevelt, he believed the president should strike out and lead the country.

4. Wilson's personality was very much unlike Roosevelt, however. 1. Wilson was an idealist, not a pragmatist like TR. He was completely

stubborn at times, not budging an inch on his ideals or beliefs. Consequently, his stubbornness meant at times not getting anything done.

2. Wilson also was an intellectual who lacked the people's touch. Whereas TR had been loved by the people, Wilson was scholarly and arrogant. Or in other words, whereas TR might have had a beer with the people, Wilson might scoff at their

ignorance and move on. 37. Wilson Tackles the Tariff 1. As a Progressive, Woodrow Wilson entered the White House saying he

wished to attack what he termed the "triple wall of privilege": the tariff, the banks, and trusts.

2. Wilson sought to bring the tariff down. He helped Congress pass the Underwood Tariff (1913) which did two main things…

1. It considerably reduced tariff rates on imports. 2. It started a graduated income tax (the tax rate went up as a

person's salary went up). The 16th Amendment had recently been passed legalizing an income tax, the Underwood Tariff law simply laid out the rules.

38. Wilson Battles the Bankers 1. America's financial system had been set up by the National Banking Act

back during the Civil War. The Panic of 1907 had shown the system to have faults and to be incapable of addressing emergency needs. Wilson set up an committee to look into the banking system.

1. The committee was headed by Republican Senator Aldrich (of the Aldrich-Vreeland Act which addressed banking back in 1908). The committee recommended what amounted to a third Bank of the United States.

2. The Democrats, following a House committee chaired by Arsene Pujo, concluded that the "money monster" was rooted in the banking system.

3. And, Louis D. Brandeis wrote Other People's Money and How the Bankers Use It (1914) which fired people up even more to reform a supposedly corrupt banking system.

2. Wilson's mind was made up. In June of 1913 he asked a joint session of Congress to make broad reforms to the nation's banking system.

1. Congress reacted and passed the monumental Federal Reserve Act (1913).

1. The law created the Federal Reserve Board (appointed by the president) which oversaw 12 regional, federal banks.

2. The Federal Reserve Board was given the power to issue paper money (AKA "Federal Reserve Notes"). Thus, it could regulate the amount of money in circulation by issuing, or holding back, paper money.

39. The President Tames the Trusts This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com

1. Last on Wilson's "triple wall of privilege" were the trusts. Congress passed the Federal Trade Commission Act (1914) which set up a position, appointed by the president, to investigate activities of trusts.

1. The goal would be to stop trade practices deemed unfair such as unlawful competition, false advertising, mislabeling, adulteration, and bribery.

2. Congress wanted to strengthen the largely ineffective Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890), so it passed the Clayton Anti-Trust Act (1914).

1. The Clayton Act put real teeth into anti-trust law. It added to the Sherman law's list of objectionable trust practices by forbidding price discrimination (a different price for different people) and interlocking directorates (the same people serving on "competitors" boards of trustees).

2. It also (a) exempted labor unions from being considered trusts and (b) legalized strikes as a form of peaceful assembly.

40. Wilsonian Progressivism at High Tide 1. Several other reforms followed Wilson's attack on the "triple wall of

privilege." 2. Farmers got a bit of government help from the Progressive-minded

Wilson. 1. The Federal Farm Loan Act (1916) offered low interest loans to

farmers. 2. The Warehouse Act (1916) offered loans on on security of staple

crops. 3. Workers made gains under the Progressive-minded Wilson. 1. Sailors were guaranteed good treatment and a decent wage under

the La Follette Seamen's Act (1915). A negative result was that shipping rates shot upward with the new governmental regulations.

2. The Workingmen's Compensation Act (1916) offered help to federal civil-service employees during a time of disability.

3. The Adamson Act (1916) set an 8-hour workday (plus overtime) for any worker on a train engaged in interstate trade.

4. Wilson named Louis Brandeis to the Supreme Court—the 1st Jew to sit on the bench. But, Wilson's Progressivism did not reach out to blacks in America. His policies actually moved toward greater segregation.

5. Wilson played politics too. 1. The business community largely despised all of Wilson's and the

government's meddling into business. To keep business folks somewhat happy, and hopefully get reelected, Wilson made conservative appointments to the Federal Reserve Board and to the Federal Trade Commission.

2. To get reelected in 1916, Wilson new he'd have to lure most of TR's Bull Moose backers to the Democrat party. So, despite "throwing a bone" to business, most of his energies were put into the Progressive arena.

41. New Directions in Foreign Policy 1. Woodrow Wilson took a very different path in foreign policy when

compared to his two predecessors. Wilson was a pacifist at heart, a peacemaker. He hated TR's Big Stick Policy and Taft's Dollar Diplomacy.

1. He got American bankers to pull out of a 6 nation loan to China. 2. Wilson got Congress to repeal the Panama Canal Tolls Act (1912)

which allowed American ships to pass through the canal toll free.

2. Wilson signed the Jones Act (1916) granting territorial status to the Philippines. It also promised independence when a "stable government" was established.

1. The Philippines were finally granted their independence on July 4, 1946.

3. Other foreign situations forced the peaceful president to take action. 1. Wilson defused a situation with Japan. California forbade Japanese-

Americans from owning land in the U.S. Tensions ran high and violence seemed a real threat. Wilson sent Sec. of State William Jennings Bryan to speak to the California legislature and the situation calmed down.

2. He was forced to take military action in 1915 in Haiti. Chaos erupted there and Wilson sent U.S. Marines to protect Americans and American interests there. They stayed for over a year and a half.

3. Marines were also sent to the Dominican Republic in the same year to keep order.

4. In 1917, Woodrow Wilson purchased the Virgin Island from Denmark. It was clear by this time that the arms of America were reaching into the Caribbean.

42. Moralistic Diplomacy in Mexico 1. For years, the resources of Mexico had been used by American oil,

railroad, and mining businesses. The Mexican people were extremely poor and they revolted in 1913.

1. The president was assassinated. Placed as president was an Indian, Gen. Victoriano Huerta. The result of the chaos was a massive immigration from Mexico to Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California.

2. Huerta's regime put Wilson in a tight spot. 1. The revolutionaries in Mexico were violent and threatened

American lives and property. Americans called for Wilson to offer protection but, he would not.

2. On the flip side, Wilson also would not recognize Huerta and his regime. Wilson allowed American arms to go to Huerta's rivals

Venustiano Carranza and Francisco "Pancho" Villa. 3. A situation emerged in Tampico, Mexico when some American sailors

were seized by Mexico. Wilson sought Congress' okay to use military force and actually had the navy seize Vera Cruz, Mexico. Huerta and Carranza both were not happy about this move.

1. The ABC Powers (Argentina, Brazil, and Chile) stepped in to mediate the situation.

2. Huerta was replaced after considerable pressure and Carranza became president.

4. Carranza's rival Pancho Villa began stirring up trouble. Pancho Villa was something of a Mexican Robin Hood. He was hated by some who considered him a thief and murderer; he was loved by some who saw him as fighting for the "little man."

1. Pancho Villa raided a train, kidnapped 16 American mining engineers, and killed them.

2. He and his men raided Columbus, New Mexico and killed 19 more people.

5. Wilson sent the Army, headed by Gen. John. J. Pershing, after Pancho Villa.

1. Pershing took a few thousand troops into Mexico, fought both Carranza's and Villa's troops, but couldn't catch Pancho Villa.

2. While hunting Villa, World War I broke out and Pershing was recalled. (Villa would soon be murdered by a Mexican rival.)

43. Thunder Across the Sea 1. In 1914, Austrian heir-to-the-throne Franz Ferdinand was

assassinated by a Serbian nationalist. This started a domino-effect where Europe quickly fell into war.

2. The powers of Europe chose sides due to culture and to alliances… 1. The main Central Powers were Germany, Austria-Hungary, and

Turkey (aka the Ottomon Empire). 2. The main Allied Powers were Russia, France, England, and

Australia. 3. Most Americans favored the Allies but many supported the Central

Powers due to ethnic heritage. Nearly all Americans were happy that an ocean separated them from the war and wanted to stay neutral.

44. A Precarious Neutrality 1. Adding to the somber tone of the times, President Wilson's wife had

recently died. He declared that the U.S. was officially neutral. 2. Both the Central and Allied Powers sought America's support. 1. The Central Powers of Germany and Austro-Hungary were reliant

on Americans that shared their heritage. There were 11 million Americans with ethnic ties to these nations (roughly 20%).

2. The Allies had most of the cultural, political, and economic ties with

America. Generally speaking, most Americans were sympathetic to the Allies' side.

1. The leader of Germany, Kaiser Wilhelm II, was a military autocrat and was easy for most freedom-loving Americans to dislike. Anyone "on the fence" would almost certainly side with the Allies and against the Kaiser/Central Powers.

2. Additionally, any fence-sitters likely had their minds made up against the Central Powers in a New York subway incident. There, a Central Powers operative left his briefcase on the subway. Inside were plans to sabotage American industries.

45. America Earns Blood Money 1. Being officially neutral, American businesses sought to trade with either

side in the war to make money. 1. Trade with the Allies was possible and took place. 2. Trade with the Central Powers was much trickier with the British

navy controlling the sea. This trade effectively pulled the U.S. out of a mini-recession that it'd been in prior to the war.

2. Germany was aware of their inferior naval status and the benefits of Allied-American trade.

1. Germany knew they could not compete with the British navy one-on-one. The German solution was to rely on U-boats, or submarines.

2. Germany announced "unrestricted submarine warfare" on the Allies or anyone assisting the Allies. The U.S. would not be targeted, but no guarantees were made.

3. President Wilson said Germany would be held to "strict accountability" for any American damages.

3. The greatest U-boat attack was on the Lusitania, a British cruise liner. Nearly 1,200 souls were killed in the attack, including 128 Americans.

1. The Lusitania and the Americans had been warned of a possible attack. Still, the effect was to motivate many Americans to call for war.

1. William Jennings Bryan resigned from his post as Secretary of State due to the possibility of going to war.

4. Other ships were soon sunk by German U-boats. 1. The Arabic was sunk, a British ship, killing two Americans. 2. The Sussex was sunk, a French passenger ship, and prompted

Pres. Wilson to pressure Germany. 1. Germany gave the "Sussex Pledge" in response. It

promised that no attacks would be made on ships without

warning. 2. Germany quickly realized that such a pledge undermined the

purpose of a submarine (surprise attack). They retracted the pledge and reverted back to unrestricted submarine warfare.

5. Wilson's neutrality was teetering on the brink. 46. Wilson Wins Reelection in 1916 1. 1916 was another presidential election year. The candidates were… 1. Republicans nominated Charles Evans Hughes. He was infamous

for changing his position depending on his audience. He as thus nicknamed "Charles Evasive Hughes."

2. Democrats nominated Pres. Wilson for another 4 years. The campaign slogan was "He kept us out of war."

2. By this time America's neutrality was slipping away. Still, the slogan was appealing.

3. Wilson won the election, 277 to 254 in the electoral vote. The irony of the election was that Wilson would lead America into war only 5 months later, in April of 1917.