the greenhouse effect & global warming earth and the other terrestrial worlds

The Greenhouse EffectThe Greenhouse Effect&&

Global WarmingGlobal WarmingEarth and the Other Terrestrial WorldsEarth and the Other Terrestrial Worlds

How do Greenhouse How do Greenhouse Gases Make it Warmer?Gases Make it Warmer?

QuickTime™ and aTIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor

are needed to see this picture.

CO2

Climate History of VenusClimate History of Venus Venus should have outgassed as much HVenus should have outgassed as much H22O as Earth.O as Earth.

• Early on, when the Sun was dimmer, Venus may have had oceans of Early on, when the Sun was dimmer, Venus may have had oceans of waterwater

Venus’ proximity to the Sun caused all HVenus’ proximity to the Sun caused all H22O to evaporate.O to evaporate.

• HH22O caused runaway greenhouse effect O caused runaway greenhouse effect

• surface heated to extreme temperaturesurface heated to extreme temperature

• COCO22 released from rocks: Adds to greenhouse effect released from rocks: Adds to greenhouse effect

• UV photons from Sun dissociate HUV photons from Sun dissociate H22O; HO; H22 escapes, O is stripped escapes, O is stripped

If Earth moved to Venus’ Orbit

Venusian Weather TodayVenusian Weather Today

• Venus has Venus has nono seasons to speak of. seasons to speak of.• rotation axis is nearly 90rotation axis is nearly 90º to the ecliptic planeº to the ecliptic plane

• Venus has little wind at its surfaceVenus has little wind at its surface• rotates very slowly, so there is no Coriolis effectrotates very slowly, so there is no Coriolis effect

• The surface temperature stays constant all over Venus.The surface temperature stays constant all over Venus.• thick atmosphere distributes heat via two large circulation cellsthick atmosphere distributes heat via two large circulation cells

There is no rain on the surface.There is no rain on the surface.• it is too hot and Venus has almost no Hit is too hot and Venus has almost no H22OO

Venusian clouds contain sulfuric acid!Venusian clouds contain sulfuric acid!• implies recent volcanic outgassing?implies recent volcanic outgassing?

Mars’ Thin AtmosphereMars’ Thin Atmosphere

Martian sunset Martian sunset illustrates just how illustrates just how thin the Martian thin the Martian atmosphere is.atmosphere is.



Martian Weather: N Polar Ice Cap & Martian Weather: N Polar Ice Cap & Dust StormDust Storm

Martian Weather TodayMartian Weather Today

• Seasons on Mars are more extreme than on EarthSeasons on Mars are more extreme than on Earth• Mars’ orbit is more ellipticalMars’ orbit is more elliptical

• COCO22 condenses & vaporizes at opposite poles condenses & vaporizes at opposite poles• changes in atmospheric pressure drive pole-to-pole windschanges in atmospheric pressure drive pole-to-pole winds• sometimes cause huge dust stormssometimes cause huge dust storms

The last decade of the 20th The last decade of the 20th Century was the warmest in the Century was the warmest in the entire global instrumental entire global instrumental temperature record, starting in temperature record, starting in the mid-1800’s. the mid-1800’s.

All 10 years rank among the 15 All 10 years rank among the 15 warmest, and include the 6 warmest, and include the 6 warmest years on record. warmest years on record.

Through the reconstruction of Through the reconstruction of past climate we can evaluate past climate we can evaluate the rarity and magnitude of this the rarity and magnitude of this warming.warming.



Greenhouse WarmingGreenhouse Warming

The Greenhouse EffectThe Greenhouse Effect Physics of ClimatePhysics of Climate Climate ForcingClimate Forcing Climate Change ResponseClimate Change Response UncertaintiesUncertainties

4.6 Billion Years Ago ...4.6 Billion Years Ago ...

(150 million km from Sun)

1 AU0.7 AU 1.5 AU

SUNSUNVenusVenus EarthEarth MarsMars

Temperature: Top of Atmosphere Temperature: Top of Atmosphere T

emp

erat

ure

(C

elsi

us)

500

300

100

0

-100-100

0

100

200

300

400

500

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

decreases with distance from Sun

1 AU

5500 oC

Earth-18oC (0oF)

Venus

0

-100Distance From Sun

0 AU

Mars

Clue: atm composition

-100

0

100

200

300

400

500

0.5 1 1.5 2

500

300

100

0

-100

Tem

per

atu

re (

Cel

siu

s)EARTHEARTH:Surface 15oC (60oF)Top of Atm: -18oC (0oF)

All three phases of water

Surface warmer than top of atm Greenhouse Effect

Surface

No Greenhouse

Mass & Composition Mass & Composition of Atmospheresof Atmospheres

CO2: 95%

H2O: <4%

CO2: <0.04%

N2: 78%

O2: 21%

Earth: 1 atm

Venus: 95 atm

Mars: 0.006 atm

CO2


Goldilocks and the Greenhouse EffectGoldilocks and the Greenhouse Effect Physics of ClimatePhysics of Climate Climate ForcingClimate Forcing Climate Change ResponseClimate Change Response UncertaintiesUncertainties

c = c = x x freq.freq. = 3 x 10 = 3 x 1088 m/s in vacuum m/s in vacuum Wavenumber = 1/ Wavenumber = 1/ wavelengthwavelength ( cm ( cm-1-1)) FrequencyFrequency in GHz (1 Hz = sec in GHz (1 Hz = sec –1–1) )

The Electromagnetic SpectrumThe Electromagnetic Spectrum

EnergyWavelength

Vibrational Modes for COVibrational Modes for CO22

C OO

CO O

O OC

symmetric

bending 15 m

asymmetric 4.3 m

Greenhouse effect: Radiation at specific wavelengths excite CO2 into higher energy states. Light energy is absorbed by the CO2 molecules

Other Greenhouse GasesOther Greenhouse Gases

O

O O

O

H H

water ozone

N NO C

H

H

H H

methanenitrous oxide

Absorption by different molecules Absorption by different molecules = 0-15 µm = 0-15 µm

Absorption

Transmission

Peak terrestrial emission at ~300K

COCO22

BendingBendingModeMode

Top of Atm

Surface

Incoming from Sun:High energy,

short wavelength

Outgoing from EarthLow energy

Long wavelength

0.5 m

10 20

Radiance measuredAt top of atm

Theoretical Planck curve T= 300 K

Earth SpectrumEarth Spectrum

i) Difference between spectral radiant energy of source and at sensor absorption () Species and abundance of absorbing gas/aerosols in atm

ii) No atm absorbers at 10-12.5 m sea surface temperature

Incoming Light: Peaks at 0.5 micronsIncoming Light: Peaks at 0.5 micronsThermal Emission by Earth: Peaks at ~15 microns.Thermal Emission by Earth: Peaks at ~15 microns.

Infrared !

Energy BalanceEnergy Balance

Energy Balance at Top of Atmosphere: Energy Balance at Top of Atmosphere: Incoming shortwave = Outgoing longwaveIncoming shortwave = Outgoing longwave

Incoming Shortwave absorbed:Fo (1 – albedo)High albedo:Clouds (~10 m), ice,deserts

Outgoing longwave (IR) radiation:High clouds radiate less due to lower Temp

Carbon Dioxide:Carbon Dioxide:in our atmosphere isin our atmosphere is

Increasing rapidlyIncreasing rapidly







Worldwide CO2 EmissionBy fuel type: 1970 - 2020

CO2 Causes Global Warming:Stay tuned . . .



Burning coalBurning coal

gasoline

Natural gas

Since 1850: Since 1850: Atmospheric CO2 has Atmospheric CO2 has increased by 30% increased by 30%

Increase in Temperature tracksIncrease in Greenhouse Gases

Year1850 2000

Temperture vs Time

Three Perspectives onThree Perspectives onGlobal WarmingGlobal Warming

Kyoto Protocol:Kyoto Protocol:

unfccc.int/resource/convkp.htmlunfccc.int/resource/convkp.html

White House Council on Environmental White House Council on Environmental Quality: Quality: www.whitehouse.gov/www.whitehouse.gov/ceqceq

Pew Center on Global Climate Change:Pew Center on Global Climate Change:

www.pewclimate.orgwww.pewclimate.org

http://www.whitehouse.gov/ceq


CO2 in atmosphere, measured in thick arctic ice.

CO2 Since the Year 1000 ADCO2 Since the Year 1000 AD

Increase in both atm and Increase in both atm and ocean heat content since ocean heat content since 1945: unlikely caused by 1945: unlikely caused by natural variability and natural variability and redistribution of heatredistribution of heat

Retreat of GlaciersRetreat of Glaciers



1948 2002

Trift Glacier, Gadmental, Berner, Oberland Switzerland

2006

Franz Josef Franz Josef Glacier In RetreatGlacier In Retreat











1951

1960

1964

1939

Franz Joseph glacierFranz Joseph glacierNew ZealandNew Zealand



LengthToday

Franz Joseph GlacierFranz Joseph GlacierNew ZealandNew Zealand



Notice how the rock projecting from the valley wall on the left of the picture has been smoothed and ground by the glacier, which covered it 50 years ago, and for many centuries before that.

Longitudinal grooves in the rock are characteristic of glacial carving. Vegetation has begun to cover it now and the grooves are harder to see than in 1964.

1500 2000

Receding GlaciersReceding GlaciersGlacierLength (km)

South Cascade Glacier inWashington. The yellow line indicates the location of the terminus in 1958. The red line shows the position of the terminus in 1998.

Temperature trend not Temperature trend not caused by solar caused by solar variabilityvariability

Measurements of solar irradiance:•Solar-min solar-max cycle•Offsets among instruments•No trend

Global WarmingGlobal Warming Hot political issue.Hot political issue. More research needed on amount of warming caused by human production More research needed on amount of warming caused by human production

of CO2.of CO2.

Three Facts are Absolute:Three Facts are Absolute:

1.1. Earth has warmed by 0.5C in past 50 years. Temperature rise greatest in Earth has warmed by 0.5C in past 50 years. Temperature rise greatest in past 10 years.past 10 years.

2.2. Humans are increasing by 30-50% the COHumans are increasing by 30-50% the CO22 in the atmosphere. in the atmosphere.

3.3. Rising CORising CO22 will cause rising temperatures will cause rising temperatures

Key Question: How much are humans contributing to Global warming ?

Predicting Feedback Predicting Feedback

Temp rise ==> Evaporation of ocean water.Temp rise ==> Evaporation of ocean water. H2O is a greenhouse gas ==>H2O is a greenhouse gas ==>

Earth gets even Warmer !Earth gets even Warmer !

But clouds may form, increasing albedo.But clouds may form, increasing albedo.

==> Earth cools.==> Earth cools.

Difficulties in Difficulties in

Predicting Feedback Predicting Feedback Temp rise causes polar cap ice to melt.Temp rise causes polar cap ice to melt. Artic ground exposed: dirt absorbs more Artic ground exposed: dirt absorbs more

sunlight (lower albedo).sunlight (lower albedo). Ground warms up more: Earth gets hotter.Ground warms up more: Earth gets hotter. More polar cap ice melts. Earth gets even More polar cap ice melts. Earth gets even

hotter.hotter.

Consequences ofConsequences of

Global WarmingGlobal Warming1.1. More evaporation of oceans: More storms, More evaporation of oceans: More storms,

and more severe storms.and more severe storms.2.2. Water in oceans exand with rising Temp. Water in oceans exand with rising Temp.

Sea level has already risen 20 cm in past Sea level has already risen 20 cm in past 100 years. Coastal regions and islands 100 years. Coastal regions and islands flood.flood.

3.3. Polar caps and Glaciers melt: Causes rising Polar caps and Glaciers melt: Causes rising ocean levels.ocean levels.

4.4. Change in ocean current patterns. Change in ocean current patterns. Desserts may get rain; Farmland may get Desserts may get rain; Farmland may get none.none.

By how much will temperatures change over By how much will temperatures change over the next 100 years?the next 100 years?

CO2 (t) T_surf

Different emission scenarios

DEPENDS ON MAGNITUDE OF FEEDBACK AND RATE OF INCREASE OF GHG. IN 100 YEARS, FORCED CLIMATE CHANGE WILL MOST LIKELY EXCEED NATURAL VARIABILITY

Global Climate Models used to project climate Global Climate Models used to project climate change from different COchange from different CO22 scenarios: scenarios:

Business as usual CO2 emission

Stabilization of CO2

Control

The Arctic will lose 50% to 60% of The Arctic will lose 50% to 60% of its ice distribution by 2100its ice distribution by 2100, according to the average of five climate models run by the scientists. One of the five models predicts that it will no longer have any ice in the summer.

Positive feedback.Positive feedback. Snow and ice reflect 80% to 90% of solar radiation back into space. But when these white surfaces disappear, more solar radiation is absorbed by the underlying land or sea as heat. This heat, in turn, melts more snow and ice.

Arctic is Warming at Twice Global RateArctic is Warming at Twice Global Rate

The Kyoto AgreementThe Kyoto Agreement

The Kyoto Protocol, negotiated by more than 160 nations in 1997, will reduce emissions of certain greenhouse gases (primarily CO2). Each of the participating developed countries must decide how to meet its respective reduction goal.

Signed by every country in the Signed by every country in the European Union,European Union,by Japan, and by Russia.by Japan, and by Russia.

Kyoto Agreement:Kyoto Agreement:

The United States Won’t SignThe United States Won’t Sign In March 2001, President Bush announced that the United In March 2001, President Bush announced that the United

States would not be a party to the Kyoto Protocol on Global States would not be a party to the Kyoto Protocol on Global Climate Change. Climate Change.

The Protocol requires signatories to cut carbon dioxide The Protocol requires signatories to cut carbon dioxide emissions an average of 5 percent below 1990 levels between emissions an average of 5 percent below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012. Developing nations are exempt from emission 2008 and 2012. Developing nations are exempt from emission reductions.reductions.

““President Bush strongly opposes any treaty or policy that would President Bush strongly opposes any treaty or policy that would cause the loss of a single American job, let alone the nearly 5 cause the loss of a single American job, let alone the nearly 5 million jobs Kyoto would have cost.” million jobs Kyoto would have cost.” - James Connaughton, chairman of - James Connaughton, chairman of the White House council on Environmental Quality.the White House council on Environmental Quality.

http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/vrrpt/summary/longform.html

United States Policy on COUnited States Policy on CO22

“Voluntary Reductions”“Voluntary Reductions”

Three Perspectives onThree Perspectives onGlobal WarmingGlobal Warming

Kyoto Protocol:Kyoto Protocol:

unfccc.int/resource/convkp.htmlunfccc.int/resource/convkp.html

White House Council on Environmental White House Council on Environmental Quality: Quality: www.whitehouse.gov/www.whitehouse.gov/ceqceq

Pew Center on Global Climate Change:Pew Center on Global Climate Change:

www.pewclimate.orgwww.pewclimate.org



Marcy Stopped Here.Marcy Stopped Here.

OzoneOzone Formation of ozone:Formation of ozone: Without ozone in the Without ozone in the

sttratosphere, life would sttratosphere, life would not be possible on Earth. not be possible on Earth.

Ozone prevents harmful Ozone prevents harmful ultra-violet radiation from ultra-violet radiation from the Sun (light with the Sun (light with wavelengths less than 320 wavelengths less than 320 nm) reaching the ground. nm) reaching the ground.

If allowed to reach Earth, If allowed to reach Earth, this radiation would this radiation would severly damage the cells severly damage the cells that plants and animals that plants and animals are made up of. are made up of.

Ozone was first formed in Ozone was first formed in the Earth's atmosphere the Earth's atmosphere after the release of after the release of oxygen, between 2000 oxygen, between 2000 and 600 million years and 600 million years before the first humans before the first humans appeared.appeared.



Ozone formation - ultra-violet radiation from the sun (shown in yellow) splits oxygen molecules into oxygen atoms which then react with more O2 to form ozone. Another molecule (M) is needed to absorb some of the huge amount of energy involved in the reaction.

The Ozone HoleThe Ozone Hole Ozone also plays a very important, Ozone also plays a very important,

natural role in the upper natural role in the upper atmosphere (the atmosphere (the stratospherestratosphere). ). Ozone absorbs harmful ultraviolet Ozone absorbs harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. (UV) radiation from the sun.

Reductions in ozone results in the Reductions in ozone results in the increase of harmful UV radiation increase of harmful UV radiation reaching the Earth's surface. reaching the Earth's surface.

The biggest destroyer of the ozone The biggest destroyer of the ozone in the stratosphere is human in the stratosphere is human produced chemical compounds: produced chemical compounds: (chlorofluorocarbons - CFC's),(chlorofluorocarbons - CFC's),



Oct 1998

Earth radiance in the near Earth radiance in the near ultraviolet spectrum.ultraviolet spectrum.

More solar UVMore solar UV

light is reaching thelight is reaching the

Earth over polar Earth over polar regions.regions.



March 14, 2006

Ozone Layer:Ozone Layer:Damage and RecoveryDamage and Recovery



In 1985 over 60 countries pledged to phased out a group of chemicals called CFC's. These very stable chemicals were once widely used in aerosols and refrigerators. It was thought that their release into the atmosphere produced chlorine radicals which reacted with O3 to produce O2. The emission of CFC's into the environment is now greatly reduced.

http://www.moorlandschool.co.uk/earth/radicals.htm

Human Activity ChangesHuman Activity ChangesOur PlanetOur Planet

Ozone “hole” forming in the ozone layer Ozone “hole” forming in the ozone layer over the Antarctic.over the Antarctic.

CFC (chlorofluorocarbons) CFC (chlorofluorocarbons) Cl-O Cl-O

International Treaties and policies:International Treaties and policies: Montreal protocol: phase out of production of CFC and Montreal protocol: phase out of production of CFC and

methyl bromide.methyl bromide.

Ozone hole will take decades to recover:Ozone hole will take decades to recover: 100 year lifetimes of CFCs in the atmosphere.100 year lifetimes of CFCs in the atmosphere. Recovery will be slow.Recovery will be slow.

Habitat Destruction and PollutionHabitat Destruction and Pollution

Chemicals, such as pesticides, damageChemicals, such as pesticides, damage

reproduction of many species.reproduction of many species.

Habitat is lost, such as wetlands and migrationHabitat is lost, such as wetlands and migration

paths over hundreds of miles.paths over hundreds of miles.

Extinctions occurring at high rates, comparedExtinctions occurring at high rates, compared

to historic averages.to historic averages.

What are Weather and ClimateWhat are Weather and Climate??

These are Earth’s These are Earth’s global wind global wind patterns patterns or circulationor circulation• local weather systems move along local weather systems move along

with themwith them

• weather moves from W to E at weather moves from W to E at mid-latitudes in N hemispheremid-latitudes in N hemisphere

Two factors cause these patternsTwo factors cause these patterns• atmospheric heatingatmospheric heating

• planetary rotationplanetary rotation

Weather – short-term changes in wind, clouds, temperature, and pressure in an atmosphere at a given location

Climate – long-term average of the weather at a given location

Global Wind PatternsGlobal Wind Patterns Air heated more at equatorAir heated more at equator

• warm air rises at equator; warm air rises at equator; heads for polesheads for poles

• cold air moves towards cold air moves towards equator along the surfaceequator along the surface

Two circulation cells are Two circulation cells are created in each hemisphere created in each hemisphere

Cells of air do not go directly from Cells of air do not go directly from pole to equator; air circulation is pole to equator; air circulation is diverted by…diverted by…

Coriolis effectCoriolis effect• moving objects veer moving objects veer rightright on a on a

surface rotating surface rotating counterclockwisecounterclockwise• moving objects veer moving objects veer leftleft on a on a

surface rotating surface rotating clockwiseclockwise

Global Wind PatternsGlobal Wind Patterns On Earth, the Coriolis effect breaks each On Earth, the Coriolis effect breaks each

circulation cell into three separate cellscirculation cell into three separate cells• winds move either W to E or E to W winds move either W to E or E to W

• Coriolis effect not strong on Mars & Venus• Mars is too small

• Venus rotates too slowly

• In thick Venusian atmosphere, the pole-to-equator circulation cells distribute heat efficiently

• surface temperature is uniform all over the planet

Clouds, Rain and SnowClouds, Rain and Snow Clouds strongly affect the surface conditions of a planetClouds strongly affect the surface conditions of a planet

• they increase its albedo, thus reflecting away more sunlightthey increase its albedo, thus reflecting away more sunlight• they provide rain and snow, which causes erosionthey provide rain and snow, which causes erosion

Formation of rain and snow:Formation of rain and snow:

Four Major Factors that affectFour Major Factors that affect Long-term Climate Change Long-term Climate Change

Gain/Loss Processes of Atmospheric Gain/Loss Processes of Atmospheric Gas Gas

Unlike the Jovian planets, the terrestrials were too small to Unlike the Jovian planets, the terrestrials were too small to capture significant gas from the Solar nebula.capture significant gas from the Solar nebula.• what gas they did capture was H & He, and it escapedwhat gas they did capture was H & He, and it escaped• present-day atmospheres must have formed at a later timepresent-day atmospheres must have formed at a later time

Sources of atmospheric gas:Sources of atmospheric gas:• outgassingoutgassing – release of gas trapped in interior rock by volcanism – release of gas trapped in interior rock by volcanism• evaporation/sublimationevaporation/sublimation – surface liquids or ices turn to gas when – surface liquids or ices turn to gas when

heatedheated• bombardmentbombardment – micrometeorites, Solar wind particles, or high- – micrometeorites, Solar wind particles, or high-

energy photons blast atoms/molecules out of surface rockenergy photons blast atoms/molecules out of surface rock occurs only if the planet has no substantial atmosphere already occurs only if the planet has no substantial atmosphere already

Gain/Loss Processes of Atmospheric Gain/Loss Processes of Atmospheric GasGas

Ways to lose atmospheric gas:Ways to lose atmospheric gas:• condensationcondensation – gas turns into liquids or ices on the surface when – gas turns into liquids or ices on the surface when

cooledcooled• chemical reactionschemical reactions – gas is bound into surface rocks or liquids – gas is bound into surface rocks or liquids• strippingstripping – gas is knocked out of the upper atmosphere by Solar – gas is knocked out of the upper atmosphere by Solar

wind particleswind particles• impactsimpacts – a comet/asteroid collision with a planet can blast – a comet/asteroid collision with a planet can blast

atmospheric gas into spaceatmospheric gas into space• thermal escapethermal escape – lightweight gas molecules are lost to space when – lightweight gas molecules are lost to space when

they achieve escape velocitythey achieve escape velocity

gas is lost forever!

Origin of the Terrestrial AtmospheresOrigin of the Terrestrial Atmospheres Lack of magnetospheres on Venus & Mars made Lack of magnetospheres on Venus & Mars made

stripping by the Solar wind significant.stripping by the Solar wind significant.• further loss of atmosphere on Marsfurther loss of atmosphere on Mars

• dissociation of Hdissociation of H22O, HO, H22 thermally escapes on Venus thermally escapes on Venus

Gas and liquid/ice exchange occurs through Gas and liquid/ice exchange occurs through condensation and evaporation/sublimation:condensation and evaporation/sublimation:• on Earth with Hon Earth with H22OO

• on Mars with COon Mars with CO22

Since Mercury & the Moon have no substantial Since Mercury & the Moon have no substantial atmosphere, fast particles and high-energy photons atmosphere, fast particles and high-energy photons reach their surfacesreach their surfaces• bombardment creates a rarified exospherebombardment creates a rarified exosphere

Climate History of MarsClimate History of Mars

• More than 3 billion years ago, Mars must have More than 3 billion years ago, Mars must have had a thick COhad a thick CO22 atmosphere and a strong atmosphere and a strong

greenhouse effect.greenhouse effect.• the so-called “warm and wet period”the so-called “warm and wet period”

• Eventually COEventually CO2 2 was lost to space.was lost to space.• some gas was lost to impactssome gas was lost to impacts• cooling interior meant loss of magnetic fieldcooling interior meant loss of magnetic field• Solar wind stripping removed gasSolar wind stripping removed gas

Greenhouse effect weakened until Mars froze. Greenhouse effect weakened until Mars froze.

Rock cycleRock cycle



Water cycleWater cycle



Average amount of time spent in a reservoirAverage amount of time spent in a reservoir

Residence time =Residence time =

amount in reservoir/amount added (removed) per unit amount in reservoir/amount added (removed) per unit timetime

Residence timeResidence time

Amount out/time

Amount in/timeAmount in reservoir

Residence time at BerkeleyResidence time at Berkeley

20,000 students20,000 students 5,000 enter (leave)/year5,000 enter (leave)/year

Residence time?Residence time?

Residence time = 20,000 students/5,000 students/year

= 4 years

Residence time of water in the Residence time of water in the oceanocean

Volume in ocean: 1.3x10Volume in ocean: 1.3x1099 km km33

Discharge from rivers: 3.5x10Discharge from rivers: 3.5x1044 km km33/yr/yr

Residence time: volume/dischargeResidence time: volume/discharge= 1.3x10= 1.3x1099 km km33/ 3.5x10/ 3.5x1044 km km33/yr/yr

= 30 x 10= 30 x 1033 years years

Carbon cycleCarbon cycle



Long term Carbon cycleLong term Carbon cycle



Carbon cycle: volumesCarbon cycle: volumes



Earth’s MagnetosphereEarth’s Magnetosphere

SolarWind:Electrons, protons, helium nuclei

the greenhouse effect & global warming earth and the other terrestrial worlds

Documents

greenhouse effectuv

warmest years

martian atmosphere

light energy

atm compositionsurface

co2 molecules

atmosphere decreases

thick atmosphere