THE GROWING SIGNIFICANCE OF DIASPORAS:

AN AUSTRALIAN PERSPECTIVE

byGraeme Hugo

University Professorial Research FellowProfessor of Geography and Director of the National Centre

for Social Applications of GIS,The University of Adelaide

Presentation to Fifth Diversity Matters Forum, Monash University Campus, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

19-20 November 2008

Outline of Presentation

• Introduction

• Defining Diaspora

• Transnationalism, International Migration and Development

• Australia’s Diaspora

• Diasporas in Australia

• Some Implications for Policy

• Conclusion

Defining Diaspora

Diaspora has its origins in the Greek word ‘to colonise’ and until relatively recently it has

been used to refer largely to a group of people who are linked by common ethno-

linguistic and/or religious bonds who have left their homeland, usually under some form

of coercion, and who have developed a strong identity and mutual solidarity in exile.

The Jewish diaspora has been the classic example (Cohen 1997). In the

contemporary context, with the acceleration in international mobility, the

term has been used more broadly to encompass expatriate populations who

are living outside of their home countries and retain linkages with their origin

countries (Safran 1991; Vertovec 1997).

Distinctions in Diaspora Studies (Reis, 2004)

Reis (2004, 46) distinguishes between two groups of diaspora theorists: on the one hand are those who focus on ‘classical’ diaspora based on the Jewish archetype, while, on the other, are those

who co-mingle contemporary diasporas with issues of transnationalism and globalisation. It is

the latter, wider conceptualisation which is of particular relevance to contemporary discussion of the impacts of emigration on development in

origin countries.

A distinction also has been made in studies of diaspora ‘between a symbolic ethnic identity of ‘being’

and a more active ‘diaspora identity’ requiring involvement’

(Butler 2001, 191-93) with the latter implying active participation in

activity in the homeland.

Butler (2001) has built on the work of Safran (1991) to advance a number of criteria which he considers characterise contemporary diaspora. He argues that it is not necessary for communities of expatriates to fulfil all of the criteria but implies that they should meet most of them. They include:

• Expatriates should be spread over more than one destination.

• They should retain a relationship with their real or imagined homeland.

• There should be an awareness of group identity.• The diaspora should exist beyond the first

generation.

Paradigm Shift in International Migration Research

Permanent Settlement Transnationalism

Assimilation and Transnational Ties Between

Integration Within Destination ‘Origin’ and ‘Destination’

Nation State

Focus on Immigration Focus on Both Emigration

and Destination and Immigration, Origin and

Destination and Linkages

Between Them

What is the National Population?

Diagrammatic Representation of a National Population

Measuring the Diaspora

• Stocks – Problem from nation state perspective because by definition they are absent when the population census is taken

• Flows – Bias in international migration data toward immigration and against emigration, few countries collect the latter

• Potential for producing synthetic censuses of emigrants using several destination country censuses

Migration and Development

Shift in discourse from a focus on ‘brain drain’ to an increasing consideration of the positive effects of emigration through:

• Remittances• Encouragement of FDI• Return – permanent, temporary and virtual• Knowledge transfer• TradeThe crucial role of the diaspora.

The Australian Diaspora

• Approximately one million people

• Selective of young adults

• Highly skilled and educated

• High level of return

Australia: Permanent Arrivals and Departures, 1959-60 to 2006-07Source: DIMIA Australian Immigration: Consolidated Statistics and DIAC Immigration Update,

various issues

Permanent Departures from Australia, 1993-94 to 2006-07Source: DIAC

Australia: Percent Permanent and Long Term Arrivals and Departures by Occupation, 1997-98 to 2007-08

Source: DIAC unpublished data

Arrivals DeparturesOccupation Settler Long Term Permanent Long Term 1.Manager & Administrators 11.7 15.6 17.8 12.82.Professionals 43.2 46.8 40.1 45.23.Associate Professionals 10.3 10.1 11.2 10.14.Tradespersons 13.4 8.3 6.9 8.05.Adv Clerical & Sales 2.6 2.7 3.7 2.96.Intermediate Clerical, Sales & Service 10.6 11.2 13.1 13.87.Int Production & Transport 2.8 1.5 2.2 2.08.Elementary Clerical, Sales & Service 3.1 2.8 3.0 3.19. Labourers 2.3 1.1 1.9 2.1Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0N= 551,699 1,381,981 363,413 1,068,009

Australia: Age-Sex Structure of Permanent Departures of the Australia-born, Permanent Arrivals and Australian Residents Long

Term Departures, 2007-08Source: DIAC unpublished data

10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10

0-4

5-9

10-14

15-19

20-24

25-29

30-34

35-39

40-44

45-49

50-54

55-59

60-64

65+

Ag

e

Percent

Males Females

Permanent Departures Australia-born

10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10

0-4

5-9

10-14

15-19

20-24

25-29

30-34

35-39

40-44

45-49

50-54

55-59

60-64

65+

Ag

e

Percent

Males Females

Settler Arrivals

12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

0-4

5-9

10-14

15-19

20-24

25-29

30-34

35-39

40-44

45-49

50-54

55-59

60-64

65+

Ag

e

Percent

Males Females

Residents Long Term Departures

Australia: Long-Term Arrivals and Departures of Australian Residents by Age, 2004-07

Source: DIAC, unpublished data

Arrivals Departures Age Group

Number Percent Number Percent

Net Migration

0-29 143,743 46.0 171,884 59.0 -28,141 30-30 83,494 26.5 72,320 24.8 +11,174 40-49 42,993 13.6 35,990 12.4 +7,003 50-59 25,970 8.2 22,836 7.8 +3,134 60+ 19,040 6.0 10,126 3.5 +8,914

Total 315,240 100.0 313,156 100.0 +2,084

Survey of Australian Expatriates:Intentions to Return to Australia

Source: Hugo, Rudd and Harris, 2003, 50; One Million More Survey, Parker, forthcoming

Australian Emigration

Study 2002

One Million More Survey

2006

US Expatriates Study 2007

Intend to Return 50.7 63.5 35.7 Do Not Intend to Return 17.2 10.9 30.8 Undecided 32.1 25.6 33.5

Total Percent 100.0 100.0 100.0 n 2,072 8,744 1,581

Survey of Australian Expatriates:Reasons Given for Leaving Australia (Percent)

Source: Hugo, Rudd and Harris, 2003, 44; One Million More Survey, Parker, forthcoming

Reason

Australian Emigration

Study 2002

n=2,070

One Million More Survey

2006 n=9,529

US Expatriates

Study 2007

n=1,581

Better Employment Opportunities 42.6 53.9 81.4 International Experience/Experience New Culture

36.1 62.7 43.3

Job Transfer, Career Advancement 23.7 19.4 44.2 Family, Marriage 22.3 17.4 36.8 Partner’s Employment 12.1 11.1 13.0

Survey of Australian Expatriates: Reasons Given by Respondents for Intending to Return to Australia Source: Hugo, Rudd and Harris, 2003; One Million More Survey, Parker, forthcoming

Australian Emigration

Study 2002

One Million More Survey

2006

US Expatriates Study 2007

Lifestyle 82.9 65.3 61.2 Family 71.5 77.5 73.5 Work 15.7 14.9 12.7 Education 9.8 5.4 4.8

Total Percent 100.0 100.0 100.0 n 1,050 5,637 1,529

Survey of Australian Expatriates:Proportion That Still Call Australia Home (Percent)

Source: Hugo, Rudd and Harris, 2003, 46; One Million More Survey, Parker, forthcoming

Australian Emigration

Study 2002

One Million More Survey

2006

US Expatriates Study 2007

Yes 79.3 62.8 80.4 No 16.7 3.9 6.8 Undecided 4.0 4.2 12.8 I have more than one home - 29.1 -

Ways in Which Respondents Keep in Touch With What is Happening in Australia While Away, 2006

Source: One Million More Survey (n=9,529)

Ways of Keeping in Touch Percent

Regular interaction with family and friends 92.0

Regular reading of on-line media 90.7

Regular interaction with Australian colleagues 44.1

International news channels 35.0

Expatriate organisations 24.1

Australian journals/magazines 20.2

Mailing lists 11.4

Other 6.3

Australian Expatriates:Frequency of Visiting Australia 2006

Source: One Million More Survey (n=8,879)

Frequency Percent

More than once per year 12.3 Once per year 27.5 Once every 1-2 years 30.8 Once every 2-3 years 14.6 Once every 3-5 years 8.1 Less than once each 5 years 6.8

Total 100.0

Australian Expatriates: Responses to Statements Relating to Contribution to Australia, 2006

Source: One Million More Survey (n=8,879)

Percent Agreeing

Statement Intending to Return

Remain Overseas

Undecided Total

1. I feel I am an ambassador for my country and I promote Australia at every opportunity

65.0 41.7 48.8 58.3

2. When people ask me questions about Australia I am happy to share my knowledge

92.7 88.9 90.8 91.8

3. I am gaining skills and experience that I can take back to Australia with me if/when I move to Australia to live

79.9 20.9 55.7 67.3

4. I am making contacts overseas for other Australians/Australian companies

13.9 8.3 11.6 12.7

Australians Living Overseas: Frequency of Contact with Australia, 2006

Source: One Million More Survey (n=9,529)

Telephone Email Post Fax Frequency of

Contact Business Personal Business Personal Business Personal Business Personal

At least once a day 3.5 6.2 8.9 29.8 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.1

Every 2-3 days 3.4 19.3 4.8 28.8 0.8 1.0 0.8 0.3

Weekly 5.6 45.9 7.5 27.9 2.3 4.8 1.5 0.6

Monthly 12.5 21.9 15.5 10.8 8.2 36.5 4.3 3.2

Every 6 months 15.0 4.6 14.5 1.9 11.9 34.7 7.4 9.2

Once per year 9.2 1.1 7.6 0.4 8.4 10.0 7.4 10.5

Never 50.9 1.0 41.3 0.5 68.0 12.7 77.9 76.0

‘It has really been since I have lived overseas that I have been

more acutely aware of my sense of being Australian’.

Awareness of Group Identity

Identity as an Expatriate

• Development of formal and informal expatriate groups- originally single country eg Indonesia- also often partly business- increasingly web based and

international• Emergence of an Australian expatriate

culture

‘I have my husband and family now here in the USA but all the rest of my immediate family are in Australia – it will always be 'home' but I also have a home here. I will never give up my Australian citizenship.’

 

‘Being born raised and educated in Australia set the values by which I live today. Had my wife and I had children we would have returned to Australia for their education.’

Identification with Homeland

Development of Multiple Identity

‘Dual nationality is important for expatriates as they don’t want to give up their Australian citizenship. Yet for business and other reasons being a citizen in the country they reside in is useful.’

‘I have lived in England nearly 40 years but have kept my Australian citizenship.’

‘We left Australia because in 1980-81, 2 PhDs in Physics in Adelaide had very little chance of getting reasonably equivalent jobs. We are still here because it is difficult to judge at a distance the costs and benefits of the return… I guess pragmatically we have emigrated but emotionally it feels more like an extended visit.’

Formal Expatriate Networkseg Southern Cross

• Established 2000• 4,000 on mailing list• Meetings in different countries• Strong lobbying role

- Dual citizenship- The right to vote in Australia

• Social role• Funded by Australian businessmen,

consulate help

‘Perhaps my husband and I are slipping towards some expatriate no mans land outsiders not only in the country we have chosen to live in but our own country as well. We wonder if we will ever settle contentedly into Australia again, and fear we won’t. Perhaps we have entered, without even realising it, that strange state of exile where a memory of home is all we have left.’

Nikki Gemnell 2003

Diasporas in Australia

• Large immigrant communities

60 birthplace groups with 10,000+

115 birthplace groups with 1,000+

• Selective of highly skilled

• Variation in degree of identification with origin

Australia: Persons Born in the Asia-Pacific by Country of Birth, 2006Source: ABS 2006 Census

Diaspora and Co-development

The potential for migrants to help transform their native countries has captured the

imaginations of national and local authorities, international institutions and the

private sector. There is an emerging consensus that countries can co-operate to

create triple wins, for migrants, for their countries of origin and for the societies that

receive them’ (United Nations, 2006a, 5).

Major development agencies (World Bank, DFID, ADB, IOM, ILO) argue that diasporas based in high income countries can play a role in economic development and poverty

reduction in low income origin areas.

Several countries (e.g. Philippines, India, China) have set up agencies to engage with

the diaspora and facilitate these impacts.

Remittances Flows to Developing Countries, 2002 to 2007Source: World Bank 2008, p. 1

Remittances and Capital Flows to Developing EconomiesSource: World Bank 2007, p.2

Diaspora as Source of FDI

• Individual Investment (China)

• Influence on Companies (India)

Diaspora as Bridgehead

• Korea in the US

• In Canada a doubling of skilled

migration from Asia resulted in

a 74 percent increase in imports

Diaspora as Vehicle of Knowledge Transfer

• Silicon Valley linkages

• China initiatives

• Social remittances

Diaspora and Development Assistance

• Investment in education systems of origin countries of skilled migrants (Stark)

• Use of diaspora to facilitate development assistance

Diaspora and Return

• Permanent, Temporary and Virtual

Return

• Facilitate Training, Knowledge

Transfer

• Contribute to Development at Home

Policy Implications from Australia

• Policy toward Australia’s diaspora

• Can Australia assist diasporas

within the country facilitating

development in their home

countries?

An Australian Expatriate Policy?

In October 2003 the Australian Senate established aninquiry with the following terms of reference:• The extent of the Australian diaspora.• The variety of factors driving more Australians to live

overseas.• The costs, benefits and opportunities presented by

the phenomenon.• The needs and concerns of overseas Australians.• The measures taken by comparable countries to

respond to the needs of expatriates.• Ways in which Australia can better use its expatriates

to promote economic, social and cultural interests.

Contrasting Views on Diaspora

• Australia may be losing its 'brightest and best' whose loss is disproportionately large due to their innovation, entrepreneurship and economic, social, cultural and political leadership.

• There may be a net loss of highly skilled people in particular important niches, (e.g. mathematics, Wood (ed.) 2004)

• There was a strong feeling among expatriate organisations that they were 'the forgotten Australians' and were disenfranchised from aspects of Australian life they wished to be involved in.

Other Views

• It is of little concern – there are net migration gains in all skill categories; there are high rates of return migration.

• Australia should engage the diaspora in a number of ways.

• Australia should encourage return migration as part of its immigration program.

The Senate Committee brought down its report in March 2005(Australian Senate Legal and Constitutional ReferencesCommittee 2005). It made 16 recommendations including:

• Measures to improve better provision of information to expatriates.

• Establishing a policy unit on expatriates within DFAT.• Improve statistical information on expatriates.• Revise consular role of missions to better engage

expatriates.• Improved registration of expatriates in missions.• Amend Citizenship Act in a number of ways including to

enable children of former Australian citizens to apply for Australian citizenship.

• Enable some expatriates to remain on Electoral enrolment.• Encourage non-profit organisations to pursue philanthropic

contributions from expatriate Australians.

Some opportunities which recognise that in a globalisingworld the Australian community comprises more thanthose residing within national boundaries:

• Direct involvement in Australia’s economy– Bridgeheads for the export of Australian goods and

services (mining and wine industries)– Linking Australian-based and overseas-based

scientists and researchers– Encouraging return of skilled Australians wishing to

return– Source of investment (Fullilove and Flutter 2005, 61)

estimate expatriates donate $80m a year to charity– Targeted programs, e.g. in the film industry (Walton

2005)

A Development-Friendly Policy Toward Diasporas in Australia?

There are two interesting areas which are emerging in relation to diaspora and development. The first relates to the issue of return migration. The conventional wisdom has been that encouraging expatriates to return to permanently live in their homeland can

deliver development dividends to emigration countries. However there is increasing evidence that in some cases a greater dividend can be delivered by the expatriate remaining in foreign countries

but ‘returning’ frequently through regular visits and virtually through regular interaction with relevant people in the homeland

(Wescott, 2005). Secondly it is evident that while the whole debate has been on what origin countries can do to involve the diaspora in

development it is clear that destination countries too can be important in facilitating their immigrants retaining developmentally

relevant linkages with their origins.

DFID, 2007, 1

• How can development agencies

increase the benefits and reduce

the risks of migration for poor

people in low income countries?

• Several interventions possible.

Interventions at Destination to Facilitate Development in Origins

• Remittances – increasing flow and providing opportunities for their productive use

• Build on skills and talents of minorities to promote development in origin (DFID)

• Having a development sensitive migration policy• Encouraging dual citizenship, portability of

pensions• Encouraging maintenance of culture, links with

origin countries• Diaspora as agents of development?

Barriers

• Siloization of government agencies

• Culture of only considering the impact of migration on Australia

• Assimilationist views

Conclusion• The rise of transnational communities has blurred the

distinction between foreign and local• No longer can nation states afford to follow development

policies which are exclusively domestic in focus (Dade 2004)

• Australia is ‘hard-wired’ internationally both by its substantial communities of immigrants and their descendants linking with their homelands on the one hand and its expatriate community’s networks with Australia on the other

• Despite a national policy of multiculturalism there is a dearth of interest in either set of networks by government

• Little research for evidence-based policy.