the harmonic and rhythmic language of herbie hancock's 1970s fender rhodes solos

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The Harmonic and Rhythmic Languageof Herbie Hancock's 1970s FenderRhodes SolosJon OpstadPublished online: 21 Apr 2009.

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The Harmonic and Rhythmic Languageof Herbie Hancocks 1970s FenderRhodes SolosJon Opstad

Herbie Hancocks Fender Rhodes keyboard solos of the 1970s have not received the

same degree of critical attention as his acoustic piano work, particularly his piano-

centered recordings from the 1960s under his own name and with Miles Davis.

Nevertheless, the 1970s and early 1980s were a period of enormous commercial

success for Hancock, starting with the 1974 Head Hunters album, which became the

first jazz album to achieve platinum sales,1 and culminating in his massive techno hit

Rockit in 1983, which was a chart success both in the United States and the United

Kingdom. With his electric recordings from this period, many critics felt that

Hancock had sold out to a mass pop audience, and the general suspicion (even

derision) with which the jazz world often treats commercial success meant that the

substantial musical innovations that Hancock made during this time have not been

widely acknowledged.

Hancocks Fender Rhodes playing is highly distinctive. The harmonic and

rhythmic innovations that he made with his acoustic piano work across the 1960s2

were distilled in his Rhodes playing into an instantly recognisable style that is

arguably more harmonically and rhythmically advanced than that of any other player

of this instrument. One of the key features of the jazz-funk genre in which the

majority of these solos were performed is the generally slow rate of harmonic rhythm.

Unlike the rapid chord changes of bebop and other previously prevalent jazz genres,

jazz-funk was often riff-based, with improvisations based on a few chords, or often

just over a single harmonic area. What set Hancock apart as a soloist within this style

of improvisation was his genius for reharmonisation. Whereas the static harmonic

backdrop to solos limited many soloists, Hancock mastered techniques of harmonic

tension and release, creating elaborate harmonic development within his solos and

generating a strong sense of form.

1 This information can be found on the Recording Industry Association of America website, http://

www.riaa.com/goldandplatinumdata.php?table5SEARCH (search under Artist: Herbie Hancock).

Accessed November 24, 2008. The albums platinum status achieved November 21, 1986.2 Elements of Hancocks 1960s acoustic piano playing have been analysed in Keith Waters, Blurring the

Barline: Metric Displacement in the Piano Solos of Herbie Hancock, Annual Review of Jazz Studies 8

(1996): 1937, and David Morgan, Superimposition in the Improvisations of Herbie Hancock,

Annual Review of Jazz Studies 11 (2001): 6990.

Jazz PerspectivesVol. 3, No. 1, April 2009, pp. 5779

ISSN 1749-4060 print/1749-4079 online # 2009 Taylor & FrancisDOI: 10.1080/17494060902778126

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Through his 1970s Fender Rhodes solos, Hancock took outside playing to a new

level in harmonic sophistication and sheer musicality in such a way that has had a

significant influence on later generations of improvisers, but which has gone

largely ignored by jazz critics and analysts. With some of Hancocks most

innovative work recorded in funk and vocal pop contexts, some of which can

sound dated to modern ears, a substantial degree of this innovation has gone

unrecognised.

The Rhodes Years

Although his first recorded appearance on Fender Rhodes was the track Stuff on

the Miles Davis Quintet album, Miles in the Sky, recorded May 17, 1968, Hancocks

first experience with an electric piano was actually some months earlier on a

Wurlitzer model, of which he said:

We were doing a recording session with Miles and when I came into the studio Ididnt see an acoustic piano anywhere. In the corner of the room was only thisWurlitzer electric piano that Id never played before. I asked Miles what he wantedme to play and he said Play that. I was thinking That toy? Then I turned it onand was really surprised by the sound. It sounded beautiful! From that I learnednot to form an opinion on something you have no experience of. And Miles waslistening to Jimi Hendrix and other rock artists, and flamenco and classical musicand opera. When I saw this from my musical mentor I started to think Whatswrong with me that Im so closed-minded and he is open-minded? So I changedmy whole attitude.3

The session was for the track Water on the Pond, from December 28, 1967,

though this recording remained unreleased until 1981.4 The Rhodes made a brief

appearance within the ensemble passages on Hancocks final Blue Note album, The

Prisoner, in 1969 (although he did not solo on the instrument on this recording).

From the following year, with Fat Albert Rotunda, the Rhodes became his primary

instrument for recording until 1983, when the dramatic shift in musical direction of

Rockit largely signalled the end of the period of Rhodes solos and a shift towards

digital synthesisersand then, ultimately, another shift back to the acoustic piano.

Since this time, Hancock has largely turned his back on the Rhodes. In the quarter of

a century since Rockit, only one album recorded under his name has used the

instrument to any significant degree, Future2Future, recorded in 2001 (although this

release contains barely a hint of his 1970s solo style).5

3 Paul Tingen, Herbie Hancock: Creating Future2Future and Touring in Surround, www.soundon-

sound.com/sos/jul02/articles/herbiehancock.asp. Accessed November 24, 2008. Originally published in

Sound On Sound, July 2002.4 Originally released on Miles Davis, Directions, Columbia 88514, 1981, LP; reissued as Sony 35392,

1998, compact disc.5 Hancock has revived his 1970s Rhodes style for a small number of live situations. These events include

the 1998 Return of the Headhunters tour (albeit with Hancock soloing on modern keyboards rather

than a Rhodes) and a tour with hip-hop artist Guru in 2000 (during which Hancock played a Rhodes).

58 Herbie Hancocks 1970s Fender Rhodes Solos

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The Rhodes Years in Hancocks discography lasted from 1969 to 1982. Within this

period, Hancocks recorded output under his own name can be roughly divided into

three sub-periods (with his major albums from each period listed in the third column):

19691973 The Sextet Years (Mwandishi, Crossings, Sextant, etc.)

19741978 The Headhunters Years (Head Hunters, Thrust, Man-Child, etc.)

19791982 The Disco Years (Feets Dont Fail Me Now, Monster, etc.)

Hancocks approach to the Rhodes changed subtly for each of these sub-periods.

Much of his early use of the instrument was in the context of his sextet, a group that

focussed strongly on exploring textural possibilities. A large amount of Hancocks

Rhodes playing on albums such as Mwandishi (1971) and Crossings (1972) was

strongly textural, focussing more on creating washes of sound and expanding the

timbral range of the instrument through effects processing than soloing in a

conventional sense, although a small number of significant solos were recorded

during this period. The majority of Hancocks most significant Fender Rhodes solos

were recorded in the years 1974 to 1978, with the instrument largely unprocessed and

at the forefront of arrangements. Head Hunters (1974), the defining statement of

Hancocks funk-influenced work, featured two extensive, landmark Rhodes solos on

the tracks Chameleon and Sly. The Rhodes played a less prominent role on

Hancocks four disco projects, Feets Dont Fail Me Now (1979), Monster (1980),

Magic Windows (1981), and Lite Me Up (1982). (Please see Appendix 2 for complete

discographical information on these and other releases cited in this essay.) In total,

these latter releases include only a small handful of solos, of which Magic Number

from Magic Windows strongly stands out.

Broadly speaking, Hancocks appearances as a sideman on Rhodes fall within the

same stylistic categories outlined above. During the first sub-period, he appeared on

albums such as Eddie Hendersons Realization (1973), Bennie Maupins The Jewel in

the Lotus (1974), and Norman Connorss Dance of Magic (1973), each of which

featured the Rhodes in a role of textural exploration, with each recording influenced

by the music of the sextet. Across the second sub-period, he appeared on albums such

as Harvey Masons Marching in the Street (1975) and Eddie Hendersons Mahal

(1978), soloing in settings strongly influenced by Head Hunters. Over his disco

sub-period, Hancock appeared in a non-soloing session role on pop albums such as

Quincy Joness The Dude (1980) and George Bensons Give Me the Night (1980). On

these latter two releases, it is a testament to how individual a player Hancock is that

he remains distinctive even in the background of heavily-produced pop music.

Three of Hancocks albums featuring the Rhodes fall outside of the categorisation

implied by the sub-periods described previously. The tracks for Fat Albert Rotunda,

from 1969, were originally composed as television music and have strong R&B

elements that separate this album from the sextet recordings that immediately

followed. The 1978 Sunlight, in achieving pop success with the vocal single I

Thought It Was You, could be classified with the disco albums that followed, but

this release is a considerably more orchestrated and richly textured recording, with

stronger elements of improvisation. As such, Sunlight stands on its own stylistically

Jazz Perspectives 59

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between the instrumental funk and disco periods. Mr. Hands, released in 1980 at the

height of Hancocks disco years, is an instrumental recording closer in style to the

19741978 projects, and it involves materials taken from several sessions.6

From 1974, Hancock had separate recording contracts with the American and

Japanese arms of Columbia/Sony.7 The Japanese contract was used primarily as a

means for allowing Hancock to simultaneously pursue acoustic projects, such as

V.S.O.P. (a reunion of the 19631968 Miles Davis Quintet, but with Freddie

Hubbard substituting for Davis), his trio with Ron Carter and Tony Williams, and his

only entirely solo piano album (The Piano, from 1978), at the same time as releasing

electric material through the American contract. Three electric recordings were

released on the Japanese contract though. These albums were Dedication in 1974 (half

solo piano, half solo keyboards), Flood in 1975 (a live Headhunters recording), and

Directstep in 1978 (a live-in-the-studio Headhunters recording).

Why the Rhodes?

While Hancock used an arsenal of different keyboards across the 1970s (a period

when he could employ up to fifteen keyboard models on a single album), the Fender

Rhodes largely replaced the piano as his main instrument of solo expression. That

said, Hancock had not given up the piano at this time, but in the context of his

electric music the Rhodes became more prevalent, with its softer attack making it a

more suitable instrument texturally for the new sound world that he was working

within. While Hancocks contemporaries Chick Corea, Joe Zawinal, Jan Hammer,

and George Duke each developed highly distinctive styles on the Moog synthesiser,

Hancock rarely soloed on this latter instrument. This is perhaps because its

monophonic nature was too limiting for Hancocks often harmonically-dense

soloing. While the clear tone and pitch-bending possibilities of the Moog allowed

keyboardists to vie with rock-fuelled electric guitarists for attention (an attribute that

was particularly relevant for Corea with Return to Forever and Hammer with the

6 The history of this recording is more ambiguous than the other albums from this period. Although

released in 1980, no recording dates are given and each track is recorded with a different lineup. There is

evidence to suggest that at least half of the album is made up of outtakes from previous sessions. In a

1977 interview with Len Lyons (Len Lyons, The Great Jazz Pianists: Speaking of Their Lives and Music

[New York: Da Capo, 1983]), Hancock refers to the harmonic structure of a piece that he is recording.

He describes the exact harmonic basis of Spiralling Prism, the first track on Mr. Hands. When

combined with the personnel lineup of this recording, this statement suggests that the track was

originally recorded during the sessions for Sunlight. Shiftless Shuffle is the only released track outside

of the Head Hunters album that was recorded with the exact same personnel lineup. While this latter

recording was the first and only time the composition appeared on one of Hancocks official American

album releases, bootleg live performances exist back to 1973, thus suggesting that this track could be an

outtake from the original Head Hunters sessions. Also, a 1974 bootleg exists in which Hancock

announces to the audience that eight tracks were originally recorded for Head Hunters, of which only four

made the release. The lineup of 4am also suggests that this additional number could have been

recorded during the Sunlight sessions.7 Noted in the album liner notes by Bob Belden and David Rubinson to Herbie Hancock, The Piano,

Sony Jazz 87083, 2004, compact disc (originally Columbia 1033, 1979, LP).


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Mahavishnu Orchestra), this was not a concern for Hancock. While there are

significant examples of Hancock soloing on instruments other than the Rhodes on his

1970s recordingssuch as the ARP synthesiser solos on Chameleon from Head

Hunters and Palm Grease from Thrust, and the piano solo on Hang Up Your

Hang Ups from Man-Childmore than any other keyboardist of this era, he made

the Rhodes his instrument. The only other jazz pianist who could be said to have

adapted to the Rhodes to a similar degree for soloing was Chick Corea, who likewise

created a style distinct from his acoustic piano work but one that was equally

advanced and expressive. Coreas work on this instrument though was largely

changes-based rather than modal, and so he maintained a more direct link with

standard jazz vocabulary.

At the same time as Hancock was extensively using the Fender Rhodes, he also

developed highly specific roles for the various other keyboards that were available to

him. For example, the Clavinet (effectively an amplified clavichord) was often used

for rhythm-guitar-like harmonic support, and various analogue synthesisers were

similarly given highly individualistic roles within Hancocks arrangements and

orchestrations. One of the best examples of Hancocks skill at synthesiser

orchestration is Spiralling Prism from Mr. Hands. There are also examples of

this use of electronic orchestration stretching to later in Hancocks discography, after

he had switched to digital synthesisers, as can be heard on the lyrical Chemical

Residue from 1988s Perfect Machine (the final statement from Hancocks trilogy of

1980s techno recordings). While the Rhodes suited the timbral context of Hancocks

1970s recordings perfectly, with its polyphonic nature allowing full harmonic

flexibility, another possibility as to why Hancock chose to focus on an instrument

other than the acoustic piano for his funk-influenced recordings could have been to

more clearly distinguish this work from the acoustic projects that he was

simultaneously pursuing during this period.

Critical Attitudes to Herbie Hancocks 1970s Recordings

An example of the critical bias against Herbie Hancocks 1970s music can be found in

Stuart Nicholsons 1998 book Jazz-Rock: A History:

If an element of jazz improvisation was present in Heartbeat, for example, it waslocked into a rhythmic straitjacket that could not help but diminish its emotionalforce, and was inferior to the standards Hancock had set himself with his acousticwork. Improvisation, in any event, was no longer the essence of these recordings,appearing less by design, more by accident.8

Unfortunately, Nicholson is not alone in his lack of appreciation for Hancocks

playing from this period. Various jazz history books take a similar attitude, as can be

seen in this passage from Ted Gioias The History of Jazz, from 1997:

8 Stuart Nicholson, Jazz-Rock: A History (Edinburgh: Canongate, 1998), 193.


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Hancocks 1973 Head Hunters release achieved massive sales and attracted afollowing with a young, urban black audience with such funk-oriented pieces asChameleon and an updated version of Watermelon Man. This release initiateda bifurcated career for Hancock, with his efforts now divided between mainstreamjazz, often of the highest quality, and overtly commercial projects with little jazzsubstance.9

The view of Hancocks 1970s electric work as having little jazz substance is

common to both modern jazz writerssuch as Nicholson and Gioiaand those

writing at the time that the music was being made. For example, in his 1978 book,

The Making of Jazz, James Lincoln Collier argues:

[Chick] Corea and [Herbie] Hancock were making large commercial successes ofthemselves, and were drawing many other players, especially young ones, into theform. However, whether this fusion music can be classified under the rubric of jazzis an open question. Most committed jazz players do not think so.10

According to Peter Keepnews, in his essay Jazz Since 1968 in The Oxford

Companion to Jazz, the post-Head Hunters Hancock began dividing his time

between acoustic jazz projects and electrified, groove-oriented albums that in his own

view had nothing to do with jazz.11 The source for this statementthough none is

citedis presumably Hancocks July 1986 interview in Down Beat, where his actual

words are: Ive been trying to take the pop stuff more into the pop area and leave

out the jazz. I think Ive pretty much succeeded at that because the last few records I

dont consider jazz at all. Rockit has nothing to do with jazz at all.12 The crucial

point to note here is that in distancing his music from jazz, Hancock only refers to

Rockit and the last few records preceding it (i.e., his four disco projects). To use

this quote to imply that Hancocks Head Hunters-era, funk-influenced recordings of

19741978 have nothing to do with jazz is a clear misappropriation, but this

misguided claim is nonetheless commonly seen in writings on Hancock. For instance,

Mark Gridleys 2000 book Jazz Styles: History and Analysis (seventh edition) suggests

that:

The music had less and less jazz improvisation in it and more and more dancerhythms that were highly syncopated and repetitive. Melodies were simple andheavily rhythmic. Though much of the public places it in the jazz category,Hancock himself has said that he does not consider this music to be jazz.13

Part of what makes Hancocks 1970s Fender Rhodes solos so innovative is that they

bring strong strands of the jazz improvisational tradition to a context that itself is far

removed from jazz in a traditional sense. At the same time, this music builds upon

9 Ted Gioia, The History of Jazz (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 367.10 James Lincoln Collier, The Making of Jazz (London: Granada Publishing Limited, 1978), 495.11 Peter Keepnews, Jazz Since 1968, in The Oxford Companion to Jazz, ed. Bill Kirchner (Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 2000), 491.12 Howard Mandel, Herbie Hancock: Of Films, Fairlights, Funk and All That Other Jazz, Down

Beat, July 1986, 17.13 Mark Gridley, Jazz Styles: History and Analysis, 7th ed. (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall International,

2000), 321.


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these traditional improvisational elements and stretches harmonic and rhythmic

boundaries to create a new soloistic language. These innovations have gone almost

universally ignored in jazz literature. Indeed, very little has been done in the way of

academic study of Hancocks 1970s recordings. A rare exception is a doctoral

dissertation by Steven F. Pond, completed in 2000, specifically on the Head Hunters

album.14 This research has since been adapted into the book Head Hunters: The

Making of Jazzs First Platinum Album, but although this monograph does cover both

historical issues and stylistic analysis of the music, it does not discuss Hancocks

Rhodes playing in depth.15

Playing Outside

Tension and Release: This is the basic life principle of opposing pairs as in yin and yang,night and day, life and death, etc. Artistically, this principle means that in a meaningfulstatement there should be a balance of excitement and quiescence, action and relaxation. Itcan be perceived as the act of a question being posed and subsequently answered.

David Liebman16

Bill Evans on Kind of Blue (1959) and John Coltrane on both Kind of Blue and A Love

Supreme (1964) each paved the way for improvisers to move outside of the structural

harmony within a solo. The modal jazz basis of both of these albums created a strong

precedent for improvisations based on small-scale harmonic motifs or single

harmonies. In particular, Evans had a strong impact on Hancocks harmonic

thinking. In 1978, Hancock stated that his approach to harmony could be traced to a

small number of influences, of which Evans was one: Clare Fisher was a major

influence on my harmonic concept. He and Bill Evans, and Ravel and Gil Evans,

finally. You know, thats where it really came from. Almost all of the harmony that I

play can be traced to one of those four people and whoever their influences were.

And, of course, Miles.17

A crucial concept in Hancocks soloing is playing outside, and analysis of his 1970s

Rhodes solos shows how fundamental this approach is. Example 1 shows an extract

from Hancocks Fender Rhodes solo from the track Hop Scotch, from drummer

Harvey Masons 1975 album Marching in the Street. The harmonic basis of this solo is

Dbm7, and this foundation is clearly outlined by Paul Jacksons bass playing, which is

predominantly based around the pitches Db and Cb (root and minor seventh on Db).

The modes that fit within this harmonic area are Db Dorian or Aeolian. In

14 Steven F. Pond, Herbie Hancocks Head Hunters: Troubling the Waters of Jazz (Ph.D. diss., University of

California at Berkeley, 2000).15 Steven F. Pond, Head Hunters: The Making of Jazzs First Platinum Album (Ann Arbor, MI: University

of Michigan Press, 2005).16 David Liebman, A Chromatic Approach to Jazz Harmony and Melody (Rottenburg, Germany: Advance

Music, 1991), 13.17 Interview with Julia Coryell, in Julia Coryell, Jazz-Rock Fusion: The People, The Music (New York: Hal

Leonard, 1978), 161162.


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Example 1, the pitches that fall outside of these two modes have been annotated. As

can be seen, a substantial proportion of this extract falls outside of the harmonic area

on which the solo is based.

One of the simplest and most effective ways in which Hancock plays outside is by

using a mode a semitone away from that implied by the rhythm section. Doing so

creates a strong degree of harmonic tension due to the quantity of pitches introduced

that fall outside of the structural harmonic area. This can be seen clearly in this

extract from Hop Scotch. The harmonic basis for the whole solo is Dbm7, but a

large portion of this passage is based around D Dorian, a semitone above the

structural harmonic area. This creates a highly colourful effect, but also introduces a

degree of harmonic tension. This tension is then resolved at bar 5 with the return to

Db minor. The concept of tension and release, both in respect to harmony and

rhythm, is absolutely crucial to these solos.

Another significant way in which Hancock plays outside of the structural harmony

is in his use of chromaticism, which he employs in a number of ways. The most

obvious of these is simply using the chromatic scale within right-hand runs. The

chromatic scale adds colour, and in implying no particular harmony it is an

important way of introducing pitches from outside of the harmonic area on which

the solo is based. Hancock often uses the chromatic scale at the top of rising phrases,

such as can be seen in bars 12 of Example 1, as well as bar 7 of Example 3, but also at

many other points. An additional way in which Hancock uses chromaticism is within

sequences or compound melodies, where it can introduce strong harmonic tension.

This can be seen clearly in bar 4 of Example 1, where the chromatically shifting

fourth-based chords in the left hand, combined with the chromatically rising

compound melody of the right hand, increases the harmonic tension already

Example 1


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introduced by the outside playing of the previous bars, until finally resolving to Db

minor at bar 5.

Harmonic Superimposition of the Dominant and Implied Cadential Progressions

When playing outside in his Fender Rhodes solos, another significant device that

Hancock employs to create a sense of harmonic tension and release is the use of the

altered mode. The altered mode/chord is highly colourful and has an extremely

strong harmonic pull towards the tonic.18 Hancock primarily incorporates this idea

in two ways. The first approach involves a I-V7alt-I progression, where the rhythm

section maintains the tonic harmony (i.e., when the harmonic base remains rooted

around a single chord). A classic example of this technique can be found in his solo

on the live recording of Butterfly, on the album Flood. Here, the rhythm section

(Paul Jackson on electric bass, Mike Clark on drums, and Bill Summers on

percussion) set up a groove firmly outlining Fm7 as the tonic modality. After soloing

within this harmonic area for several bars, Hancock suddenly shifts to the altered

dominant mode for a whole six bars and then back to Fm7. The substantial harmonic

pull of the altered mode back towards the tonic creates an extremely effective and

characteristic degree of harmonic tension across these six bars, which is greatly

enhanced by the continued outlining of Fm7 by the rhythm section. This tension is

then resolved with the return to F minor. The resulting effect is extremely colourful.

This is shown in Example 2.

Hancocks second altered mode/chord approach occurs when soloing on a shifting

harmonic base. As the rhythm section moves from one chord to the next (most

typically on minor seventh modalities), Hancock will anticipate the second of the two

chords by superimposing its altered dominant over the first. A clear example of this

idea can be heard in his piano solo on Stanley Clarkes composition Tony, from

drummer Tony Williamss 1979 album The Joy of Flying. Though an acoustic piano

solo, this performance is within a jazz-funk context and Hancocks playing here

exhibits many of the traits of his Rhodes style. Example 3 shows an extract from this

solo. The harmonic foundation moves at two-bar intervals between Gm7 and Dm7.

In bar 7 of this extract, Hancock effectively creates a IVVI progression in D minor

by using the A altered mode. Coupled with the use of the chromatic scale on the final

beat of this bar and with the fact that the rhythm section remains in G minor, the

phrase is again especially colourful. As with the previous example from Butterfly,

Hancocks use of the altered mode here creates a strong sense of harmonic tension

that is then resolved.

18 The altered mode is derived from the dominant seventh chord, with every possible pitch altered that

allows it to still maintain its dominant characteristics (i.e., retaining the major third and minor seventh).

The alterations are thus: flattened ninth; sharpened ninth; sharpened eleventh; and flattened thirteenth.

Because the sharpened eleventh is essentially a diminished fifth, the perfect fifth is most often omitted.

The resulting mode can be enharmonically described as the seventh mode of the melodic minor scale,

hence the C altered mode is an equivalent to Db melodic minor.


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One more example of this second altered mode/chord approach can be heard in

No Means Yes from Sunlight. In the passage that begins around 2:37, the bass line

moves up by step each bar, with the chord sequence moving G#7susA#m7B7susand then reaching an arrival point of C#m7 on the fourth bar. Hancock remainsentirely within these structural harmonies for all except the second half of the third

bar, where he creates two beats of harmonic tension by moving to a G# altered modebefore resolving cadentially by fifth to C#m7. This last phrase is shown in Example 4.

Further use of implied cadential movement can be found in Hancocks Fender

Rhodes playing in his title music for the film Death Wish (1974). Much of the

performance is based around an eight-bar bass riff, which is made up of two repeated

two-bar phrases, with a two-chord oscillating harmonic structure. Example 5 shows

the two chords around which this main harmonic motive is based. The voicings

shown in the treble staff are intended to illustrate the underlying harmonic

progression between these two chords, with the E, G, and Bb pitches of the E half-

diminished chord essentially forming a series of suspensions against the root D which

are then resolved to D major. Another way of interpreting this harmonic area could

Example 2


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be as Asusb9/D, again implying a strong cadential pull towards the tonic. This simple

repeated motive itself is therefore based around a sense of harmonic tension and

release.

Example 6 shows an extract from Hancocks solo over this harmonic base. This

example illustrates how far outside of the structural harmony Hancock frequently

plays, whilst maintaining a clear sense of harmonic progression and purpose. The

first two notes Hancock plays in this passage are D# and C#, each a semitone eitherside of the root note D played in the bass and so creating an instant sense of dissonant

tension. This leads to a rising scale in E major, against the D major clearly outlined in

the bass line. The tension induced by this bitonality is heightened by the rising shape

of the phrase. This tension peaks halfway through the first beat of bar 2 and from this

point on the overall shape of the phrase is falling, contributing to a sense of gradual

release. However, even once Hancock falls back within the structural harmony at

bar 3, this is at the point where this harmony itself implies a sense of tension and so

the lack of clear resolution maintains a strong sense of progression and movement.

The tension that Hancock creates in this passage can be interpreted by how each

implied harmonic area relates to the tonic D major. The passage begins firmly outside

of D major, with the E-major scale creating a strong sense of dissonant tension across

box [1] in Example 6. The harmonic area that follows at [2] can be perceived in two

ways. This moment can be viewed in relation to the E major that preceded it, where

these pitches act as Am7. As such, there is an implied cadential resolution by fifth

here. These pitches can also be understood in relation to the D major tonic as

constituents of D7sus, thus exerting a harmonic pull towards the tonic. At [3], when

considered with the pitches immediately preceding it, the C# on the second

Example 3

Example 4


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sixteenth-note of the fourth beat of bar 2 can be taken to belong to A7, thus also

exerting a strong cadential pull towards the tonic. All the pitches of bars 3-6 (except a

chromatic G#) belong to the E half-diminished structural harmony at this point, and

this too exerts a harmonic pull towards D major. Example 7 shows how after the

initial E major emphasis, each harmonic area creates a harmonic pull towards D

major, thereby creating a continuing harmonic tension that is gradually released

but not fully resolvedby the falling phrase structure.

The natural resolution of the Bb that this phrase comes to rest on at the last sixteenth-

note of bar 5 would move down a half-step to the A of D major at bar 7. Hancock does

not provide such an obvious resolution, and although the pitches he uses in bar 7 all

belong to D major, the avoidance of resolution on the first beat of the bar, the emphasis

on the ninth (E), and the rising shape of the phrase all contribute to a continued lack of

clear resolution that helps to maintain a constant sense of momentum.

The sophistication of Hancocks concept of harmonic tension and release within

his solos can be seen on a broader leveli.e., in relation to the harmonic structure of

the piece as a wholein his Rhodes solo on the track Sly, from Head Hunters. The

overall harmonic structure of Sly is as follows:

Example 5

Example 6


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As can be seen, the majority of the piece is based around E minor, with two brief moves to

Bb7 (which lies a tritone away) at the end of the first head and the end of the Rhodes solo.

Sly features one of Hancocks most sophisticated and masterful Rhodes solos. Paul

Jackson plays the same two-bar bass riff with little embellishment throughout the E minor

section of the solo, and so the first 3 minutes and 43 seconds of Hancocks 3-minute-and-

55-second solo are over a static harmonic backdrop. The degree of harmonic and

rhythmic tension and release that Hancock creates in this solo is astonishing. To illustrate

one aspect of this, Example 8 shows the opening bars of the solo.

The structural harmony of the opening bars shown in Example 8 is firmly rooted in E

minorby both the combination of Paul Jacksons bass line and the harmonic

expectations induced upon the listener by the previous compositional structureand

yet for the first eight bars of Hancocks solo he plays entirely outside of this harmonic

area. This sense of harmonic tension is released at bar 9 with a clear resolution to E

minor (this point of arrival is emphasised by the resolution from the superimposed

altered dominant). What is so significant about this passage is that the mode with which

Hancock chooses to set up this bitonality is Bb Mixolydian, clearly implying the Bb7

harmonic area on which the solo will end. This illustrates the broad-scale vision behind

Hancocks concept of tension and release. In this case, he begins the solo with a high

degree of harmonic tension and simultaneously creates a deeper sense of structure by

pre-empting the harmony of the solos end. When this Bb7 portion of the solo is finally

reached at 9:08, Hancock plays almost entirely inside this harmony, thus maintaining a

sense of release. In a manner similar to the Death Wish example (Example 6 above), this

inside playing is within a structural harmony that itself creates a degree of harmonic

tension, so definitive release is achieved with the return to the E minor head at 9:29.

Rhythmic Characteristics

The theorist Keith Waters has written that one high point of metric sophistication

and subtlety within the traditional jazz framework may be found in the piano solos of

HEAD E minor 0:001:35Bb7 1:351:52

TRANSITION 1:522:03SOPRANO SOLO E minor 2:035:16TRANSITION 5:165:25RHODES SOLO E minor 5:259:08

Bb7 9:089:20TRANSITION 9:209:29HEAD E minor 9:2910:20

Example 7


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Herbie Hancock, especially during his tenure with the Miles Davis Quintet and as a

leader during the 1960s.19 This observation is indisputable, but Hancock continues

to maintain his metric sophistication in his solos outside of the traditional jazz

framework, with rhythmic displacement remaining a fundamental feature of all of his

Fender Rhodes work.

Example 9 shows an extract from one of Hancocks earliest Rhodes solos, on

Freddie Hubbards Red Clay, recorded in January 1970. The right-hand line from

the second beat of bar 1 to the first beat of bar 2 is a rising sequence based on a three-

note motif. Each note is given an equal rhythmic value (at the sixteenth-note level),

and the way in which Hancocks phrasing emphasises the first note of each three-note

grouping clearly implies a three-against-two cross rhythm against the duple beat of

the rhythm section. These three-note cells are annotated in Example 9. Another

important stylistic point to note here is how Hancock continues the rising sequence

into the first beat of the next bar, where he remains in C# minor despite the chord

change to B minor. This choice creates a degree of harmonic tension in the use of a

D#, which is released on the second beat of the bar by resolving to D-natural. This

Example 8

19 Waters, Blurring the Barline, 19.


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resolution is another clear example of Hancocks expressive use of dissonance and

harmonic tension and release.

Further examples of metrical sophistication can be seen in the extract from Hop

Scotch, shown in Example 10. The rising phrase from the third beat of bar 1 to the

first beat of bar 3 moves from rhythmically consonant four-note groupings to

dissonant three-note groupings, as annotated. This example clearly illustrates how

tension and release is as equally important a concept rhythmically in Hancocks

Rhodes solos as it is harmonically. As with many of the harmonic examples, Hancock

here introduces a sense of tension through a rising phrase, which he subsequently

resolves.

Another clear example of Hancocks application of tension and release through

cross rhythms can be seen in Example 11, which shows the final bars of his solo on

the track People Music from Secrets (1976). This extract shows rhythmic

variation on a basic motif, which is built on two-, three-, and four-note subphrase

note groupings. The basic four-note unit is a stepwise descent from E to B (E, D,

C#, B). The two-note unit uses just the two outer pitches (E, B). The three-noteunit omits the last of the four pitches (leaving E, D, C#). A further rhythmicvariation is created by displacing the strong beat of the four-note unit by moving it

forward by a sixteenth note. The order in which the rhythmic variations are applied

creates a clear sense of ever-shifting metrical tension, thereby heightening the sense

of climax to the solo before the release is achieved with the entry of the ensemble

parts at the end of bar 3. In its overall design, the passage begins with the

rhythmically consonant two- and four-note units, before the tension is increased

with the displaced four-note unit, leading to the rhythmically dissonant three-

note unit.

Example 9. Red Clay composed by Freddie Hubbard. Reproduced by kind permissionof Hubtones Music Co.


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Example 12 shows an example of right-hand compound melody from the Rhodes

solo from Sly. In Example 13, this passage has been renotated so that the first

sounding of each pitch of the compound melody falls on the first beat of a bar to

reveal a cross-rhythm first in 5/8 and then 3/4. Each of the first four pitches of the

compound melody is exactly five sixteenth notes apart, thus resulting in a complex

cross rhythm within straight 4/4 time, and an effect that induces a strong sense of

rhythmic tension. The remaining part of the phrase is divided into two subsections

phrased in a 3/4 meter. The first of these subsections represents a relaxation of the

phrase rhythm as only one pitch of the compound melody is sounded. The second

represents a final intensification, with the final pitches of the compound melody

sounded on each of the three beats.

Weak-beat emphasis is another technique that Hancock employs, and an example

of this can be seen in bar 4 of Example 9, from the previously discussed Red Clay

solo. The bar is made up entirely of equal sixteenth notes, but with the first sixteenth

note omitted. This design creates a sense of syncopation and it gives the first note

(E#) a strong upbeat character. As with all the solos studied in this essay, the

underlying rhythm beneath the solo is based on straight eighths. The second and

fourth notes of beats divided into sixteenth notes are therefore offbeats to these

straight eighths.

In its emphasis on weak beats (particularly by beginning phrases on them),

Hancocks playing brings strong jazz phrasing characteristics to funk contexts. In his

study of the Head Hunters album, Steven Pond discusses the characteristics of funk:

Funk is dance music, and it is designed to make the body move. Funk rhythms tendto favor stable ostinatos, or grooves (frequently called funk grooves, or dancegrooves). Dance groove is both a structure and a quality. Structurally, the ostinato isbuilt to coordinate with funk dance steps, i.e., of one- or two-measure duration,with a strong downbeat gesture (on beat one) and a secondary backbeat gesture (on

Example 10

Example 11


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beat three). Qualitatively in funk, an ostinato is transformed to a dance groove (orfunk groove) by its success at putting bodies onto the dance floor.20

A key contrast between jazz and funk aesthetics is the shift in fundamental rhythmic

emphasis. As Pond describes above, in funk the emphasis is on the one, with a secondary

emphasis on three. With the traditional swing rhythm in jazz, in 4/4 time, the two and

the four are emphasised (i.e., the offbeats). In his solos, Hancock moves rhythmically

between these two aesthetics (with his use of weak-beat emphasis stylistically linking

with the latter). In the majority of the examples studied in this essay, Hancocks backings

retain an emphasis on the first and third beats of the bar, heightening the juxtaposition

when Hancock himself moves away from this in his Rhodes soloing.

Example 14 shows the opening phrase of Hancocks Rhodes solo from People

Music. This brief passage shows three examples of weak-beat emphases within the

space of two bars. The phrase starts on the fourth sixteenth note of the third beat of

the bar (point [a]); it peaks on the fourth sixteenth note of the fourth beat of the bar

(point [b]); and it continues by omitting the first sixteenth note of the following bar

(point [c]), and so emphasises the following weak beat. Particularly significant are

those notes that appear as upbeats to the strongest beats of the bar (beats one and

three), where those beats themselves are then absent. The E at the end of the first bar

in Example 14 is an example of this. This moment gives a sense of anticipation of the

beat in the Rhodes solo when set against the normative pulse of the rhythm section, a

detail that provides a strong sense of forward momentum to the solo. Another

example of this approach can be seen in the transition section from No Means Yes

(see Example 4), where the resolution to C#m7 (after the harmonic tension induced

by the superimposed altered dominant) arrives a sixteenth note early. In this latter

solo, the effect of this form of rhythmic displacement is further enhanced by its use at

a harmonic arrival point. A similar strategy can be seen in the extract from Hancocks

Butterfly solo in Example 2, wherein the same waythe resolution from the

superimposed altered dominant arrives a sixteenth note before the strong beat (i.e.,

the first beat of bar 8). The three most common rhythmic units for creating a sense of

Example 12

Example 13

20 Pond, Herbie Hancocks Head Hunters, 103.


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weak-beat emphasis are shown in Example 15. In each case, the arrows mark the

emphasised weak beats.

Another variation on this rhythmic displacement can be typically seen at points

where harmonic resolution at the end of phrases is achieved a sixteenth note or

eighth note after the strong beat. This strategy essentially forms a suspension effect.

Examples of this can be seen at the first beat of bar 3 in Example 10, and at the first

beat of bar 8 in Example 3.

Example 16 shows a right-hand line in Hancocks Rhodes solo from Come Running

to Me (from Sunlight). In this example, the dissonance of the off-beat rhythms used

in the first half of the bar is resolved with the consonant, straight sixteenth-note run

of the second half of the bar. As with so many aspects of Hancocks Rhodes solos, the

fundamental underlying concept is one of tension and release.

As noted above, in reference to Hancocks performance of Heartbeat, Stuart

Nicholson suggested that if there were element[s] of jazz improvisation present

in this recording, then they must have been locked into a rhythmic straitjacket that

could not help but diminish its emotional force. It could be argued that the opposite

is in fact true. It is characteristic of funk music that the rhythm remains more stable

and less open to augmentation and development than that of modern jazz, but this

underlying jazz-funk juxtaposition places all aspects of Hancocks Rhodes solos in

sharper relief against their backings and, as such, intensifies the emotional force of

the harmonic and rhythmic complexities that Hancock juxtaposes against the

stability provided by his rhythm section. In a 1979 interview, Hancock said: In the

popular forms like funk, which Ive been trying to get into, the attention is on the

interplay of rhythm between different instruments. Its almost like African drummers

Example 14

Example 15


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where seven drummers play different parts. 21 In Hancocks music, this sensibility

translates to the highly specific rhythmic roles given to the crucial duties of the electric

bass and drums, and to a slightly lesser extent percussion, rhythm guitars, and

additional keyboards. The woven, interlocking rhythms create a solid base for Hancock

to both solo against and interact with. In the same way that the strength of the rhythm

places Hancocks own rhythmic and harmonic developments in relief against such

foundational textures, so it also serves to emphasise the tension created by the rhythm

instruments on the occasions when they do step outside of their role and interact

more closely with Hancock. Heartbeat itself is a good example of this aesthetic. At

the opening of Hancocks Rhodes solo (2:01) there are five rhythm parts (electric bass,

drums, two rhythm guitars, processed voice), with each playing two-bar repeated

phrases thatadded togethercreate a solid and stable rhythmic backing for Hancock

to build his solo over. This backing remains largely the same until the harmonic shift at

3:16, where the guitars and processed voice cut out and congas have come in. The

rhythm is intense throughout and this intensity is heightened at the points when

drummer Mike Clark breaks from his rhythmic role for short periods and engages in a

rhythmic dialogue with Hancock. Examples of this can be heard at 3:253:35, at 3:47

3:53, and most clearly at 3:594:11. A similar exchange can be seen in drummer Harvey

Masons interaction with Hancock in the Sly solo. In this latter case, Mason makes

subtle rhythmic alterations all the way through the solo, whilst maintaining the

fundamental propulsion of the beat, and with bassist Paul Jackson and Hancocks own

overdubbed clavinet part each remaining constant. From 8:50 though, Mason engages

more closely with Hancock, heightening the rhythmic tension before the significant

harmonic shift from E minor to Bb7 at 9:08.

Example 17 shows a dramatic example of rhythmic tension induced by close

interaction between Hancock and his rhythm section. This example comes from the

Rhodes solo of No Means Yes. Hancock and Mason link closely on a series of repeated

hits, which Mason punctuates with the simultaneous use of the crash cymbal and bass

drum (annotated with arrows on Example 17). Jackson obviously plays against this, but

the larger point is that all three players work against the metric stability that has been

established by the rhythm section up to this point. This approach creates a strong sense

of rhythmic tension and shows how the jazz and funk elements are constantly kept in

balance, with the jazz sense of improvised rhythmic interaction at this point

contrasting strongly with the funk sense of metric stability of previously in the solo.

Example 16

21 Interview with Bret Primack, quoted in Mark Gilberts CD liner notes to Herbie Hancock, Man-Child,

Sony 9563, 2003, compact disc (originally CBS 33812, 1975, LP).


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Conclusion

As demonstrated above, Herbie Hancocks Fender Rhodes solos of the 1970s offer

advanced and progressive jazz improvisation of the highest order. Hancock innovated by

bringing strong elements of jazz tradition to funk contexts and by using this juxtaposition

to develop a new soloistic language that has strongly influenced later generations of jazz

performers. In turn, these performances set a high water mark for harmonic development

over an often static harmonic base. Tension and release is the most significant underlying

concept both to the harmonic and rhythmic aspects of these solos and Hancocks playing

from this period shows a development of the techniques for outside harmonic playing

and metric displacement that had been characteristic of his 1960s acoustic piano

playing, taking these approaches to new levels of sophistication and musicality.

Abstract

Herbie Hancocks Fender Rhodes electric piano solos of the 1970s, recorded primarily

within the jazz-funk contexts of his Headhunters band and other projects (on albums

such as Head Hunters, Flood, Man-Child, and others), represent a high-point of

improvisation over groove-based forms. These solos built on the developments of

Hancocks piano work from the 1960s to reach new heights of harmonic and rhythmic

sophistication. Predominantly in riff-driven settings based on a single harmonic area or

few chord changes, he masterfully balanced elements of tension and release over this, with

elaborate harmonic development and rhythmic modulation juxtaposed against his

harmonically and metrically stable backings, drawing on both jazz and funk aesthetics.

This article explores these solos from an analytical perspective, aiming to identify specific

harmonic and rhythmic devices and shed new light on this period of Hancocks output.

Example 17


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APPENDIX 1 Significant Fender Rhodes solos by Herbie Hancock

APPENDIX 2 Discography

Herbie Hancock as leader (all albums 19691983):

Herbie Hancock, The Prisoner, Blue Note 84321, 1969, LP; reissued as Blue Note

5456492, 2001, compact disc.

Herbie Hancock, Fat Albert Rotunda, Warner Bros. 1834, 1974, LP; reissued as WEA

12751, 2007, compact disc.

Herbie Hancock, Mwandishi, Warner Bros. 1898, 1971, LP; reissued as WEA 12752,

2007, compact disc.

Recording timingRed Clay (Hubbard), on Freddie Hubbard, Red Clay, rec. January

27, 19704:346:30

Sleeping Giant (Hancock), on Herbie Hancock, Crossings, rec.February 1972

2:297:25

Scorpio-Libra (Henderson), on Eddie Henderson, Realization,rec. February 1973

6:159:52

Chameleon (Hancock, Jackson, Mason, Maupin), on HerbieHancock, Headhunters, rec. October 1973

8:3113:09

Sly (Hancock), on Herbie Hancock, Headhunters, rec. October1973

5:249:29

Butterfly (Hancock, Maupin), on Herbie Hancock, Thrust, rec.August 1974

4:319:10

Hop Scotch (Mason), on Harvey Mason, Marching in the Street,rec. April-June 1975

1:373:32

Butterfly (Hancock, Maupin), on Herbie Hancock, Flood, rec.June 28 or July 1, 1975

2:519:52

Hang Up Your Hang Ups (Hancock, Jackson, Ragin), on HerbieHancock, Flood, rec. June 28 or July 1, 1975

13:4519:01

Heartbeat (Hancock, Jackson, Ragin), on Herbie Hancock,ManChild, released 1975

2:014:36

People Music (Hancock, Jackson, Ragin), on Herbie Hancock,Secrets, released 1976

4:044:50

Come Running to Me (Hancock, Willis), on Herbie Hancock,Sunlight, released 1978

3:244:32

No Means Yes (Hancock), on Herbie Hancock, Sunlight, released1978

3:305:18

Butterfly (Hancock, Maupin), on Eddie Henderson, Mahal,released 1978

3:254:42

Amoroso (Maupin), on Eddie Henderson, Mahal, released 1978 4:134:44Butterfly (Hancock, Maupin), on Herbie Hancock, Directstep,

rec. October 17 or 18, 19782:443:54

Just Around the Corner (Hancock, Ragin, Washington), onHerbie Hancock, Mr. Hands, released 1980

2:576:41

Shiftless Shuffle (Hancock, Maupin, Mason, Jackson, Summers),on Herbie Hancock, Mr. Hands, released 1980*

1:195:05

Magic Number (Hancock, Cohen, Rubinson), on HerbieHancock, Magic Windows, released 1981

4:386:18

* This track is likely to have been recorded in 1973 alongside the original Head Hunters material


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Herbie Hancock, Crossings, Warner Bros. 2617, 1972, LP; reissued as WEA 12753,

2007, compact disc.

Herbie Hancock, Sextant, Columbia CK 32212, 1973, LP; reissued as Columbia/

Legacy 64983, 1998, compact disc.

Herbie Hancock, Head Hunters, CBS 32731, 1974, LP; reissued as Sony Jazz 65123,

1993, compact disc.

Herbie Hancock, Dedication, CBS/Sony 165, 1974, LP; reissued as Sony 9342, 1997,

compact disc.

Herbie Hancock, Thrust, Columbia 32965, 1974, LP; reissued as Sony International


Herbie Hancock, Death Wish Soundtrack, CBS 33199, 1974, LP; reissued as Sony

International 491981, 2003, compact disc.

Herbie Hancock, Flood, Columbia [unknown number], 1975, LP; reissued as

Columbia/Legacy 987084, 2006, compact disc.

Herbie Hancock, Man-Child, CBS 33812, 1975, LP; reissued as Sony 9563, 2003,

compact disc.

Herbie Hancock, Secrets, Columbia 34280, 1976, LP; reissued as Sony/BMG 724836,

2008, compact disc.

Herbie Hancock, V.S.O.P., Columbia 434688, 1977, LP; reissued as Sony Jazz

4865692, 1997, compact disc.

Herbie Hancock, V.S.O.P.: The Quintet, Columbia 34976, 1977, LP; reissued as Sony

Japan 9654, 2001, compact disc.

Herbie Hancock, Sunlight, Columbia 9654, 1978, LP; reissued as Sony International


Herbie Hancock, Directstep, Columbia 3653S, 1979, LP; reissued as Sony

International SRCS 9503, 1998, compact disc.

Herbie Hancock, The Piano, Columbia 1033, 1979, LP; reissued as Sony Jazz 87083,

2004, compact disc.

Herbie Hancock, Feets Dont Fail Me Now, Columbia 35764, 1979, LP; reissued as

Sony International 35764, 2001, compact disc.

Herbie Hancock, VSOP-Live Under the Sky, Columbia 875, 1979, LP; reissued as Sony


Herbie Hancock, Mr. Hands, Columbia 36578, 1980, LP; reissued as Sony


Herbie Hancock, Monster, Columbia 35415, 1980, LP; reissued as Sony International


Herbie Hancock, Magic Windows, Columbia 37387, 1981, LP; reissued as Sony

International 486572, 2001 compact disc.

Herbie Hancock, Lite Me Up, Columbia 32474, 1982, LP; reissued as Sony


Herbie Hancock, Future Shock, Columbia 25540, 1983, LP; reissued as Sony Jazz

4712372, 1994, compact disc.


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Other albums cited:

George Benson, Give Me the Night, Warner Bros. 3453, 1980, LP; reissued as Warner

Bros. 75371, 2008, compact disc.

John Coltrane, A Love Supreme, Impulse! A77, 1964, LP; reissued as Impulse!

001097002, 2008, compact disc.

Norman Connors, Dance of Magic, Cobblestone CST 9024, 1973, LP; reissued

Norman Connors, Dark of Light/Dance of Magic, Sequel MEM CD 683, 1995,

compact disc.

Miles Davis, Kind of Blue, Columbia 8163, 1959, LP; reissued as Sony 88697282382,

2008, compact disc.

Miles Davis, Miles Davis Quintet, 19651968, Columbia 516252, 2004, compact disc.

Miles Davis, Miles in the Sky, Columbia CS 9628, 1968, LP; reissue included on Miles

Davis, Miles Davis Quintet 19651968, Columbia 516252, 2004, compact disc.

Herbie Hancock, Perfect Machine, Sony 65960, 2000 (orig. release 1988), compact

disc.

Herbie Hancock, Future2Future, Transparent Music 50011, 2001, compact disc.

Eddie Henderson, Realization, Capricorn 0118, 1973, LP; reissued on Eddie

Henderson, Anthology, vol. 2, The Capricorn Years: Realization/Inside Out,

Soul Brother CDSBPJ 11, 2005, compact disc.

Eddie Henderson, Mahal, 1978, Capitol E-ST 11846, 1978 (deleted), LP; reissued on

Eddie Henderson, Anthology, vol. 1, Soul Brother CDSBPJ-3, 2005, compact disc.

Freddie Hubbard, Red Clay, CTI 6001, 1970, LP; reissued as King 8209, 2000,

compact disc.

Quincy Jones, The Dude, Mercury 95028, 2005 (orig. release 1980), compact disc.

Harvey Mason, Marching in the Street, 1975, Arista 4054, 1975, LP; reissued as Sinless


Bennie Maupin, The Jewel in the Lotus, ECM 1043, 1974, LP; reissued as ECM

1723520, 2007, compact disc.

Tony Williams, The Joy of Flying, Columbia 35705, 1979, LP; reissued as Sony 65473,

1997, compact disc.


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the harmonic and rhythmic language of herbie hancock's 1970s fender rhodes solos

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